Meghalaya: Difference between revisions

{{for|the geological stage|Meghalayan}}

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2020}}

| image_skyline            = {{Photomontage

| photo1a = Noakalikai falls 1480244029215.jpg

| color                          = black

}}

}}

The state is bound to the south by the [[Bangladesh]]i divisions of [[Mymensingh Division|Mymensingh]] and [[Sylhet Division|Sylhet]], to the west by the Bangladeshi division of [[Rangpur Division|Rangpur]], and to the north and east by India's [[State of Assam]]. The capital of Meghalaya is [[Shillong]]. During the [[British Raj|British rule of India]], the British imperial authorities nicknamed it the "Scotland of the East".<ref name=akrl>Arnold P. Kaminsky and Roger D. Long (2011), ''India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic'', {{ISBN|978-0313374623}}, pp. 455–459</ref> English is the official language of Meghalaya. Unlike many Indian states, Meghalaya has historically [[Matrilineal society of Meghalaya|followed a matrilineal system]] where the lineage and inheritance are traced through women; the youngest daughter inherits all wealth and she also takes care of her parents.<ref name=akrl/>

In July 2018, the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]] divided the [[Holocene]] epoch into three,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/119-collapse-of-civilizations-worldwide-defines-youngest-unit-of-the-geologic-time-scale|title=Collapse of civilizations worldwide defines youngest unit of the Geologic Time Scale|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718214052/http://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/119-collapse-of-civilizations-worldwide-defines-youngest-unit-of-the-geologic-time-scale|archive-date=18 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/meghalaya-ecstatic-after-being-etched-in-geological-history-permanently/story-jmw6vPPuuNAg2ctBbyTztO.html|title=Meghalaya ecstatic after being etched in geological history permanently|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719204920/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/meghalaya-ecstatic-after-being-etched-in-geological-history-permanently/story-jmw6vPPuuNAg2ctBbyTztO.html|archive-date=19 July 2018|url-status=live|date=19 July 2018}}</ref> with the late Holocene being called the ''[[Meghalayan]] stage/age'',<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44868527|title=Welcome to the Meghalayan Age a new phase in history|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718211344/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44868527|archive-date=18 July 2018|url-status=live|work=BBC News|date=18 July 2018|last1=Amos|first1=Jonathan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/newest-phase-in-earths-history-named-after-meghalaya-rock/articleshow/65046837.cms|title=Newest phase in Earth's history named after Meghalaya rock|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802183333/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/newest-phase-in-earths-history-named-after-meghalaya-rock/articleshow/65046837.cms|archive-date=2 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> since a [[speleothem]] in [[Caves of Meghalaya#List of twenty longest caves in Meghalaya|Mawmluh cave]] indicating a dramatic worldwide climate event around 2250 BCE had been chosen as the boundary [[stratotype]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/news/formalsubdivisionoftheholoceneseriesgeogr18.pdf |title=Formal subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710194916/https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/news/formalsubdivisionoftheholoceneseriesgeogr18.pdf |archive-date=10 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== History ==

Meghalaya, alongside neighbouring Indian states, has been of archaeological interest. People have lived in Meghalaya since the [[Neolithic period]]. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation in [[Khasi Hills]], [[Garo Hills]] and in neighbouring states, where Neolithic style ''jhum'' or shifting cultivation is practiced even today. The highland plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods and a rich soil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hazarika |first=Manjil |year=2006 |title=Neolithic Culture of Northeast India: A Recent Perspective on the Origins of Pottery and Agriculture |journal=Ancient Asia |volume=1 |pages=25–44 |doi=10.5334/aa.06104|url=https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/jms/article/download/aa.06104/8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history via domestication of rice. One of the competing theories for the origin of rice comes from Ian Glover, who states, "India is the center of greatest diversity of domesticated rice with over 20,000 identified species and Northeast India is the most favorable single area of the origin of domesticated rice."<ref>Glover, Ian C. (1985), Some Problem Relating to the Domestication of Rice in Asia, In Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory (Misra, VN. and P. Bellwood Eds.), {{ISBN|978-8120400153}}, Oxford Publishing, pp 265-274</ref> The limited archaeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times.<ref name=skr>SANKAR KUMAR ROY, Aspects of Neolithic Agriculture and Shifting Cultivation, Garo Hills, Meghalaya, Asian Perspectives, XXIV (2), 1981, pp 193-221</ref>

Bhaitbari is an archaeological site first discovered and excavated by A. K. Sharma in 1993, a fortification of burnt brick with mud core was discovered at Meghalaya - Assam border and is dated to 4th-8th century AD, the city has been speculated to have been one of the capital cities of [[Kamarupa]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Archaeology: Department of Arts and Culture, Government of Meghalaya|url=http://megartsculture.gov.in/arch.htm|access-date=14 August 2021|website=megartsculture.gov.in|archive-date=8 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208111332/http://megartsculture.gov.in/arch.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1971, the Parliament passed the [[North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971]], which conferred full statehood on the autonomous state of Meghalaya. Meghalaya attained statehood on 21 January 1972, with a [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] of its own.<ref name="meghis" />

== Geography ==

[[File:Meghalaya Abode of the Clouds India Nature in Laitmawsiang Landscape.jpg|thumb|left|Laitmawsiang landscape, wrapped in fog. Meghalaya is mountainous, and it is the rainiest state of India. The word Meghalaya means, "abode of the clouds".]]

[[File:Tea Plantation Agriculture in Meghalaya India on the way to Shillong.jpg|thumb|Farming on hilly terrain (tea plantation).]]

=== Climate ===

  | image2 =Female Hoolock Gibbon.jpg

  }}

Due to diverse climatic and topographic conditions, Meghalaya forests support a vast floral diversity, including a large variety of [[parasite]]s, [[epiphyte]]s, [[succulent plant]]s and [[shrub]]s. Two of the most important tree varieties are ''[[Shorea robusta]]'' (sal tree) and ''[[Tectona grandis]]'' (teak). Meghalaya is also the home to a large variety of fruits, vegetables, spices, and medicinal plants. Meghalaya is also famous for its large variety of orchids&nbsp;— nearly 325 of them. Of these, the largest variety is found in the Mawsmai, Mawmluh and Sohrarim forests in the Khasi hills.

== Demographics ==

=== Population ===

}}

Meghalaya recorded the highest decennial population growth of 27.82% among all the seven north-eastern states, as per the provisional report of census 2011. The population of Meghalaya as of 2011 has been estimated at 2,964,007 of which females constitute 1,492,668 and males 1,471,339. As per the census of India 2011, the [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] in the state was 986 females per 1,000 males which was far higher than the national average of 940. The urban female sex ratio of 985 was higher than the rural sex ratio of 972.<ref name="census2011.co.in"/>

Hindus are the largest religious minority in Meghalaya with 11.52% of the total state's population as of 2011 census<ref name="census2011"/> Hindus are concentrated mainly in [[West Garo Hills]], [[East Khasi Hills]] and [[Ri-Bhoi]] with 19.11 per cent, 17.55 per cent and 11.96 per cent respectively. The [[Nartiang Durga Temple]] is a major Hindu temple in Meghalaya and it is one of the 51 [[Shakti peethas]] on Earth.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Das|first=Manosh|date=15 October 2010|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Lofty-Himalayas-notwithstanding-the-tribal-people-of-Nartiang-in-the-Jaintia-Hills-of-Meghalaya-truly-believe-that-their-scenic-little-hamlet-is-the-permanent-abode-of-Goddess-Durga-Perched-atop-a-hillock-is-the-more-than-600-year-old-and-ancient-Durgabari-a-simple-house-made-of-stones-and-wood-complete-with-tin-roofing-Revered-as-one-of-the-51-Shakti-Peethas-the-temple-has-been-drawing-a-large-number-of-pilgrims-from-all-over-the-country-on-occasion-of-Durga-Puja-/articleshow/6754889.cms|title=Lofty Himalayas notwithstanding, the tribal people of Nartiang in the Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya truly believe that their scenic little hamlet is the "permanent abode" of Goddess Durga. Perched atop a hillock is the more than 600-year old and ancient Durgabari - a simple house made of stones and wood complete with tin roofing. Revered as one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, the temple has been drawing a large number of pilgrims from all over the country on occasion of Durga Puja. - Times of India|website=The Times of India|access-date=20 December 2019|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228134358/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Lofty-Himalayas-notwithstanding-the-tribal-people-of-Nartiang-in-the-Jaintia-Hills-of-Meghalaya-truly-believe-that-their-scenic-little-hamlet-is-the-permanent-abode-of-Goddess-Durga-Perched-atop-a-hillock-is-the-more-than-600-year-old-and-ancient-Durgabari-a-simple-house-made-of-stones-and-wood-complete-with-tin-roofing-Revered-as-one-of-the-51-Shakti-Peethas-the-temple-has-been-drawing-a-large-number-of-pilgrims-from-all-over-the-country-on-occasion-of-Durga-Puja-/articleshow/6754889.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Languages ===

| color8 = khaki

| label9 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]

| color9 = salmon

| label10 = Others

English is the official language of the state.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://megtourism.gov.in/aboutmeghalaya.html | title = Department of Tourism Government of Meghalaya -About Meghalaya | publisher = Megtourism.gov.in | date = 21 January 1972 | access-date = 18 July 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090515025823/http://megtourism.gov.in/aboutmeghalaya.html | archive-date = 15 May 2009 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The most spoken languages in Meghalaya are [[Khasi language|Khasi]] (33.82%) and [[Garo language|Garo]] (31.60%) followed by [[Pnar language|Pnar]] (10.69%), [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (6.44%), [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (1.85%), [[War language|War]] (1.73%), [[Hindi]] (1.62%), [[Hajong language|Hajong]] (1.40%) and [[Assamese language|Assamese]] (1.34%).<ref name="Census2011"/>

== Districts ==

== Government and politics ==

{{Main|Government of Meghalaya|Meghalaya Legislative Assembly}}

=== State government ===

The [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]] has 60 members at present. Meghalaya has two representatives in the [[Lok Sabha]], one each from Shillong and Tura. It also has one representative in the [[Rajya Sabha]].

=== Local self-government ===

[[File:NE_Autonomous_divisions_of_India.svg|thumb|Autonomous District Councils in Northeast India]]

The ADCs in Meghalaya are the following:

*[[Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council]]

*[[Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council]]

== Economy ==

Meghalaya's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at {{INRConvert|16173|c}} in current prices.<ref name=pcindia>[http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/finres/fr_2013_14/fr_meghalaya1314.pdf Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716065506/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/finres/fr_2013_14/fr_meghalaya1314.pdf |date=16 July 2014 }} Planning Commission, Govt of India (May 2014)</ref> As of 2012, according to the [[Reserve Bank of India]], about 12% of total state population is below the poverty line, with 12.5% of the rural Meghalaya population is below the poverty line; while in urban areas, 9.3% are below the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283 |title=See 3rd table set for 2012 in Table 162, Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line |publisher=Reserve Bank of India, Government of India |year=2013 |access-date=20 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102043/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283 |archive-date=7 April 2014 }}</ref>

===Electricity infrastructure===

[[File:Mawphlang Dam Reservoir Meghalaya India.jpg|thumb|Meghalaya has abundant but undeveloped hydroelectric resources. Above is Mawphlang hydroelectric dam reservoir.]]

Several projects are under works. The proposed Garo Hills thermal project at Nangalbibra is expected to generate an additional 751 MW of power. There is a proposal for setting up a 250 MW thermal power plant in West Khasi Hills. The State Government aims to increase its power generation output by about 2000-2500 MW, of which 700-980 MW will be thermal based while 1400-1520 MW will be hydroelectricity. The State Government has outlined a cost-shared public-private partnership model to accelerate private sector investments in its power sector.<ref>[http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf State Planning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001713/http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} Govt of Meghalaya, pp 129-130</ref> The generation transmission, transformation and distribution of electricity is entrusted to the Meghalaya Energy Corporation Limited which was constituted under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948. At present, there are five hydel power stations and one mini hydel including Umiam Hydel Project, Umtrew Hydel Project, Myntdu-Leshka-I Hydel Project, and the Sunapani Micro Hydel (SESU) Project.

===Social institutions===

{{see also|Matrilineal society of Meghalaya}}

The majority of the population and the major tribal groups in Meghalaya follow a [[matrilineal]] system where lineage and inheritance are traced through women. The youngest daughter inherits all the property and she is the caretaker of aged parents and any unmarried siblings.<ref name=akrl/> In some cases, such as when there is no daughter in the family or other reasons, the parents may nominate another girl such as a daughter in law as the heir of the house and all other property they may own.

In the Garo lineage system, the youngest daughter inherits the family property by default, unless another daughter is so named by the parents. She then becomes designated as ''nokna'' meaning 'for the house or home'. If there are no daughters, a chosen daughter-in-law (''bohari'') or an adopted child (''deragata'') comes to stay in the house and inherit the property. This adopted girl child is then the head of the house.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Meghalaya's [[civil society]] considers the people of the state as a collective community that exists through [[civil society organisation]]s (CSOs), and serves the general interests of the public.<ref name=":1">Gupta, Susmita Sen (2018), Ethnicity and Development – A Civil Society Perspective from North-East India. In: Journal of Social and Political Sciences, Vol.1, No.2, 297-305. DOI: 10.31014/aior.1991.01.02.20</ref> These organisations include a wide spectrum of [[Non-governmental organization|non-government organisations (NGOs)]], other community associations, and foundations. The current status of Meghalaya's civil society and the effectiveness of the many programs is debated by scholars.

There also exists many forms of community associations that revolve around the idea of community building. This includes examples such as sports, religious, educational, and other clubs that aim to establish individuals into different social circles based on their interests.<ref name=":2" />

===Festivals===

[[File:Dance of Meghalaya.jpg|thumb|Dance of Meghalaya]]

;Khasis

;Hajongs

;Biates

=== Spirituality ===

In southern Meghalaya, located in [[Mawsynram]], is the Mawjymbuin cave. Here a massive stalagmite has been shaped by nature into a [[Shivalinga]]. According to legend, from the 13th century, this Shivalinga (called ''Hatakeswarat'') has existed in the [[Jaintia Hills]] under the reign of Ranee Singa.{{sfn|Roy|1981|p=139}} Tens of thousands of the Jaintia tribe members participate over the Hindu festival of [[Shivratri]] (''Night of Lord Shiva'') every year.{{sfn|Roy|1981|p=132}}<ref>Sudhansu R. Das, [http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/vibrant-meghalaya/article1644477.ece Vibrant Meghalaya] The Hindu (2008)</ref>

[[File:Living root bridges, Nongriat village, Meghalaya2.jpg|right|thumb|278x278px|Double-Decker Living root bridge, Nongriat village.]]

== Transport ==

The [[Partition of India|partition of the country]] in 1947 created severe infrastructural constraints for the [[Northeast India|Northeastern region]], with merely 2% of the perimeter of the region adjoining the rest of the country. A narrow strip of land often called the [[Siliguri Corridor]] or the Chicken's Neck, connects the region with the state of [[West Bengal]]. Meghalaya is a landlocked state with many small settlements in remote areas. The road is the only means of transport. While the capital [[Shillong]] is relatively well connected, road connectivity in most other parts is relatively poor. A significant portion of the roads in the state is still unpaved. Most of the arrivals into the Meghalaya take place through [[Guwahati]] in neighbouring Assam, which is nearly 103&nbsp;km away. Assam has a major railhead as well as an airport with regular train and air services to the rest of the country.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">

File:State Highway 5 Cherapunjee Meghalaya India.jpg|State Highway 5 near Cherapunjee, Meghalaya

File:Shillong Bypass road.jpg|Shillong Bypass road

File:Shillong Airport terminal building 4.jpg|[[Shillong Airport]]

</gallery>

=== Railway ===

=== Aviation ===

[[File:Near Krang Suri Waterfall.jpg|thumb|right|Krang Suri Waterfall]]

[[File:Umiam Lake, Shillong, Meghalaya, India.jpg|thumb|Umiam Lake, Shillong, Meghalaya, India]]

Meghalaya also offers many adventure tourism opportunities in the form of mountaineering, rock climbing, trekking, and hiking, [[caving]] (spelunking) and water sports. The state offers several trekking routes, some of which also afford an opportunity to encounter rare animals. The [[Umiam Lake]] has a water sports complex with facilities such as rowboats, paddleboats, sailing boats, cruise-boats, water-scooters, and speedboats.

  | align = right

  | width =  

  | image1 =Umiam Lake - by Vikramjit Kakati.png

  | image2 =Near Shillong Meghalaya India.jpg

  }}

;Lakes

;Caves

;Living root bridges

File:Nohkalikai Falls.JPG|[[Nohkalikai Falls]]

File:Expedition is in progress in Meghalayan Caves.jpg|Meghalaya has many limestone caves. Above are in Jaintia Hills

</gallery>

==Major issues==

===Illegal immigration===

===Violence===

Between 2006 and 2013, between 0 and 28 civilians have died per year in Meghalaya (or about 0 to 1 per 100,000 people), which the state authorities have classified as terror-related intentional violence.<ref>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html Meghalaya Violence Statistics, India Fatalities 1994-2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529084134/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html |date=29 May 2011 }} SATP (2014)</ref> The world's average annual death rate from intentional violence, in recent years, has been 7.9 per 100,000 people.<ref name=gede>[http://www.genevadeclaration.org/fileadmin/docs/GBAV2/GBAV2011-Ch2-Summary.pdf Global Burden of Armed Violence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021451/http://www.genevadeclaration.org/fileadmin/docs/GBAV2/GBAV2011-Ch2-Summary.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }} Chapter 2, Geneva Declaration, Switzerland (2011)</ref> The terror-related deaths are from conflicts primarily between different tribal groups and against migrants from Bangladesh. Along with political resolution and dialogue, various Christian organisations have taken the initiative to prevent violence and help the process of discussion between groups.<ref>SNAITANG, R. (2009), Christianity and Change among the Hill Tribes of Northeast India, Christianity and Change in Northeast India (Editors: Subba et al.), {{ISBN|978-8180694479}}, Chapter 10</ref>

===Political instability===

===Jhum farming===

Jhum farming, or cut-and-burn shift cultivation, is an ancient practice in Meghalaya.<ref name=skr/> It is culturally engrained through folklores. One legend states the god of wind with the god of hail and storm shook off seeds from the celestial tree, which were picked up and sown by a bird known as ''do' amik''. These were the seeds of rice. The god gave the human beings some of those celestial seeds, provided instruction on shift agriculture and proper rice cultivation practice, with the demand that at every harvest a portion of the first harvest must be dedicated to him. Another folktale is from the Garo Hills of Meghalaya where a man named ''Bone-Neripa-Jane-Nitepa'' harvested rice and millet from a patch of land he cleared and cultivated near the rock named ''misi-Kokdok''. He then shared this knowledge with others, and named the different months of the year, each of which is a stage of shifting cultivation.<ref>Mazumdar, Culture Change in Two Garo Villages, Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India (1978)</ref>

In modern times, shift cultivation is a significant threat to the biodiversity of Meghalaya.<ref>Ramakrishnan, P. S. (1992), Shifting agriculture and sustainable development: an interdisciplinary study from north-eastern India, Parthenon Publishing Group, {{ISBN|1-85070-383-3}}</ref> A 2001 satellite imaging study showed that shift cultivation practice continues and patches of primary dense forests are lost even from areas protected as biosphere.<ref>Roy, P. S., & Tomar, S. (2001), Landscape cover dynamics pattern in Meghalaya, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 22(18), pp 3813-3825</ref> ''Jhum'' farming is a threat not only for natural biodiversity, it is also a low yield unproductive method of agriculture. It is a significant issue in Meghalaya, given majority of its people rely on agriculture to make a living.<ref>Saha, R., Mishra, V. K., & Khan, S. K. (2011), Soil erodibility characteristics under modified land-use systems as against shifting cultivation in hilly ecosystems of Meghalaya India, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 30(4), 301-312</ref><ref>Pakrasi, K., Arya, V. S., & Sudhakar, S. (2014), Biodiversity hot-spot modeling and temporal analysis of Meghalaya using Remote sensing technique, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol 4, Number 5, pp 772-785</ref> Shift farming is a practice that is not unique to northeastern Indian states such as Meghalaya, but the issue is found throughout southeast Asia.<ref>Spencer, J. E. (1966), Shifting cultivation in southeastern Asia (Vol. 19), University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520035171}}</ref>

'''Government'''

* {{official website}}

'''General information'''

* {{curlie|Regional/Asia/India/Meghalaya|Meghalaya}}

* {{osmrelation-inline|2027521}}

{{Geographic location