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The '''Billava''', '''Billoru''',<ref name=Iyer1930p288>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |page=288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> '''Biruveru'''<ref name=Bruckner2009p4>{{cite book |title=On an Auspicious Day, at Dawn: Studies in Tulu Culture and Oral Literature |first=Heidrun |last=Brückner |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2009 |page=4 |isbn=978-3-447-05916-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MehF3uSdHxgC |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> people are an ethnic group of India. They are found traditionally in [[coastal Karnataka]] and engaged in [[toddy tapping]], cultivation and other activities. They have used both missionary education and [[Sri Narayana Guru]]'s reform movement to upgrade themselves. | The '''Billava''', '''Billoru''',<ref name=Iyer1930p288>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |page=288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> '''Biruveru'''<ref name=Bruckner2009p4>{{cite book |title=On an Auspicious Day, at Dawn: Studies in Tulu Culture and Oral Literature |first=Heidrun |last=Brückner |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2009 |page=4 |isbn=978-3-447-05916-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MehF3uSdHxgC |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> people are an ethnic group of India. They are found traditionally in [[coastal Karnataka]] and engaged in [[toddy tapping]], cultivation and other activities. They have used both missionary education and [[Sri Narayana Guru]]'s reform movement to upgrade themselves. | ||
== Etymology and origins == | |||
[[L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer]] recounted the community's belief that ''billava'' means ''bowmen'' and that it "applied to the castemen who were largely employed as soldiers by the native rulers of the district".<ref name=Iyer1930p288 /> [[Edgar Thurston]] had reached a similar conclusion in 1909.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/244 244] |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref>{{efn|[[L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer|L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer's]] ''The Mysore Tribes and Castes'', published in 1930, contains numerous sentences that appear also in [[Edgar Thurston|Edgar Thurston's]] ''The Castes and Tribes of Southern India'' of 1909. In turn, Thurston's work used material that had previously been published by other British Raj sources, and not always with clear attribution of this fact. This situation makes it difficult to distinguish individual opinions and it has to be understood in the context of the multiple publications produced under the aegis of the Ethnographic Survey of India that was established in 1901 on the basis of the work of [[Herbert Hope Risley#India: the 1901 Census|Herbert Hope Risley]].}} | [[L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer]] recounted the community's belief that ''billava'' means ''bowmen'' and that it "applied to the castemen who were largely employed as soldiers by the native rulers of the district".<ref name=Iyer1930p288 /> [[Edgar Thurston]] had reached a similar conclusion in 1909.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/244 244] |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref>{{efn|[[L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer|L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer's]] ''The Mysore Tribes and Castes'', published in 1930, contains numerous sentences that appear also in [[Edgar Thurston|Edgar Thurston's]] ''The Castes and Tribes of Southern India'' of 1909. In turn, Thurston's work used material that had previously been published by other British Raj sources, and not always with clear attribution of this fact. This situation makes it difficult to distinguish individual opinions and it has to be understood in the context of the multiple publications produced under the aegis of the Ethnographic Survey of India that was established in 1901 on the basis of the work of [[Herbert Hope Risley#India: the 1901 Census|Herbert Hope Risley]].}} | ||
The Billavas are first recorded in inscriptions dating from the fifteenth century AD but [[Amitav Ghosh]] notes that "... this is merely an indication of their lack of social power; there is every reason to suppose that all the major Tuluva castes share an equally long history of settlement in the region". The earliest epigraphy for the Tuluva [[Bunt (community)|Bunt]] community dates to around 400 years earlier.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |pages=195–197 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | The Billavas are first recorded in inscriptions dating from the fifteenth century AD but [[Amitav Ghosh]] notes that "... this is merely an indication of their lack of social power; there is every reason to suppose that all the major Tuluva castes share an equally long history of settlement in the region". The earliest epigraphy for the Tuluva [[Bunt (community)|Bunt]] community dates to around 400 years earlier.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |pages=195–197 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
== Language == | == Language == | ||
[[File:Language_map_MadrasPresidency.jpg|thumb|Linguistic map of the [[Madras Presidency]], ca. 1913.]] | [[File:Language_map_MadrasPresidency.jpg|thumb|Linguistic map of the [[Madras Presidency]], ca. 1913.]] | ||
There is a complex linguistic environment in [[Tulu Nadu]], which is the area of India to which the Billavas trace their origin. A compact geographic area, Tulu Nadu lies on the coastal belt of Karnataka and Kerala and has natural boundaries in the form of the [[Arabian Sea]], the hills of the [[Western Ghats]] and the rivers Suvarna and [[Chandragiri river|Chandragiri]]. It includes the South Canara district of Karnataka and the Kasaragod area of Kerala, which were formerly united for administrative purposes within the [[Madras Presidency]]. Although many languages and dialects are traditionally to be found there—for example, [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Kannada]], [[Konkani]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]]—it is the first two of these that are common throughout,<ref name= | There is a complex linguistic environment in [[Tulu Nadu]], which is the area of India to which the Billavas trace their origin. A compact geographic area, Tulu Nadu lies on the coastal belt of Karnataka and Kerala and has natural boundaries in the form of the [[Arabian Sea]], the hills of the [[Western Ghats]] and the rivers Suvarna and [[Chandragiri river|Chandragiri]]. It includes the South Canara district of Karnataka and the Kasaragod area of Kerala, which were formerly united for administrative purposes within the [[Madras Presidency]]. Although many languages and dialects are traditionally to be found there—for example, [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Kannada]], [[Konkani]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]]—it is the first two of these that are common throughout,<ref name=Bhat1998p158>{{cite book |chapter=Tulu |first=D. N. S. |last=Bhat |pages=158–159 |title=The Dravidian languages |editor-first=Sanford B. |editor-last=Steever |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-10023-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CF5Qo4NDE64C |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> and of those two it is Tulu that gave rise to the region's name.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |page=132 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
Traditionally, Kannada is used in formal situations such as education, while Tulu is the ''lingua franca'' used in everyday communication. Tulu is more accepted as the primary language in the north of the Tulu Nadu region, with the areas south of the [[Netravati River|Netravati]] river demonstrating a more traditional, although gradually diminishing, distinction between that language and the situations in which Kannada is to be preferred. A form of the Tulu language known as Common Tulu has been identified, and this is spreading as an accepted standard for formal communication. Although four versions of it exist, based on geographic demarcations and also the concentration of various caste groups within those areas, that version which is more precisely known as Northern Common Tulu is superseding the other three dialects. {{As of|1998}} the [[Brahmin]] community use Common Tulu only to speak with those outside their own caste, while communities such as the [[Bunt (community)|Bunts]], Billavas and [[Goud]]s use it frequently, and the tribal communities are increasingly abandoning their own dialects in favour of it.<ref name=Bhat1998p158 /> | Traditionally, Kannada is used in formal situations such as education, while Tulu is the ''lingua franca'' used in everyday communication. Tulu is more accepted as the primary language in the north of the Tulu Nadu region, with the areas south of the [[Netravati River|Netravati]] river demonstrating a more traditional, although gradually diminishing, distinction between that language and the situations in which Kannada is to be preferred. A form of the Tulu language known as Common Tulu has been identified, and this is spreading as an accepted standard for formal communication. Although four versions of it exist, based on geographic demarcations and also the concentration of various caste groups within those areas, that version which is more precisely known as Northern Common Tulu is superseding the other three dialects. {{As of|1998}} the [[Brahmin]] community use Common Tulu only to speak with those outside their own caste, while communities such as the [[Bunt (community)|Bunts]], Billavas and [[Goud]]s use it frequently, and the tribal communities are increasingly abandoning their own dialects in favour of it.<ref name=Bhat1998p158 /> | ||
[[William Logan (Malabar Manual)|William Logan's]] work ''Manual of Malabar'', a publication of the [[British Raj]] period, recognised the Billavas as being the largest single community in South Canara, representing nearly 20 per cent of that district's population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |pages=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/243 243]–244 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | [[William Logan (Malabar Manual)|William Logan's]] work ''Manual of Malabar'', a publication of the [[British Raj]] period, recognised the Billavas as being the largest single community in South Canara, representing nearly 20 per cent of that district's population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |pages=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/243 243]–244 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
== Marriage, death and inheritance == | == Marriage, death and inheritance == | ||
The Billavas practised the [[Matrilineal succession|matrilineal]] system of inheritance known as ''[[Aliya Kattu]]''<ref name=Iyer1930p290 /> or ''Aliya Santana''. Ghosh describes that this system entailed that "men transmit their immovable property, not to their own children, but matrilineally, to their sister's children."<ref name=Ghosh2003p193>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=193 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | The Billavas practised the [[Matrilineal succession|matrilineal]] system of inheritance known as ''[[Aliya Kattu]]''<ref name=Iyer1930p290 /> or ''Aliya Santana''. Ghosh describes that this system entailed that "men transmit their immovable property, not to their own children, but matrilineally, to their sister's children."<ref name=Ghosh2003p193>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=193 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
Iyer described the rules regarding marriage as {{quote|A Billava does not marry his sister's daughter or mother's sister's daughter. He can marry his paternal aunt's or maternal uncle's daughter. Two sisters can be taken in marriage simultaneously or at different times. Two brothers can marry two sisters.<ref name=Iyer1930p288 />}} | Iyer described the rules regarding marriage as {{quote|A Billava does not marry his sister's daughter or mother's sister's daughter. He can marry his paternal aunt's or maternal uncle's daughter. Two sisters can be taken in marriage simultaneously or at different times. Two brothers can marry two sisters.<ref name=Iyer1930p288 />}} | ||
Marriage of widows was permitted but the wedding ritual in such cases was simplified. An amended version of the ceremony was also used for situations where an illegitimate child might otherwise result: the father had to marry the pregnant woman in such circumstances.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |page=289 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | Marriage of widows was permitted but the wedding ritual in such cases was simplified. An amended version of the ceremony was also used for situations where an illegitimate child might otherwise result: the father had to marry the pregnant woman in such circumstances.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |page=289 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
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The Billava dead are usually cremated, although burial occurs in some places, and there is a ritual pollution period observed at this time also.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=294–295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> The Billava community is one of a few in India that practice [[posthumous marriage]]. Others that do so include the [[Badagas]], [[Komati (Caste)|Komatis]] and the [[Todas]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics |volume=4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofr04hast/page/604 604] |editor-first=James |editor-last=Hastings |editor-link=James Hastings |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |year=1908 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofr04hast |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> | The Billava dead are usually cremated, although burial occurs in some places, and there is a ritual pollution period observed at this time also.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=294–295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> The Billava community is one of a few in India that practice [[posthumous marriage]]. Others that do so include the [[Badagas]], [[Komati (Caste)|Komatis]] and the [[Todas]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics |volume=4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofr04hast/page/604 604] |editor-first=James |editor-last=Hastings |editor-link=James Hastings |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |year=1908 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofr04hast |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
== Subgroups == | == Subgroups == | ||
All of the Tuluva castes who participate fully in ''Bhuta'' worship also have loose family groupings known as ''balis''. These groups are also referred to as "septs", and are similar to the Brahmin [[gotras]] except that their membership is based on matrilineal rather than patrilineal descent.<ref name=Ghosh2003p193 /> Iyer noted 16 ''balis'' within the Billava community and that some of these had further subdivisions.<ref name=Iyer1930p288 /> Thurston said of these [[exogamous]] Billava groups that "There is a popular belief that these are sub-divisions of the twenty balis which ought to exist according to the Aliya Santana system (inheritance of the female line)."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |pages=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/246 246]–247 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | All of the Tuluva castes who participate fully in ''Bhuta'' worship also have loose family groupings known as ''balis''. These groups are also referred to as "septs", and are similar to the Brahmin [[gotras]] except that their membership is based on matrilineal rather than patrilineal descent.<ref name=Ghosh2003p193 /> Iyer noted 16 ''balis'' within the Billava community and that some of these had further subdivisions.<ref name=Iyer1930p288 /> Thurston said of these [[exogamous]] Billava groups that "There is a popular belief that these are sub-divisions of the twenty balis which ought to exist according to the Aliya Santana system (inheritance of the female line)."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |pages=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/246 246]–247 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
== Worship of ''Bhutas'' == | == Worship of ''Bhutas'' == | ||
[[File:Paravar devil dancer - Thurston.png|thumb|A Paravar devil-dancer, ca. 1909.]] | [[File:Paravar devil dancer - Thurston.png|thumb|A Paravar devil-dancer, ca. 1909.]] | ||
The Billavas were among the many communities to be excluded from the Hindu temples of [[Brahmin]]s<ref name=Iyer1930p295 /> and they traditionally worship spirits in a practice known as ''[[Bhuta Kola]]''. S. D. L. Alagodi wrote in 2006 of the South Canara population that "Among the Hindus, a little over ten per cent are Brahmins, and all the others, though nominally Hindus, are really propitiators or worshippers of tutelary deities and ''bhutas'' or demons."<ref name= | The Billavas were among the many communities to be excluded from the Hindu temples of [[Brahmin]]s<ref name=Iyer1930p295 /> and they traditionally worship spirits in a practice known as ''[[Bhuta Kola]]''. S. D. L. Alagodi wrote in 2006 of the South Canara population that "Among the Hindus, a little over ten per cent are Brahmins, and all the others, though nominally Hindus, are really propitiators or worshippers of tutelary deities and ''bhutas'' or demons."<ref name=Alagodi2006p142>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |page=142 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
The venues for ''Bhuta Kola'' are temple structures called ''Bhutasthana'' or ''Garidi''{{efn|Thurston called the ''Bhutasthana'' "devil shrines" and appears to distinguish them from ''Garidi'' but does not explain why he did so: "Some Billavas officiate as priests (pujaris) at bhutasthanas (devil shrines) and garidis."<ref name=Thurston1909p246 />}} as well as numerous shrines. The officiators at worship are a subcaste of Billavas, known as ''[[Poojary (Billava subcaste)|Poojary]]'' (priest),<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=289–290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref><ref name=Ghosh2003p195 /> and their practices are known as ''[[puja (Hinduism)|pooja]]''.<ref name=Iyer1930pp293-294>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=293–294 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> Iyer noted that families often have a place set aside in their home for the worship of a particular ''Bhuta'' and that the worship in this situation is called ''Bhuta Nema''.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=291, 293 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | The venues for ''Bhuta Kola'' are temple structures called ''Bhutasthana'' or ''Garidi''{{efn|Thurston called the ''Bhutasthana'' "devil shrines" and appears to distinguish them from ''Garidi'' but does not explain why he did so: "Some Billavas officiate as priests (pujaris) at bhutasthanas (devil shrines) and garidis."<ref name=Thurston1909p246 />}} as well as numerous shrines. The officiators at worship are a subcaste of Billavas, known as ''[[Poojary (Billava subcaste)|Poojary]]'' (priest),<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=289–290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref><ref name=Ghosh2003p195 /> and their practices are known as ''[[puja (Hinduism)|pooja]]''.<ref name=Iyer1930pp293-294>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=293–294 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> Iyer noted that families often have a place set aside in their home for the worship of a particular ''Bhuta'' and that the worship in this situation is called ''Bhuta Nema''.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |pages=291, 293 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
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More recently, Ghosh has described a distinction between the ''Bhuta'' of southern India, as worshipped by the Billavas, and the similarly named demons of the north {{quote|In northern India the word bhuta generally refers to a ghost or a malign presence. Tulu bhutas, on the other hand, though they have their vengeful aspects, are often benign, protective figures, ancestral spirits and heroes who have been assimilated to the ranks of minor deities.<ref name=Ghosh2003p192>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=192 |access-date=2011-12-26}}</ref>}} | More recently, Ghosh has described a distinction between the ''Bhuta'' of southern India, as worshipped by the Billavas, and the similarly named demons of the north {{quote|In northern India the word bhuta generally refers to a ghost or a malign presence. Tulu bhutas, on the other hand, though they have their vengeful aspects, are often benign, protective figures, ancestral spirits and heroes who have been assimilated to the ranks of minor deities.<ref name=Ghosh2003p192>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=192 |access-date=2011-12-26}}</ref>}} | ||
''Bhuta Kola'' is a cult practised by a large section of Tulu Nadu society, ranging from landlords to the Dalits, and the various hierarchical strands all have their place within it. While those at the top of this hierarchical range provide patronage, others such as the Billava provide the practical services of officiating and tending the shrines, while those at the bottom of the hierarchy enact the rituals, which include aspects akin to the regional theatrical art forms known as [[Kathakali]] and [[Yakshagana]].<ref name=Ghosh2003p192 /> For example, the ''pooja'' rituals include devil-dancing, performed by the lower class [[Paravar]]{{efn|Iyer called these devil-dancers the [[Pombada]] but Thurston refers to the Paravar community.<ref name=Thurston1909p250>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/250 250] |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref>}} or Naike,<ref name=Iyer1930pp293-294 /> and the Bunts – who were historically ranked as superior to the Billava{{efn|[[Amitav Ghosh]] quotes [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton|Francis Buchanan]], who said of the Billava that they "pretend to be Shudras, but acknowledge their inferiority to the Bunts."<ref name=Ghosh2003p195 /> [[Shudra]] is the lowest ritual rank in the Hindu [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna system]], below which are the outcastes. Buchanan travelled through South Canara in 1801, soon after the British took control of it.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=194 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> Ghosh notes that "until quite recently [the Bunts] controlled most of the land in Tulunad" and their influence in Bhuta worship was notable because of this.<ref name=Ghosh2003p195 /> }}– rely upon the ''Poojary'' to officiate.<ref name=Ghosh2003p195>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=195 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ''Bhuta Kola'' is a cult practised by a large section of Tulu Nadu society, ranging from landlords to the Dalits, and the various hierarchical strands all have their place within it. While those at the top of this hierarchical range provide patronage, others such as the Billava provide the practical services of officiating and tending the shrines, while those at the bottom of the hierarchy enact the rituals, which include aspects akin to the regional theatrical art forms known as [[Kathakali]] and [[Yakshagana]].<ref name=Ghosh2003p192 /> For example, the ''pooja'' rituals include devil-dancing, performed by the lower class [[Paravar]]{{efn|Iyer called these devil-dancers the [[Pombada]] but Thurston refers to the Paravar community.<ref name=Thurston1909p250>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/250 250] |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref>}} or Naike,<ref name=Iyer1930pp293-294 /> and the Bunts – who were historically ranked as superior to the Billava{{efn|[[Amitav Ghosh]] quotes [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton|Francis Buchanan]], who said of the Billava that they "pretend to be Shudras, but acknowledge their inferiority to the Bunts."<ref name=Ghosh2003p195 /> [[Shudra]] is the lowest ritual rank in the Hindu [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna system]], below which are the outcastes. Buchanan travelled through South Canara in 1801, soon after the British took control of it.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=194 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> Ghosh notes that "until quite recently [the Bunts] controlled most of the land in Tulunad" and their influence in Bhuta worship was notable because of this.<ref name=Ghosh2003p195 /> }}– rely upon the ''Poojary'' to officiate.<ref name=Ghosh2003p195>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=195 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
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Thurston noted that ''Baidya'' was a common name among the community, as was ''Poojary''. He was told that this was a corruption of ''Vaidya'', meaning a physician.<ref name=Thurston1909p246>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/246 246] |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | Thurston noted that ''Baidya'' was a common name among the community, as was ''Poojary''. He was told that this was a corruption of ''Vaidya'', meaning a physician.<ref name=Thurston1909p246>{{cite book |title=The Castes and Tribes of Southern India, A – B |volume=I |first=Edgar |last=Thurston |author-link=Edgar Thurston |year=1909 |publisher=Government Press |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuruoft/page/246 246] |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
== Traditional occupations == | == Traditional occupations == | ||
[[File:Billava toddy tapper.png|thumb|A Billava toddy tapper, ca. 1909]] | [[File:Billava toddy tapper.png|thumb|A Billava toddy tapper, ca. 1909]] | ||
Heidrun Brückner describes the Billavas of the nineteenth century as "frequently small tenant farmers and agricultural labourers working for Bunt landowners."<ref name=Bruckner2009p5>{{cite book |title=On an Auspicious Day, at Dawn: Studies in Tulu Culture and Oral Literature |first=Heidrun |last=Brückner |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2009 |page=5 |isbn=978-3-447-05916-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MehF3uSdHxgC |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> Writing in 1930, Iyer described the community as being involved mostly in [[toddy tapping]], although they also had involvements in agriculture and in some areas were so in the form of peasant tenant landholders known as ''[[Ryot|raiyats]]''.<ref name=Iyer1930p295>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |page=295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> This was echoed in a report of the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]] of 1961, which said that "The Billavas are concentrated mostly in South Kanara district. Though toddy tappers by profession, they rely mostly on cultivation. They are generally small landowners or lessees ..."<ref>{{cite book |title=Farmers of India: Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Mysore & Kerala |first1=Mohinder Singh |last1=Randhawa |volume=2 |publisher=Indian Council of Agricultural Research |year=1961 |page=269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4P1IAAAAMAAJ |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> | Heidrun Brückner describes the Billavas of the nineteenth century as "frequently small tenant farmers and agricultural labourers working for Bunt landowners."<ref name=Bruckner2009p5>{{cite book |title=On an Auspicious Day, at Dawn: Studies in Tulu Culture and Oral Literature |first=Heidrun |last=Brückner |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2009 |page=5 |isbn=978-3-447-05916-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MehF3uSdHxgC |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> Writing in 1930, Iyer described the community as being involved mostly in [[toddy tapping]], although they also had involvements in agriculture and in some areas were so in the form of peasant tenant landholders known as ''[[Ryot|raiyats]]''.<ref name=Iyer1930p295>{{cite book |title=The Mysore Tribes and Castes |volume=II |first=L. Krishna Ananthakrishna |last=Iyer |author-link=L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer |year=1930 |location=Mysore |publisher=Mysore University Press |page=295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zseCqGFRpyQC |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> This was echoed in a report of the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]] of 1961, which said that "The Billavas are concentrated mostly in South Kanara district. Though toddy tappers by profession, they rely mostly on cultivation. They are generally small landowners or lessees ..."<ref>{{cite book |title=Farmers of India: Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Mysore & Kerala |first1=Mohinder Singh |last1=Randhawa |volume=2 |publisher=Indian Council of Agricultural Research |year=1961 |page=269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4P1IAAAAMAAJ |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> | ||
According to Ghosh, "By tradition, [the Billavas] are also associated with the martial arts and the single most famous pair of Tuluva heroes, the brothers Koti-Chennaya, are archetypal heroes of the caste who symbolize the often hostile competition between the Billavas and the Bunts."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=196 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> Neither Thurston nor Iyer make any reference to this claim. | According to Ghosh, "By tradition, [the Billavas] are also associated with the martial arts and the single most famous pair of Tuluva heroes, the brothers Koti-Chennaya, are archetypal heroes of the caste who symbolize the often hostile competition between the Billavas and the Bunts."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces |first=Amitav |last=Ghosh |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |edition=Third |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7530-047-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQHp9wsWaZcC |page=196 |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> Neither Thurston nor Iyer make any reference to this claim. | ||
== Culture == | == Culture == | ||
''[[Paddanas|Tuluva paddanas]]'' are sung narratives which are part of several closely related singing traditions, similar to ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' (Northern ballads) of northern Kerala and which may be considered ballads, epics or ritual songs (depending on the context or purpose for which they are sung). The community has special occasions in which it is traditional to sing ''paddanas''. They will sing the ''Paddana of Koti-Chennaya'' during a ceremony on the eve of a marriage. Women who sing the song in the fields will sing those verses appropriate for the young heroes.<ref>[http://class.csueastbay.edu/anthropology/claus/gundert/gundert.htm Peter J. Claus, "Variability in the Tulu Paddanas".] Retrieved 9 March 2011.</ref> | ''[[Paddanas|Tuluva paddanas]]'' are sung narratives which are part of several closely related singing traditions, similar to ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' (Northern ballads) of northern Kerala and which may be considered ballads, epics or ritual songs (depending on the context or purpose for which they are sung). The community has special occasions in which it is traditional to sing ''paddanas''. They will sing the ''Paddana of Koti-Chennaya'' during a ceremony on the eve of a marriage. Women who sing the song in the fields will sing those verses appropriate for the young heroes.<ref>[http://class.csueastbay.edu/anthropology/claus/gundert/gundert.htm Peter J. Claus, "Variability in the Tulu Paddanas".] Retrieved 9 March 2011.</ref> | ||
== Social changes == | == Social changes == | ||
The Billava community suffered ritual discrimination under the Brahmanic system—of which the [[caste system in Kerala]] was perhaps the most extreme example until the twentieth century. They were, however, allowed to live in the same villages as Brahmins.<ref name=Iyer1930p295 /> | The Billava community suffered ritual discrimination under the Brahmanic system—of which the [[caste system in Kerala]] was perhaps the most extreme example until the twentieth century. They were, however, allowed to live in the same villages as Brahmins.<ref name=Iyer1930p295 /> | ||
Some Billavas had seen the possibility of using religion as a vehicle for the social advancement of their community, as the [[Paravar]]s had previously attempted in their conversion to Christianity.<ref name=Jones1989p165>{{cite book |title=Socio-religious Reform Movements in British India |volume=Part 3, Volume 1 |first=Kenneth W. |last=Jones |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-24986-7 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoBJJej_IiwC |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> The British had wrested the region from the control of [[Tipu Sultan]] in 1799, as a consequence of the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]], and in 1834 the Christian [[Basel Mission]] arrived in [[Mangalore]]. These evangelists were among the first to take advantage of a relaxation of rules that had prevented non-British missionaries from working in India, and theirs was the first Protestant mission of any nationality in the area.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |pages=133–134 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> They initially condemned the caste system because it was an inherent part of the Hindu religion and therefore must be wrong, but they came to see the divisions caused by it as being evil in their own right and took to undermining it as a matter of social justice.<ref name=Alagodi2006pp142-144 /> They considered the stratification of the caste system as being contrary to Christian values, which proclaimed that all were equal in the eyes of God.<ref name= | Some Billavas had seen the possibility of using religion as a vehicle for the social advancement of their community, as the [[Paravar]]s had previously attempted in their conversion to Christianity.<ref name=Jones1989p165>{{cite book |title=Socio-religious Reform Movements in British India |volume=Part 3, Volume 1 |first=Kenneth W. |last=Jones |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-24986-7 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoBJJej_IiwC |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> The British had wrested the region from the control of [[Tipu Sultan]] in 1799, as a consequence of the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]], and in 1834 the Christian [[Basel Mission]] arrived in [[Mangalore]]. These evangelists were among the first to take advantage of a relaxation of rules that had prevented non-British missionaries from working in India, and theirs was the first Protestant mission of any nationality in the area.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |pages=133–134 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> They initially condemned the caste system because it was an inherent part of the Hindu religion and therefore must be wrong, but they came to see the divisions caused by it as being evil in their own right and took to undermining it as a matter of social justice.<ref name=Alagodi2006pp142-144 /> They considered the stratification of the caste system as being contrary to Christian values, which proclaimed that all were equal in the eyes of God.<ref name=Alagodi2006p150>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |page=150 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> These missionaries had some success in converting native people, of which those converted from among the Billavas formed the "first and largest group".<ref name=Alagodi2006pp142-144>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |pages=142–144 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> Brückner describes the Billavas as being "the strongest group among the converts" and that, along with the Bunts, they were "the mainstays of the popular local religion, and the mission was probably induced by this target group to occupy itself with its practices and oral literature."<ref name=Bruckner2009p5 /> | ||
Alagodi notes that the {{quote|... motives for conversion were not always purely religious. Support against oppression by landlords and money lenders, hope for better social standards, education for their children, chances of employment in the mission's firms, the prospect of food provision, clothing, shelter and a decent state of life—such motives might have contributed to their decision for baptism. The chief motive, however, seems to have been a revolt against the social order dominated by demons or ''bhutas''. The conversion offered them forgiveness of sin and liberation from the social conditions that would hold them back if they remained in the Hindu fold. ... Many people thought that the God of the missionaries was greater and more powerful than the demons.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |page=145 |access-date=2011-12-29}}</ref>}} | Alagodi notes that the {{quote|... motives for conversion were not always purely religious. Support against oppression by landlords and money lenders, hope for better social standards, education for their children, chances of employment in the mission's firms, the prospect of food provision, clothing, shelter and a decent state of life—such motives might have contributed to their decision for baptism. The chief motive, however, seems to have been a revolt against the social order dominated by demons or ''bhutas''. The conversion offered them forgiveness of sin and liberation from the social conditions that would hold them back if they remained in the Hindu fold. ... Many people thought that the God of the missionaries was greater and more powerful than the demons.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |page=145 |access-date=2011-12-29}}</ref>}} | ||
However, the conversion of Billavas to Christianity did not always run smoothly. The Basel missionaries were more concerned with the quality of those converted than with the quantity. In 1869 they rejected a proposition that 5000 Billavas would convert if the missionaries would grant certain favours, including recognition of the converts as a separate community within the church and also a dispensation to continue certain of their traditional practices. The missionaries took the view that the proposition was contrary to their belief in equality and that it represented both an incomplete rejection of the caste system and of Hindu practices. Alagodi has speculated that if the proposition had been accepted then "Protestant Christians would have been perhaps one of the largest religious communities in and around Mangalore today."<ref name=Alagodi2006p150 /> A further barrier to conversion proved to be the Billava's toddy tapping occupation: the Basel Mission held no truck with alcohol, and those who did convert found themselves economically disadvantaged, often lacking both a job and a home.<ref name=Alagodi2006pp155-156 /> This could apply even if they were not toddy tappers: as tenant farmers or otherwise involved in agriculture, they would lose their homes and the potential beneficence of their landlords if they converted.<ref name=Bruckner2009p5 /> The Mission attempted to alleviate this situation by provision of work, principally in factories that produced tiles and woven goods.<ref name= | |||
However, the conversion of Billavas to Christianity did not always run smoothly. The Basel missionaries were more concerned with the quality of those converted than with the quantity. In 1869 they rejected a proposition that 5000 Billavas would convert if the missionaries would grant certain favours, including recognition of the converts as a separate community within the church and also a dispensation to continue certain of their traditional practices. The missionaries took the view that the proposition was contrary to their belief in equality and that it represented both an incomplete rejection of the caste system and of Hindu practices. Alagodi has speculated that if the proposition had been accepted then "Protestant Christians would have been perhaps one of the largest religious communities in and around Mangalore today."<ref name=Alagodi2006p150 /> A further barrier to conversion proved to be the Billava's toddy tapping occupation: the Basel Mission held no truck with alcohol, and those who did convert found themselves economically disadvantaged, often lacking both a job and a home.<ref name=Alagodi2006pp155-156 /> This could apply even if they were not toddy tappers: as tenant farmers or otherwise involved in agriculture, they would lose their homes and the potential beneficence of their landlords if they converted.<ref name=Bruckner2009p5 /> The Mission attempted to alleviate this situation by provision of work, principally in factories that produced tiles and woven goods.<ref name=Alagodi2006pp155-156>{{cite book |chapter=The Basel Mission in Mangalore: Historical and Social Context |first=S. D. L. |last=Alagodi |title=An Indian to the Indians?: on the initial failure and the posthumous success of the missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) |volume=9 |series=Studien zur aussereuropäischen Christentumsgeschichte |editor-first=Reinhard |editor-last=Wendt |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-447-05161-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCHZ_pDUnVAC |pages=155–156 |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref>{{efn|The first of seven weaving factories operated by the Basel Mission was established in 1851, and the first of a similar number of tile factories in 1865.<ref name=Alagodi2006pp155-156 />}} | |||
Nireshvalya Arasappa—described by Kenneth Jones as "one of the few educated Billavas"—was one such person who looked to conversion from Hinduism as a means to advancement during the nineteenth century. Having initially examined the opportunities provided by Christian conversion, Arasappa became involved with the [[Brahmo Samaj]] movement in the 1870s and he arranged for Brahmo missionaries to meet with his community. The attempt met with little success: the Billavas were suspicious of the Brahmo representatives, who wore western clothing and spoke in English<ref name=Jones1989p165 /> whereas the Basel Missionaries had studied the local languages and produced a copy of the ''[[New Testament]]'' in both Tulu and Kannada.<ref name=Bruckner2009p4 /> | Nireshvalya Arasappa—described by Kenneth Jones as "one of the few educated Billavas"—was one such person who looked to conversion from Hinduism as a means to advancement during the nineteenth century. Having initially examined the opportunities provided by Christian conversion, Arasappa became involved with the [[Brahmo Samaj]] movement in the 1870s and he arranged for Brahmo missionaries to meet with his community. The attempt met with little success: the Billavas were suspicious of the Brahmo representatives, who wore western clothing and spoke in English<ref name=Jones1989p165 /> whereas the Basel Missionaries had studied the local languages and produced a copy of the ''[[New Testament]]'' in both Tulu and Kannada.<ref name=Bruckner2009p4 /> | ||
=== Kudroli Gokarnanatheshwara Temple === | === Kudroli Gokarnanatheshwara Temple === | ||
[[File:Gokarnatheshwara_Temple_7042008.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gokarnanatheshwara Temple]]]] | [[File:Gokarnatheshwara_Temple_7042008.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gokarnanatheshwara Temple]]]] | ||
Ezhavas, a kindred community from [[Kerala]], were organised by [[Narayana Guru]] in establishing social equality through his temple in [[Sivagiri, Kerala|Sivagiri]]. Using the same principles, Billavas established a temple. After the construction of the Kudroli [[Gokarnanatheshwara Temple]] at Mangalore, Naryana Guru asked community leaders to work together for mutual progress by organising schools and industrial establishments; in accordance with his wishes, many Sree Narayana organisations have sprung up in the community.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=At Indian temple, widows from lowest caste are exalted as priests|url=http://readingeagle.com/ap/article/at-indian-temple-widows-from-lowest-caste-are-exalted-as-priests |newspaper=Los Angeles Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Udupi: Chapter on Sri Narayana Guru to be part of school syllabus |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=208660 |newspaper=Daiji World}}</ref> | Ezhavas, a kindred community from [[Kerala]], were organised by [[Narayana Guru]] in establishing social equality through his temple in [[Sivagiri, Kerala|Sivagiri]]. Using the same principles, Billavas established a temple. After the construction of the Kudroli [[Gokarnanatheshwara Temple]] at Mangalore, Naryana Guru asked community leaders to work together for mutual progress by organising schools and industrial establishments; in accordance with his wishes, many Sree Narayana organisations have sprung up in the community.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=At Indian temple, widows from lowest caste are exalted as priests|url=http://readingeagle.com/ap/article/at-indian-temple-widows-from-lowest-caste-are-exalted-as-priests |newspaper=Los Angeles Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Udupi: Chapter on Sri Narayana Guru to be part of school syllabus |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=208660 |newspaper=Daiji World}}</ref> | ||
== Similar communities == | == Similar communities == | ||
* [[Namadhari Naik]] | * [[Namadhari Naik]] | ||
* [[Idiga]] | * [[Idiga]] | ||
*[[Ezhava]] | *[[Ezhava]] | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
'''Notes''' | '''Notes''' | ||
{{notelist}} | {{notelist}} | ||
'''Citations''' | '''Citations''' | ||
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} | {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} | ||
{{Narayana Guru}} | {{Narayana Guru}} | ||
[[Category:Narayana Guru]] | [[Category:Narayana Guru]] | ||
[[Category:Mangalorean society]] | [[Category:Mangalorean society]] | ||