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 In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop |title=State of the World Population 2014 |year=2014 |publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>
+==Environmental effects==
+{{Pollution sidebar}}
+Urbanization may improve environmental quality as a result of numerous reasons. For instance, urbanization upsurges income levels which instigates the eco-friendly services sector and increases demand for green and environmentally compliant products. Furthermore, urbanization improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and better-quality living standards in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by increasing R&D and innovations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yasin|first1=Iftikhar|last2=Ahmad|first2=Nawaz|last3=Chaudhary|first3=M. Aslam|date=2019-07-22|title=Catechizing the Environmental-Impression of Urbanization, Financial Development, and Political Institutions: A Circumstance of Ecological Footprints in 110 Developed and Less-Developed Countries|journal=Social Indicators Research|language=en|volume=147|issue=2|pages=621–649|doi=10.1007/s11205-019-02163-3|issn=0303-8300|s2cid=199855869}}</ref> In his book ''[[Whole Earth Discipline]]'', Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth.<ref>[https://www.prb.org/urbanization-an-environmental-force-to-be-reckoned-with/ Urbanization: An Environmental Force to Be Reckoned With]</ref> Secondly, emigration from rural areas reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly implemented [[slash and burn]] agriculture. [[Alex Steffen]] also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet", .<ref>Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet by Alex Steffen</ref>
+However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable. In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs<ref>[http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2843WESS2013.pdf "World Economic and Social Survey (WESS) 2013"] World Economic and Social Affairs. July 2013.</ref> warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and the growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster.<ref>Auber, Tamar (17 July 2013) [http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/climate-change-and-rapid-urban-expansion-in-africa-threaten-childrens-lives/ "Climate change and rapid urban expansion in Africa threaten children’s lives."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014025/http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/climate-change-and-rapid-urban-expansion-in-africa-threaten-childrens-lives/ |date=13 November 2014 }} UNEARTH News. Retrieved 10 August 2013.</ref>
+=== Urban heat island ===
+The existence of [[urban heat island]]s has become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain heat. Much of the solar energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation of water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where there are less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat.<ref>Park, H.-S. (1987). [[hdl:2241/4711|Variations in the urban heat island intensity affected by geographical environments]]. Environmental Research Center papers, no. 11. Ibaraki, Japan: Environmental Research Center, The University of Tsukuba.</ref> As a result, cities are often 1 to 3&nbsp;°C (1.8 to 5.4&nbsp;°F) warmer than surrounding landscapes.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/ "Heat Island Effect"]. Epa.gov (17 November 2010). Retrieved on 7 April 2014.</ref> Impacts also include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Heating Up: Study Shows Rapid Urbanization in China Warming the Regional Climate Faster than Other Urban Areas|url=http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/china-climate.htm}}</ref>
+=== Water quality ===
+The occurrence of [[eutrophication]] in bodies of water is another effect large urban populations have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, the rain filters down the pollutants such as CO<sub>2</sub> and other greenhouse gases in the air onto the ground below. Then, those chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, causing a decline in water quality and damaging marine ecosystems.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Jiang|first1=Leiwen|last2=Hoepf Young|first2=Malea|last3=Hardee|first3=Karen|year=2008|title=Population, Urbanization, And The Environment|journal=World Watch|volume=21|issue=5|pages=34–39}}</ref>
+Eutrophication is a process which causes hypoxic water conditions and algal blooms that may be detrimental to the survival of aquatic life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/eutrophication-and-hypoxia/about-eutrophication|title=About Eutrophication {{!}} World Resources Institute|website=wri.org|date=12 September 2013|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> [[Harmful algal bloom]]s, which produce dangerous toxins, thrive in eutrophic environments that are also rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/harmful-algal-blooms|title=Harmful Algal Blooms|website=US Environmental Protection Administration|date=3 June 2013|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> In these ideal conditions, they overtake surface water, making it difficult for other organisms to receive sunlight and nutrients. Overgrowth of algal blooms causes a decrease in overall water quality and disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO<sub>2</sub> is produced, causing a more acidic environment, a process known as acidification.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutrientchallenge.org/sites/default/files/documents/files/FINAL%20Ocean%20Acidification%20policy%20brief%20spread_press%20quality_print.pdf|title=Eutrophication and Ocean Acidification|last1=Ramesh|first1=R|last2=Lakshmi|first2=A|date=2013|last3=Purvaja|first3=R|last4=Costanzo|first4=S.D|last5=Kelsey|first5=R.H|last6=Hawkey|first6=J|last7=Datta|first7=A|last8=Dennison|first8=W.C}}</ref>
+The ocean's surface also has the ability to absorb CO<sub>2</sub> from the earth's atmosphere as emissions increase with the rise in urbanization. In fact, it is reported that the ocean absorbs a quarter of the CO<sub>2</sub> produced by humans.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|url=https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/ocean-acidification|title=National Climate Assessment|website=National Climate Assessment|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> This has been useful to the environment by decreasing the harmful effects of greenhouse gases, but also further perpetuates acidification.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Feely|first1=Richard A.|last2=Alin|first2=Simone R.|last3=Newton|first3=Jan|last4=Sabine|first4=Christopher L.|last5=Warner|first5=Mark|last6=Devol|first6=Allan|last7=Krembs|first7=Christopher|last8=Maloy|first8=Carol|date=August 2010|title=The combined effects of ocean acidification, mixing, and respiration on pH and carbonate saturation in an urbanized estuary|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|volume=88|issue=4|pages=442–449|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2010.05.004|issn=0272-7714|bibcode=2010ECSS...88..442F}}</ref> Changes in pH inhibit the proper formation of calcium carbonate, a crucial component for many marine organisms to maintain shells or skeletons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-ocean-acidification|title=Understanding Ocean Acidification {{!}} NOAA Fisheries|last=Fisheries|first=NOAA|date=2018-09-09|website=fisheries.noaa.gov|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":03" /> This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral. Regardless, some species have been able to instead adapt or thrive in a more acidic environment<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification|title=Ocean Acidification|website=Smithsonian Ocean|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref>
+=== Food waste ===
+Rapid growth of communities create new challenges in the developed world and one such challenge is an increase in [[food waste]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thyberg|first1=Krista L.|last2=Tonjes|first2=David J.|date=2016|title=Drivers of food waste and their implications for sustainable policy development|url=https://www.tib.eu/en/search/id/tema:TEMA20151218325/Drivers-of-food-waste-and-their-implications-for/|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling|volume=106|pages=110–123|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.11.016|issn=0921-3449}}</ref> also known as urban food waste.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=24696|title=Article: "Urban Food Waste generation: challenges and opportunities" Journal: Int. J. of Environment and Waste Management, 2009 Vol.3 No.1/2 pp.4 - 21 Abstract: Greater economic activity and a wider economic gap between rural and urban areas is leading to accelerated urbanisation and the generation of 35% more Urban Food Waste (UFW) from 2007 to 2025. Besides landfilling, this paper examines the advantages of introducing onsite composting and anaerobic digestion for the environmental recycling of UFW and the lowering of handling cost. For Asia and Africa, these solutions for UFW could reduce the mass of MSW by 43% and 55%, respectively, thus help there cities manage almost all of their MSW. For North America and Europe, such practice could reduce earth warming trends. - Inderscience Publishers - linking academia, business and industry through research|website=inderscience.com|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Adhikari|first1=Bijaya K.|last2=Barrington|first2=Suzelle|last3=Martinez|first3=José|date=October 2006|title=Predicted growth of world urban food waste and methane production|journal=Waste Management & Research|volume=24|issue=5|pages=421–433|doi=10.1177/0734242X06067767|issn=0734-242X|pmid=17121114|s2cid=34299202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Adhikari|first1=Bijaya K.|last2=Barrington|first2=Suzelle F.|last3=Martinez|first3=Jose|date=2009|title=Urban Food Waste generation: challenges and opportunities|journal=International Journal of Environment and Waste Management|volume=3|issue=1/2|pages=4|doi=10.1504/ijewm.2009.024696|issn=1478-9876|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00615443/file/RE2009-PUB00026234.pdf}}</ref> Food waste is the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase production of [[methane]] gases and attraction of [[Vector (epidemiology)|disease vectors]].<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases|title=Vector-borne diseases|website=World Health Organization|access-date=2018-10-19}}</ref> Landfills are the third leading cause of the release of methane,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases#methane|title=Overview of Greenhouse Gases {{!}} US EPA|last=EPA,OA|first=US|website=US EPA|access-date=2018-10-16|date=2015-12-23}}</ref> causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater potential of disease spreading to humans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Venkateswaran|first=Sandhya|date=1994|title=Managing Waste: Ecological, Economic and Social Dimensions|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=29|issue=45/46|pages=2907–2911|jstor=4401996}}</ref>
+Waste management systems vary on all scales from global to local and can also be influenced by lifestyle. Waste management was not a primary concern until after the Industrial Revolution. As urban areas continued to grow along with the human population, proper management of solid waste became an apparent concern. To address these concerns, local governments sought solutions with the lowest economic impacts which meant implementing technical solutions at the very last stage of the process.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Bai|first=Xuemei|last2=McPhearson|first2=Timon|last3=Cleugh|first3=Helen|last4=Nagendra|first4=Harini|last5=Tong|first5=Xin|last6=Zhu|first6=Tong|last7=Zhu|first7=Yong-Guan|date=2017-10-17|title=Linking Urbanization and the Environment: Conceptual and Empirical Advances|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|language=en|volume=42|issue=1|pages=215–240|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128|issn=1543-5938}}</ref> Current waste management reflects these economically motivated solutions, such as incineration or unregulated landfills. Yet, a growing increase for addressing other areas of life cycle consumption has occurred from initial stage reduction to heat recovery and recycling of materials.<ref name=":9" /> For example, concerns for mass consumption and fast fashion have moved to the forefront of the urban consumers’ priorities. Aside from environmental concerns (ex. climate change effects), other urban concerns for waste management are public health and land access.
+=== Habitat fragmentation ===
+Urbanization can have a large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby alienation of species, a process known as [[habitat fragmentation]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Urbanization, habitat loss, biodiversity decline: solution pathways to break the cycle |last1=Elmqvist |first1=Thomas |last2=Zipperer |first2=Wayne |last3=Güneralp |first3=Burak|year=2016|pages=139–151|chapter=10}}</ref> Habitat fragmentation does not destroy the habitat, as seen in [[habitat loss]], but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and railways<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu Z, He C, Wu J | title = The Relationship between Habitat Loss and Fragmentation during Urbanization: An Empirical Evaluation from 16 World Cities | journal = PLOS One| volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = e0154613 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27124180 | pmc = 4849762 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0154613 | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1154613L | doi-access = free }}</ref> This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from predation<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1676/04-038|title = Nest Survival Relative to Patch Size in a Highly Fragmented Shortgrass Prairie Landscape|journal = The Wilson Bulletin|volume = 117|pages = 23–34|year = 2005|last1 = Skagen|first1 = Susan K.|last2 = Yackel Adams|first2 = Amy A.|last3 = Adams|first3 = Rod D.|s2cid = 85173365|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/210478}}</ref> With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding corridors that aid in the connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized regions.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}
+Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKinney|first=Michael L.|date=2008-01-29|title=Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals|journal=Urban Ecosystems|volume=11|issue=2|pages=161–176|doi=10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4|s2cid=23353943|issn=1083-8155}}</ref> This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lundkvist|first1=E.|last2=Landin|first2=J.|last3=Karlsson|first3=F.|title= Dispersing diving beetles (Dytiscidae) in agricultural and urban landscapes in south-eastern Sweden |journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici |year=2002 }}</ref> The more urbanized the surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liao|first1=W.|last2=Venn|first2=S.|last3=Niemelä|first3=J.|title=Environmental determinants of diving beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) in an urban landscape|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|year=2020|doi=10.1007/s10531-020-01977-9|doi-access=free|volume=29|issue=7|pages=2343–2359}}</ref> Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKinney|first=Michael|date=October 2002|title=Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation|journal=BioScience|volume=52|issue=10|pages=883|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref>