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upon them. The Charans, who could not devote themselves to intellectual pursuits, took to trade. They also protected merchants and
upon them. The Charans, who could not devote themselves to intellectual pursuits, took to trade. They also protected merchants and
travellers passing through desolate regions and forests."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=Yashaswini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VawSEAAAQBAJ|title=The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback|date=2021-01-22|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-93-89109-92-4|pages=235|language=en|quote="Charans were poets"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Saurabh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZyoCgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Politics of Water Conservation: Delivering Development in Rural Rajasthan, India|date=2015-10-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-21392-7|pages=42|language=en|quote="Sharma (ibid) argues that the ex-Zamindars (or landlords) who own big landholdings even today are influential but those who do not retain it are not only less influential but have also slid down the scale of status hierarchy. The families most affected by this belong to the Rajputs, Jats, Charans and Brahmins (all traditionally powerful caste groups)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Matheson|first=Sylvia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCVuAAAAMAAJ|title=Rajasthan, Land of Kings|date=1984|publisher=Vendome Press|isbn=978-0-86565-046-6|language=en}}</ref>
travellers passing through desolate regions and forests."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=Yashaswini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VawSEAAAQBAJ|title=The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback|date=2021-01-22|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-93-89109-92-4|pages=235|language=en|quote="Charans were poets"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Saurabh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZyoCgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Politics of Water Conservation: Delivering Development in Rural Rajasthan, India|date=2015-10-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-21392-7|pages=42|language=en|quote="Sharma (ibid) argues that the ex-Zamindars (or landlords) who own big landholdings even today are influential but those who do not retain it are not only less influential but have also slid down the scale of status hierarchy. The families most affected by this belong to the Rajputs, Jats, Charans and Brahmins (all traditionally powerful caste groups)."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Matheson|first=Sylvia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCVuAAAAMAAJ|title=Rajasthan, Land of Kings|date=1984|publisher=Vendome Press|isbn=978-0-86565-046-6|language=en}}</ref>
Charans are considered an ancient and sacred race mentioned in the Hindu scriptures & epics such as [[Yajurveda]], [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]],etc. It was considered sinful to shed the blood of a Charan or cause it to be shed.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Commissioner|first=India Census|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7UptQEACAAJ|title=Census of India, 1901, Volume 25, Parts 1-2|date=2018-02-22|publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC|isbn=978-1-378-47136-4|language=en}}</ref>
Charans fought in battles alongside [[Rajput|Rajputs]] and encouraged them to fight valiantly with honour. Those who survived, composed poems in the memory of their fallen friends and heroes.{{cn|date=September 2021}} Charans were awarded [[jagir]](fief) by rulers in return for their services and were known as [[Thakur (title)|thakur]]/jagirdar(feudal class).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Patel|first=Tulsi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RiwTAQAAIAAJ|title=Fertility Behaviour: Population and Society in a Rajasthan Village|date=2006-11-30|publisher=OUP India|isbn=978-0-19-568706-4|language=en|quote="Kalan was a khalsa (ryotwari) and Khurd a jagir village. The jagir was held by members ofthe Charan caste. After 1952, it was converted, like many other jagir villages in the region, into a khalsa village.... A street or ward is named after the caste numerically dominant in it. For instance, there is Charan vah.... Upper Brahmin, Bania, Charan, Rajput... Vegetarianism and teetotalism are ranked as superior attributes of a caste. By this criterion most ofthe vegetarian castes enjoy a high rank while the non-vegetarian castes belong to the lower category, except Charan and Rajput who belong to the highest category, despite being non-vegetarian and non-teetotaler. The non-vegetarianism of Charan and Rajput has, however, one connotation while that of the lower castes has another. The Bhambi, Bhangi and Sargara eat carrion, which Charan and Rajput do not. True to their martial tradition, they occasionally hunt animals and birds for food. Ritual defilement through alcohol and non-vegetarian food among the Charan and Rajput is considered temporary as against permanent ritual defilement ofthe untouchables....The abolition of the feudal land tenure system of jagirdari in 1952 has adversely affected the dominance ofthe upper castes, especially Charans and Rajputs....although the Charans and Rajputs have lost their old feudal rights and privileges, they continue to hold large tracts of land...Charans and Rajputs continue to be dominant also due to their access to formal education and consequent naukri...}}</ref> Charans primarily worship '[[Shakti]]' in the form of [[Hinglaj Mata mandir|Hinglaj]] and her ''[[Avatar|avatars]]''(reincarnations) as divine Charan women<ref name=":1" /> such as Awad Mata, [[Tanot Mata|Tanot Rai]], [[Karni Mata]], [[Khodiyar|Aai Khodiyar]], Deval Mata, [[Bahuchara Mata]], etc. Due to this, they are also known as '''Deviputras''<nowiki/>'(children of the Goddess).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tambs-Lyche|first=Harald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOsrDwAAQBAJ|title=Transaction and Hierarchy: Elements for a Theory of Caste|date=2017-08-09|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-39396-6|language=en|quote="...the murder of a Charan was as much a sacrilege as that of a Brahmin...This status led to a number of other roles, such as envoys to the enemy in wartime, or protectors of trade caravans...Charan bards received lands in jagir for their services, and in parts of Marwar, certain Charan families were effectively Darbars...all the goddesses of the area are deified Charan women...the Charani goddess creates and protects kingdoms and chiefs, looks after individual destiny, and protects the dharmic world order, often metonymized as the chastity of women. The king who runs after women not allowed to him, is destroyed by the Goddess’ terrible vengeance, whether she appears as a lion and gobbles him up on the spot or changes the course of the Indus to convert his kingdom into a desert... the Charans, known as Deviputra, children of the goddess, occupy a pivotal position in traditional society...The cult of the Goddess had no need for Brahmin priesthood: far more important as mediators between the Goddess and the king were the Charan...In the old Rajput world, the Charan bard was the arbiter of morals and honour...For medieval Rajputs, the link went through the Charan to the Goddess, with no need for Brahmin mediation..."}}</ref>
Charan poets developed an unique literary language(style) to use in their literature known as [[Dingal]](Old Western Rajasthani), which became the literary court language in the regions of [[Rajasthan]], [[Kutch district|Kutch]], [[Gujarat]], [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]], and [[Malwa]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Jr|first=Dr Cecil Thomas Ault|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9kYiDgAAQBAJ|title=Folk Theatre of Rajasthan: Introducing Three Marwari Khyal Plays Translated into English|date=2017-02-09|publisher=Partridge Publishing|isbn=978-1-4828-8816-4|language=en|quote="...It became an independent language around the fifteenth century, eventually becoming the poetic language of the Rajputs, particularly the Charans who became the most important literary force in Rajputana..."}}</ref>
== Origins & Mythology ==
Charan lineages have been traced to the Charan-Rishis/Munis of the Hindu-epic [[Mahabharata]], in which it is mentioned that the Charans looked after [[Pandu|Raja Pandu]] during his stay in the Himalayan region "Land of Charans". And after his death, Charans took it upon themselves to safely deliver [[Kunti]] and her sons to [[Dhritarashtra]], ruler of [[Hastinapur]] and brother of [[Pandu]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kamphorst|first=Janet|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10314656|title=In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|date=2008|publisher=Leiden University Press|isbn=978-90-485-0603-3|location=Leiden|oclc=614596834|quote="...Various myth-histories relate Charan ancestry to classical traditions, Sanskritic gods and mythical and/or historical abodes in the Himalayas...The Maru Charan of Marwar, for example, relate their ancestry to semi-divine beings or spirit-beings like the half-divine Siddhas of Vedic lore and Puranic Sutas who used to eulogize the gods and allegedly became demi-gods themselves...Maru and other Charan lineages have also been traced to Charan Munis of the Mahābhārat, of whom it is said that they looked after Raja Pandu when he stayed in the “Land of Charans” and who, after Pandu’s demise, accompanied his queen and son on their way to Dhritarashtra in Hastinapur. Other comparable tales relate Charan ancestry to the semi-divine DevCharan of Mount Sumeru. One such tale records how the Dev-Charan are thought to have left Mount Sumeru due to the increase in members of the divine populace, which caused several groups of divine and semi-divine origin to move elsewhere..."}}</ref>
Other tales in Puranic texts relate ancestry of ''deva''-Charan(divine Charans) to Mount Sumer from where they left due to increase in members of 'divine populace'.<ref name=":4" />
== Shrimad Bhagavata Gita ==
[[File:Śrīmad Bhāgavatam (3.10.28 - 29).png|alt=The creation of the demigods|thumb|The creation of the demigods]]
The creation of eight demi-gods, including Charans, is described in [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavata Gita]] as:<blockquote>''deva-sargaś cāṣṭa-vidho vibudhāḥ pitaro 'surāḥ''
''gandharvāpsarasaḥ siddhā yakṣa-rakṣāṁsi '''cāraṇāḥ'''''
''bhūta-preta-piśācāś ca vidyādhrāḥ kinnarādayaḥ''
''daśaite vidurākhyātāḥ sargās te viśva-sṛk-kṛtāḥ''
''—Srimad Bhagvata Purana''(Third Canto, Chapter 10, verses 27-28)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Srimad Bhagavatam in Sanskrit|url=https://bhagavata.org/downloads/SB-Sanskrit/SB-Sanskrit3a.html|access-date=2022-01-02|website=bhagavata.org}}</ref></blockquote>Translation: The creation of the demigods(semi-divine races) is of eight varieties: (1) the vibudha, or sel-realized souls, (2) the forefathers, (3) the [[Asura|asuras]], or demons, (4) the [[Gandharva|Gandharvas]] and [[Apsara|Apsaras]], or angels, (5) the [[Yaksha|Yaksas]] and [[Rakshasa|Raksasas]], (6) the Siddhas, '''Chāraṇas''' and Vidyadharas, (7) the [[Mahābhūta|Bhutas]], [[Preta|Pretas]] and [[Pishacha|Pisacas]], and (8) the superhuman beings, celestial singers, etc. All are created by [[Brahma]], the creator of the universe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SB 3.10.28-29 - Vanisource|url=https://vanisource.org/wiki/SB_3.10.28-29?hl=C%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87as|access-date=2022-01-02|website=vanisource.org}}</ref>
Charans are a celestial race of human beings along with others like Gandharvas, Apsaras, etc.<blockquote>Varieties of birds are indications of His masterful artistic sense. [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the father of mankind, is the emblem of His standard intelligence, and humanity is His residence. The celestial species of human beings, like the Gandharvas, Vidyādharas, '''Cāraṇas''' and angels, all represent His musical rhythm, and the demoniac soldiers are representations of His wonderful prowess.
''—Srimad Bhagvata Purana''(Second Canto, Chapter 1, verses 36)<ref>{{Cite web|title=SB 2.1.36 - Vanisource|url=https://vanisource.org/wiki/SB_2.1.36?hl=C%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87as|access-date=2022-01-02|website=vanisource.org}}</ref></blockquote>
== Recorded Beliefs of Origin ==
=== Ain-i-Akbari ===
In the 16th century text [[Ain-i-Akbari]], the Persian historian [[Abul Fazl]] states that the Charans were created by Lord [[Shiva]](Mahadeva). Shiva brought into life a man and gave him the charge of his bull Nandi. The man spoke in rhythmic sentences, sang the praises of the divine, and revealed the past and the future. His descendants are known by his name as Charan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mubārak|first=Abū al-Faz̤l ibn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ07AQAAMAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=The Ain i Akbari|date=1993|publisher=Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften|language=en|quote=In the ninth district is the Cháran tribe. Mahadeva formed a man from the sweat of his brow and gave him the charge of his own bull. Ho spoke in rhythmic sentences and sang the divine praises and revealed the past and the future. His descendants are known by his name. They chiefly recite panegyrics and gonealogies and in battle chant deeds of valour and animate the warriors and some of them revoal future events....This district farnishes 500 horse and 4,000 foot....that the Chárans were called into life by the mere volition of the divinity}}</ref>
Another origin myth given in the text is "Charans were brought into life by the mere volition of the divinity."<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=Yashaswini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VawSEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback|date=2021-01-22|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-93-89109-92-4|language=en|quote=According to the Mughal gazetteer Ain-i Akbari, cited in relation to Gujarat, the progenitor of the Charans, ‘spoke in rhythmic sentences and sang the divine praises and revealed the past and the future. [His descendants] chiefly recite panegyrics and genealogies and in battle chant deeds of valour and animate the warriors’. However, they were not just supposed to eulogize the Rajputs, but also display moral courage and hold a mirror to those of their patrons who strayed from the righteous path, as they saw it.}}</ref>
The text also mentions that Charans were good [[Poet|poets]] and "better [[Swordsmanship|swordsmen]]".<ref name=":6" />
=== Report Mardumshumari 1891 ===
In another variation, Charans were created to herd & protect the celestial bull of Shiva, Nandi, from the lion of the Goddess [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]](Parvati). The bold Charan managed to protect Nandi, so pleased by his devotion, the Goddess Sati granted him a unique position encompassing all three qualities of the Charan: the priestly feature of devotion, the bold fearlessness, and the dexterity with herds.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kothiyal|first=Tanuja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQS-DAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert|date=2016-03-14|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-67389-8|language=en}}</ref>
=== Charan origin in Bombay Gazeteer ===
Another origin story about Charans states that the first Charan was created by Lord Shiva to tend four [[Animal|animals]] of opposite dispositions: a [[lion]], a [[Snake|serpent]], a [[Cattle|cow]], and a [[goat]]. The lion attacked the cow; the serpent attacked the goat, but the Charan quieted them by offering some of the [[flesh]] of his own arm and he brought the four beings safe back.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cutch|first=Palanpur|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106191|title=Gazetteer Of The Bombay Presidency Vol-v|date=1880}}</ref>
== Promise of the Goddess ==
Source:<ref>{{Cite web|title=The sons of a goddess – The Mythology Project|url=https://themythologyproject.com/the-sons-of-a-goddess/|access-date=2022-01-02|language=en-US}}</ref>
Charans were one of the ''ganas'' of [[Shiva]]. Once the wife of Shiva, [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]], was attending a grand ''[[Yajna]]'' organized by her father, King [[Daksha]]. She attended against Shiva's wishes. Aggrieved that Shiva was not invited, she questioned her father, at which Daksha said insulting words for her husband Shiva. Sati threw herself in the same fire that was kindled for the ''Yajna''.
Learning of the events of Sati's [[self-immolation]], the grief-stricken Shiva banished the ganas, that is, the Charans who were sent along with Sati. Charans ceased to be [[Immortality|immortal]] and were banished to Earth to live among the mortals. The Charans pleaded with mother Sati, fell at her lifeless body, and lamented. At this point, Sati appeared before the Charans and stated that the curse of Shiva would have to be borne. They would have to leave heaven and live on Earth. But, Sati said, that since she is responsible for this outcome, she promises to be born in the Charan community as one of their own whenever she incarnates as a human.
Due to this blessing of the Goddess, there have been numerous ''Sagatis''(mother-goddesses) among Charans including [[Hinglaj Mata mandir|Hinglaj]], Avad Mata, Khodiyar Mata, and [[Karni Mata]]. Ever since Charans have been referred to as '''Devi-Putra''<nowiki/>' or the 'sons of the goddess'.
Afterward, wherever the pieces of Sati's body fell on Earth, the places were considered divine & sacred as the [[Shakti Pitha|Shaktipeeth]] of the Goddess. The place where Sati's head fell came to be known as Hinglaj around which Charan clans lived. This region later came under Islamic influence and the local population of Charans converted but remained faithful to Hinglaj.
Since Shiva created the Charans, they have also been called "the Children of Shiva".<ref>{{Cite web|title=India: the children of Shiva|url=https://www.easyvoyage.co.uk/report/india-the-children-of-shiva/the-reincarnation-of-the-charans-392|access-date=2022-01-02|website=Easyvoyage|language=en}}</ref>
== Ancient Era ==
Charans find a multitude of references in the ancient epics of India including Valmiki Ramayan, Mahabharata, and Puranas. These provide the places or locations associated with Charans and their significant role in the progression of these epics.
== Valmiki Ramayana ==
Among the multitude of mentions of Charans in the Valmiki Ramayan, which narrates the story of Hindu God, Shri Ram Chandra, few important ones:
=== Progenitors of Vanaras ===
Commanded by Brahma, Charans along with other celestial races fathered the race of vanaras to aid Lord Rama in annihilating Ravana.<blockquote>The great-souled rishis, the siddhas, the vidyadharas, and the '''''Charana''s''' created brave sons who roamed around in the forest. They created many thousand, who would rise up to slay Dashagriva. They were brave and valiant, immeasurable in strength. They swiftly took birth as rikshas, vanaras and ''gopuchchha''s.
—Valmiki Ramayan(Bala Kand, Sarga-17, Sholka-9)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Debroy|first=Bibek|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orU8DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=The Valmiki Ramayana: Vol. 1|date=2017-10-25|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-87326-26-2|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>
=== Charans living in Himalayas ===
Sage Gautam after cursing his wife Ahalya leaves for peaks of the Himalyas where Charans are said to reside.<blockquote>Highly powerful Gautama who had performed rigid austerities thus cursed the wicked Ahalya and left this hermitage, for the peaks of Himavat mountain served by siddhas and '''Charanas'''. Here he performed austerities —Valmiki Ramayana(Bala Kand, Sarga-48, Shloka-33)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Content {{!}} Valmiki Ramayanam|url=https://www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in/content?field_kanda_tid=1&language=dv&field_sarga_value=48&field_sloka_value=33&enable_contplay=1&sckt=1&scgr=1&scty=1&scaa=1&scmt=1&scnb=1&scss=1&|access-date=2022-01-03|website=www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in}}</ref></blockquote>
=== Paths travelled by Charanas ===
Hanuman travels along the routes which are used by the Charans in order to find Sita who was abducted by Ravana.<blockquote>Then Hanuman, the vanquisher of foes, desired to search along the route frequented by the '''Charanas''' for the place where Sita, carried off by Ravana, was. —Valmiki Ramayan(Sundar Kand, Sarga-1, Sholka-1)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sastri|first=P. p s Tr|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.21755|title=Valmiki Ramayana|date=1935}}</ref></blockquote>
== Mahabharata ==
=== Apsara on the path of Charans ===
The Apsara, after giving birth to Satyavati, went on the path trodden by Rishis and Charans.<blockquote>Then, according to these words, having given birth to the two children, and been killed by the fishermen, she left her fishform and assumed her own celestial shape. The Apsara then rose up on the path trodden by the Siddhas, the Rishis and the Charanas.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-57, Verse-53)<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Vyasa|first=Krishna-Dwaipayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=anomAwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=THE MAHABHARATA of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa: Complete 18 Parvas|date=2014-03-25|publisher=Darryl Morris|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>
=== King Shantanu encounters Charans ===
King Shantanu comes to a place frequented by Charans while hunting at the banks of Ganga.<blockquote>King Shantanu was intelligent and became a famous archer on earth. He loved hunting and spent a lot of time in the forest. Once, that best of kings killed many deer and buffaloes. Wandering alone along the banks of the Ganga, he came to a place frequented by the Siddhas and the Charanas.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-92, Verse-25)<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VziP-_XUT8C&newbks=0&hl=en|title=The Mahabharata: Volume 1|date=2015-06-01|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-388-2|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>
=== Charans with the Kurus ===
Describing their prosporous reign in relation to their northern brethren, Southern Kurus are shown living with the Charans in their kingdom.<blockquote>And the southern Kurus, in their virtuous rivalry with their northern kinsmen, walked about in the company of Siddhas and Charanas and Rishis.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-109, Verse-10)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>
=== King Pandu lives among Charans ===
King Pandu, accompanied by his two wives, went on to the mountains of Himalayas. He travelled to Chaitraratha, and then crossed the Kalakuta, and finally, crossing the Himavat, he arrived at Gandhamadana. Protected by Charans and Rishis, Pandu lived an ascetic life. He then journeyed on to Hansakuta, continued to practise ascetic austerities. He becomes favourite of the Charans and soon he is blessed with 5 sons, known as Pandavas.<ref name=":7" /><blockquote>Pandu, possessed of great energy, then devoted himself to asceticism. Within a short time he became the favourite of the whole body of the Siddhas and Charanas residing there.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-120, Verse-1)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>
=== Death of Pandu ===
Some time after the Pandavas were born, Pandu died which was attributed to some curse. Madri commited Sati in grief for her husband, Pandu. Charans & Rishis assembled to decide the next course of action regarding Kunti and her children.<blockquote>Having consulted with each other, those who are engaged in the welfare of all beings decided to go to the city of Nagasahrya(Hastinapur), with Pandu’s sons in front of them. Those generous and accomplished ones decided on the journey, so as to give the Pandavas to Bhishma and Dhritarashtra. As soon as they decided, the ascetics set out at that very moment, with Pandu’s sons and wife and the two bodies.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-124, Verse-1-6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>
=== Arrival at Hastinapur ===
Charan-Munis arrived at Kurujangala in a short time and Kunti identified introduced herself at the main gate. The ascetics then gave the porters orders to notify the king of their arrival. The message was delivered to the court. Citizens of Hastinapur were amazed at the arrival of thousands of Charans along with Rishis to the city.<blockquote>And the citizens of Hastinapura, hearing of the arrival of thousands of Charanas and Munis, were filled with wonder. And it was soon after sunrise that they began to come out in numbers with their wives and children to behold those ascetics. Seated in all kinds of cars and conveyances by thousands, vast numbers of Kshatriyas with their wives, and Brahmanas with theirs came out. And the concourse of Vaisyas and Sudras too was as large on the occasion.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-126, Verse-9-12)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>
=== Address to the Assembly ===
Bhisma, Dritrashtra, and the Kauravas accompanied by their priests assembled before the Charan-Munis, bowed and took their seats. At this, the eldest of the Maharshis from among the Charans & Munis, addressed the assembly & explained the events at Shatashringa. He spoke:<blockquote>King Pandu of the Kuru lineage gave up a life of desire and pleasure and left for Shatashringa. He lived the life of a brahmachari there. But to accomplish the purposes of the gods, this son Yudhishthira was born there from Dharma himself. Then that great-souled king was given another son named Bhima by Matarishva and he is immensely powerful, best among those who are strong. Puruhuta gave Kunti this son. Truth is his strength and his exploits will shadow those of all other great archers. These two sons of Madri are great archers and supreme among those of the Kuru lineage. The illustrious Pandu always lived a life of dharma in the forest and in this way he revived his ancestral lineage. He never deviated from the righteous path. Having left these sons, Pandu has departed for the land of the ancestors seventeen days ago. On seeing him on the funeral pyre and about to be consumed by the face of the fire, Madri entered the fire and gave up her own life. She has followed to the world of her husband. Now perform those rites that should be performed for them. These are the two bodies and here are the supreme sons. Let these scorchers of enemies and their mother be respectfully received with rites of welcome.
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-127, Verse-1-8)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>
=== Departure ===
Having thus delivered Kunti & the Pandavas in the care of Bhisma and Dhritrashtra, Charans along with other Guhyakas departed at once and dissapeared into the horizon.<blockquote>Having thus addressed the Kurus, all the Charanas, Guhyakas, Rishis and Siddhas vanished in an instant before the eyes of the Kurus, like a city of the gandharvas, leading to great amazement.’
—Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-128, Verse-32)<ref name=":8" /> </blockquote>
=== Pandavas meet Charans ===
In course of time, Pandavas are banished from Hastinapur and they roam through the countryside and forests. Once, while they were staying in the hermitage of sage Arshtishena, they met the Charans:<blockquote>Those magnanimous ones passed many months in the hermitage of Arshtishena, witnessing many marvels. And as the Pandavas were sporting there pleasantly, there came to see them some complacent vow-observing Munis and Charanas of high fortune, and pure souls. And those foremost of the Bharata race conversed with them on earthly topics.
—Mahabharata(Van Parva, Chapter-159, Verse-32)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>
=== Charans search for Pandavas ===
During their banishment & the condition of non-discovery, Pandavas became scarce & hard to find. It was decided that the learned Charans and Brahmins were to be sent in order to locate Pandavas.<blockquote>Heroic and sinless and possessed of ascetic merit, the Pandavas are difficult to be discovered (within the period of non-discovery). Intelligent and possessed of every virtue, devoted to truth and versed in the principles of policy, endued with purity and holiness, and the embodiment of immeasurable energy, the son of Pritha is capable of consuming (his foes) by a glance alone of his eyes. Knowing all this, do what is proper. Let us, therefore, once more search after them, sending Brahmanas and ''Charanas'', ascetics crowned with success, and others of this kind who may have a knowledge of those heroes!Heroic and sinless and possessed of ascetic merit, the Pandavas are difficult to be discovered (within the period of non-discovery). Intelligent and possessed of every virtue, devoted to truth and versed in the principles of policy, endued with purity and holiness, and the embodiment of immeasurable energy, the son of Pritha is capable of consuming (his foes) by a glance alone of his eyes. Knowing all this, do what is proper. Let us, therefore, once more search after them, sending Brahmanas and ''Charanas'', ascetics crowned with success, and others of this kind who may have a knowledge of those heroes!
—Mahabharata(Virata Parva, Chapter-27, Verse-10-20)<ref>{{Cite web|last=www.wisdomlib.org|date=2014-09-05|title=Section XXVII [Mahabharata, English]|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-mahabharata-mohan/d/doc116944.html|access-date=2022-01-03|website=www.wisdomlib.org|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>
== Arrival in Rajasthan ==
Charans arrived in [[Rajasthan]] in large numbers<ref>{{Cite book|last=Devaṛā|first=Ji. Esa. Ela|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/environmental-crisis-and-social-dismemberment-in-northwest-india-during-the-pre-colonial-period/oclc/859170434|title=Environmental crisis and social dismemberment in Northwest India: during the Pre-Colonial period|date=2012|isbn=978-81-87614-40-1|language=English|oclc=859170434|quote="...The Chroniclers of Sind associate such incidents with the fall of local Sumra and Sama dynasties that succeeded after the fall of Arab regime. A good number of historical tales of Sind elaborate that the tyrannical and unjust rule of these local dynasties offended the river goddess. Hence she decided to move from her original path and flow in another direction. Rajasthani tales related to the incidents of Awad or Karni Shakti or goddess worship also support such occurrences. Oppressive regimes and growing desiccation probably compelled a large number of people from the Charan community to migrate from Sind to Rajasthan..."}}</ref> from [[Sindh]] during 8-9th century AD due to political tensions arising from the rise of [[Islam]] in [[Sindh]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tambs-Lyche|first=Harald|title=Between the Desert and the Sown: Pastoralists of Western India through the Centuries |url=https://www.academia.edu/29734173}}</ref> They are supposed to be led by Goddess Avad who killed Sumra around 800 A.D., the Islamic ruler of Sindh, and other Muslim rulers in a series of battles from Sindh to modern-day Rajasthan .<ref name=":4" />
== Social structure ==
Members of the caste are considered to be divine by a large section of society. Women of the caste are adored as mother goddesses by other major communities of this region including, [[Khatris]] and [[Rajput|Rajputs]].<ref name="Shah">{{cite journal|last1=Shah |first1=A. M. |last2=Shroff |first2=R. G. |title=The Vahivanca Barots of Gujarat: A Caste of Genealogists and Mythographers |journal=Journal of American Folk-Lore |volume=71 |issue=281 |pages=246–276 |year=1958| doi=10.2307/538561| jstor= 538561 }}</ref> For centuries, Charans were known for their reputation of preferring to die rather than break a promise.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Caran |title=Cāraṇ, Hindu caste |website=Britannica.com}}</ref>
A Charan will consider all the other Charans as equal even if they do not know each other and have radically different economic or geographic status.<ref name="Thomson">{{cite journal|author=Thomson, G. R.|title=Charans of Gujarat: Caste Identity, Music and Cultural Change|journal= Ethnomusicology| volume=35| issue=3| pages=381–391|year=1991|doi=10.2307/851968|jstor=851968}}</ref>
Charan men are also known as the sacrosanct guides of camel and pack oxen and carvans through Thar desert and as traders in horses, wool and salts , suppliers of food and [[Weapon|weaponry]] to armies.<ref>{{Cite thesis|url=https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12986|title=In praise of death : history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|first=J.|last=Kamphorst|date=June 18, 2008|publisher=Leiden University|hdl=1887/12986|via=scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl}}</ref>
Anil Chandra Banerjee, a professor of history, has said that {{quote|In them we have a combination of the traditional characteristics of the Brahmin and the Kshatriyas. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti and engaged in military activities. They stood at the front gate of the fort to receive the first blow of the sword.<ref name="Banerjee">{{cite book |last=Banerjee |first=Anil Chandra.|title=Aspects of Rajput State and Society |pages=124–125 |year=1983|oclc = 12236372}}</ref>}} Banerjee's opinion is shared by another historian, G. N. Sharma, who said that {{quote|Charans exercise great respectability and influence in Rajasthan. The speciality of the caste is that it combines in its character the characteristics of Rajputs and Brahmans in an adequate manner.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sharma |first=G. N. |title =Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan |publisher=Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher |place=Agra |page=111 |year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.120777/2015.120777.Social-Life-In-Medieval-Rajasthan-1500-1800-A-D#page/n109/mode/2up}}</ref>}}
=== Clans ===
Charans have mainly 2 endogamous sections in India: Maru Charan(those from [[Rajasthan]]) and Kachela Charan(those from [[Gujarat]])<ref name=":1" />
Major clans among Maru-Charans are Rohariya, Detha, Ratnoo, Ashiya,Mehru,Kiniya, and Arha. Kachelas are divided into 7 main exogamous clans: Nara, Chorada, Chana, Avsura, Maru, Bati, and Tumbel.<ref name=":1" />
== Customs and Traditions ==
In Rajasthani society, widow remarriage was forbidden in high castes such as Charans, [[Rajput|Rajputs]], and [[Brahmin|Brahmins]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hunter|first=William Wilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8tAOzgEACAAJ|title=The Imperial Gazetteer Of India (Volume Xxi) Pushkar To Salween|date=2020-11-19|publisher=Alpha Editions|isbn=978-93-5421-782-1|language=en}}</ref> The practice of [[Purdah|''purdah'']] is strictly observed in Charan community.<ref name=":1" />
=== Mode of Greeting ===
Charan and Rajput men greet each other by saying '''Jai Mataji Ki''<nowiki/>'(Victory to the Mother Goddess).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Nagaur|url=http://www.indianculture.gov.in/gazettes/rajasthan-district-gazetteers-nagaur|access-date=2021-09-18|website=INDIAN CULTURE|language=en}}</ref>
=== Inheritance ===
One of the Charan customs where they differ from Rajputs is in their laws of [[inheritance]]. '''Charania Bunt''<nowiki/>', as it is popularily known, indicates the equal division of the land among the sons whereas in Rajputs, a major portion of the land is given to the elder son.<ref name=":1" />
=== Food and drink ===
Charans used to enjoy consumption of [[opium]] (also known as Afeem in regional languages), practices which are also popular among the Rajputs of this region. But unlike Rajputs, Charan women do not consume liquor. <ref name="khushwantsingh">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=We Indians|publisher=Orient Paperbacks |location=Delhi |year=1982 |oclc=10710940}}</ref> Charans do not eat the flesh of cows, and hold those who do in utter disregard. Cows are respected like mothers. Before Indian independence in 1947, a sacrifice of a male buffalo constituted a major part of the celebration of [[Navratri]].<ref name="harlan">{{cite book | author = Harlan L |title =Goddesses' Henchmen - Gender in Hero Worship |publisher = Oxford University Press |place = USA |pages =258| year = 2003}}</ref> Such celebrations quite often used to be presided over by Charan woman.<ref name=Matanamadh>{{cite web
|url=http://www.matanamadh.org/history.html
|title=Matanamadh, Desh Devi Ashapura
|access-date=2006-12-23
|publisher=Matanamadh Jagir, Kachchh, India
|year=2006
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5QwfGajJD?url=http://www.matanamadh.org/history.html
|archive-date=2007-08-08}}</ref>
=== Opium Consumption ===
In the 'First Report of the Royal Commission on Opium' in [[Rajputana]], Charans were found to be among the topmost opium consuming community in accordance with their [[Feudalism|feudal]] standing.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Opium|first=Great Britain Royal Commission on|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I7U-AQAAMAAJ|title=First Report of the Royal Commission on Opium: With Minutes of Evidence and Appendices|date=1895|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office|language=en}}</ref>
The occasions on which it was considered obligatory to take opium were:<ref name=":5" />
# Betrothals.
# Weddings.
# The visit of a son-in law to his father-in-law's house.
# After a death, for 12 days by Rajputs and Charans, and for the same or lesser periods by other castes.
# On the birth of a male child among Rajputs and Charans.
# First removal of hair of a male child among Rajputs and Charans.
# On the parting (or shaving in the middle) of the beard by Rajputs and Charans.
# On the '''Akhatij''<nowiki/>' festival.
# On reconciliations. It is also considered the right thing to do at other festivals, friendly greetings, and on certain days at the temples.
=== Navratra ===
In pre-independence India, royal Navratra celebrations in Rajput kingdoms were presided by a Charan women, considered as an ''avatar'' of Shakti, while a Rajput carried out the task of killing the sacrificial animal.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Berger|first1=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQF5-d9BMqcC|title=The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory|last2=Heidemann|first2=Frank|date=2013-06-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-06118-1|language=en}}</ref>


== Historical Occupations ==
== Historical Occupations ==
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=== Horse Trade ===
=== Horse Trade ===
[[Horse trading|Horse trade]] was one of the prominent occupations of Charans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Jansen|first1=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GLJkAAAAMAAJ|title=Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents|last2=Maier|first2=Hendrik M. J.|date=2004|publisher=Lit|isbn=978-3-8258-6758-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Deva|first=B. Chaitanya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11bjCwAAQBAJ|title=INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN MUSIC|date=1992|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|isbn=978-81-230-2103-4|language=en}}</ref> Some Charan sub-groups like Kachela Charans(from [[Kutch district|Kutch]] & [[Sindh]]) and Sorathia Charans(from [[Kathiawar]]) were historically engaged in horse breeding & trading.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtUSAQAAMAAJ|title=Social Scientist|date=2005|publisher=Indian School of Social Sciences.|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dutson|first=Judith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PS6zop4lVSUC|title=Storey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America|date=2012-05-07|publisher=Storey Publishing|isbn=978-1-60342-918-4|language=en}}</ref> The common connection of horses also led to bonds between Charans & the [[Kathi people|Kathi]] tribe. Some Kuchela Charans settled around Mallani([[Barmer district|Barmer]], Rajasthan) in western [[Rajasthan]] which was notable for its horse-breeding. [[Marwari horse|Marwari horses]] from this area came to be known as Mallani horses. By the 18th century, most of the horse trade business in the [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]] kingdom was controlled by Charans, besides [[Afghans]]. Charan horse dealers were considered to be very well networked. In another example of the clout of horse-trading Charans, a Charan from the Kachela subgroup arrived at the court of [[Marwar]] ruler, [[Takht Singh|Maharaja Takhat Singh]], under the auspices of the sect leader of [[Nath|Nath Sampradaya]], and marketed his horses, with 10 horses being directly purchased by the ruler himself. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamphorst|first=Janet|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10314656|title=In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|date=2008|publisher=Leiden University Press|isbn=978-90-485-0603-3|location=Leiden|oclc=614596834}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Saxena|first=Rajendra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRbtAAAAMAAJ|title=Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana|date=2002|publisher=Publication Scheme|isbn=978-81-86782-75-0|language=en}}</ref>
[[Horse trading|Horse trade]] was one of the prominent occupations of Charans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Jansen|first1=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GLJkAAAAMAAJ|title=Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents|last2=Maier|first2=Hendrik M. J.|date=2004|publisher=Lit|isbn=978-3-8258-6758-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Deva|first=B. Chaitanya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11bjCwAAQBAJ|title=INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN MUSIC|date=1992|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|isbn=978-81-230-2103-4|language=en}}</ref> Some Charan sub-groups like Kachela Charans(from [[Kutch district|Kutch]] & [[Sindh]]) and Sorathia Charans(from [[Kathiawar]]) were historically engaged in horse breeding & trading.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtUSAQAAMAAJ|title=Social Scientist|date=2005|publisher=Indian School of Social Sciences.|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dutson|first=Judith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PS6zop4lVSUC|title=Storey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America|date=2012-05-07|publisher=Storey Publishing|isbn=978-1-60342-918-4|language=en}}</ref> The common connection of horses also led to bonds between Charans & the [[Kathi people|Kathi]] tribe. Some Kuchela Charans settled around Mallani([[Barmer district|Barmer]], Rajasthan) in western [[Rajasthan]] which was notable for its horse-breeding. [[Marwari horse|Marwari horses]] from this area came to be known as Mallani horses. By the 18th century, most of the horse trade business in the [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]] kingdom was controlled by Charans, besides [[Afghans]]. Charan horse dealers were considered to be very well networked. In another example of the clout of horse-trading Charans, a Charan from the Kachela subgroup arrived at the court of [[Marwar]] ruler, [[Takht Singh|Maharaja Takhat Singh]], under the auspices of the sect leader of [[Nath|Nath Sampradaya]], and marketed his horses, with 10 horses being directly purchased by the ruler himself. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamphorst|first=Janet|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10314656|title=In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia)|date=2008|publisher=Leiden University Press|isbn=978-90-485-0603-3|location=Leiden|oclc=614596834}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Saxena|first=Rajendra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRbtAAAAMAAJ|title=Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana|date=2002|publisher=Publication Scheme|isbn=978-81-86782-75-0|language=en}}</ref>
== Dingal ==
Dingal is a language or poetic medium developed by Charans from [[Rajasthani languages|Old Rajasthani]] around 9-10 CE AD. As Charans themselves became part of court & [[Feudalism|feudal elite]], Dingal became the [[Literary language|literary]] language of the courts and spread throughout [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]], [[Sindh]], [[Malwa]], and [[Kathiawar|Kathiyawad]] region of North-Western India. ''Dingal Bhasha'' and [[Marwari language|Marwari]] are synonymous.<ref name=":3" />


== Contributions to Indian literature ==
== Contributions to Indian literature ==
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Other classifications of Charani sahitya are Khyatas (chronicles), Vartas and Vatas (stories), Raso (martial epics), Veli - ''Veli Krishan Rukman ri'', Doha-Chhand (verses).<ref name="sharma"/><ref name="smith"/>
Other classifications of Charani sahitya are Khyatas (chronicles), Vartas and Vatas (stories), Raso (martial epics), Veli - ''Veli Krishan Rukman ri'', Doha-Chhand (verses).<ref name="sharma"/><ref name="smith"/>
== Modern Era ==
After the [[independence of India]] in 1947 and the establishmeent of [[Democracy|democarcy]], princly states were merged into the Indian Union. Shortly after, in 1952, [[Jagirdar system|jagirdari system]](feudal land tenure system) was abolished by the government of India. This adversaly affected the dominance of upper castes such as Charans(as well as [[Rajput|Rajputs]]) who were a part of feudal class. They no longer held the entirety of village land as ownership was transferred to the communities such as [[Jat people|Jat]] & [[Patel]] who cultivated the land. Gradually, Charans lost their feudal rights and privilages and their dominance declined. <ref name=":2" />Charans as an upper caste group were found to have higher landholding per capita figures relative to other communities.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Agrawal|first1=Arun|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tAduAAAAMAAJ|title=Greener Pastures: Politics, Markets, and Community Among a Migrant Pastoral People|last2=Agrawal|first2=Associate Professor of Political Science Arun|date=1999|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-2233-7|language=en|quote="Brahmins, Rajputs, and Charans, the upper castes, form just 10 percent of the population...The charans and the patels have the highest landholding figures in the village..Although the members of the panchayat are drawn from different castes, charans, patels, and brahmins form a majority in it..."}}</ref>
However, Charans continue to hold large tracts of land themselves and maintain a certain traditional lifestyle. Charan women continue to observe ''[[purdah]]''(customary veil) in addition to ''ghungat''.<ref name=":0" /> Charans use their land for agriculture but do not cultivate themselves but with hired labour. Their dominance, although declined, continues due to adapting to modern education and access to white-collar government jobs.<ref name=":2" />


== References ==
== References ==

Revision as of 01:13, 8 March 2022

The Charans (IAST: Cāraṇ; Sanskrit: चारण; Gujarati: ચારણ; Urdu: ارڈ; IPA: cɑːrəɳə) are a South Asian community natively residing in the Rajasthan and Gujarat states of India, as well as the Sindh and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. Historically, Charans were poets & literateurs, as well as warriors and jagirdars. They specialised in diverse occupations as historians, literateurs, soldiers, pastoralists, agriculturalists, traders, and merchants.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

Charans are considered an ancient and sacred race mentioned in the Hindu scriptures & epics such as Yajurveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata,etc. It was considered sinful to shed the blood of a Charan or cause it to be shed.[11]

Charans fought in battles alongside Rajputs and encouraged them to fight valiantly with honour. Those who survived, composed poems in the memory of their fallen friends and heroes.[citation needed] Charans were awarded jagir(fief) by rulers in return for their services and were known as thakur/jagirdar(feudal class).[12] Charans primarily worship 'Shakti' in the form of Hinglaj and her avatars(reincarnations) as divine Charan women[11] such as Awad Mata, Tanot Rai, Karni Mata, Aai Khodiyar, Deval Mata, Bahuchara Mata, etc. Due to this, they are also known as 'Deviputras'(children of the Goddess).[13]

Charan poets developed an unique literary language(style) to use in their literature known as Dingal(Old Western Rajasthani), which became the literary court language in the regions of Rajasthan, Kutch, Gujarat, Saurashtra, and Malwa.[14]

Origins & Mythology

Charan lineages have been traced to the Charan-Rishis/Munis of the Hindu-epic Mahabharata, in which it is mentioned that the Charans looked after Raja Pandu during his stay in the Himalayan region "Land of Charans". And after his death, Charans took it upon themselves to safely deliver Kunti and her sons to Dhritarashtra, ruler of Hastinapur and brother of Pandu.[15]

Other tales in Puranic texts relate ancestry of deva-Charan(divine Charans) to Mount Sumer from where they left due to increase in members of 'divine populace'.[15]

Shrimad Bhagavata Gita

The creation of the demigods
The creation of the demigods

The creation of eight demi-gods, including Charans, is described in Bhagavata Gita as:

deva-sargaś cāṣṭa-vidho vibudhāḥ pitaro 'surāḥ

gandharvāpsarasaḥ siddhā yakṣa-rakṣāṁsi cāraṇāḥ

bhūta-preta-piśācāś ca vidyādhrāḥ kinnarādayaḥ

daśaite vidurākhyātāḥ sargās te viśva-sṛk-kṛtāḥ

—Srimad Bhagvata Purana(Third Canto, Chapter 10, verses 27-28)[16]

Translation: The creation of the demigods(semi-divine races) is of eight varieties: (1) the vibudha, or sel-realized souls, (2) the forefathers, (3) the asuras, or demons, (4) the Gandharvas and Apsaras, or angels, (5) the Yaksas and Raksasas, (6) the Siddhas, Chāraṇas and Vidyadharas, (7) the Bhutas, Pretas and Pisacas, and (8) the superhuman beings, celestial singers, etc. All are created by Brahma, the creator of the universe.[17] Charans are a celestial race of human beings along with others like Gandharvas, Apsaras, etc.

Varieties of birds are indications of His masterful artistic sense. Manu, the father of mankind, is the emblem of His standard intelligence, and humanity is His residence. The celestial species of human beings, like the Gandharvas, Vidyādharas, Cāraṇas and angels, all represent His musical rhythm, and the demoniac soldiers are representations of His wonderful prowess. —Srimad Bhagvata Purana(Second Canto, Chapter 1, verses 36)[18]

Recorded Beliefs of Origin

Ain-i-Akbari

In the 16th century text Ain-i-Akbari, the Persian historian Abul Fazl states that the Charans were created by Lord Shiva(Mahadeva). Shiva brought into life a man and gave him the charge of his bull Nandi. The man spoke in rhythmic sentences, sang the praises of the divine, and revealed the past and the future. His descendants are known by his name as Charan.[19]

Another origin myth given in the text is "Charans were brought into life by the mere volition of the divinity."[20]

The text also mentions that Charans were good poets and "better swordsmen".[20]

Report Mardumshumari 1891

In another variation, Charans were created to herd & protect the celestial bull of Shiva, Nandi, from the lion of the Goddess Sati(Parvati). The bold Charan managed to protect Nandi, so pleased by his devotion, the Goddess Sati granted him a unique position encompassing all three qualities of the Charan: the priestly feature of devotion, the bold fearlessness, and the dexterity with herds.[21]

Charan origin in Bombay Gazeteer

Another origin story about Charans states that the first Charan was created by Lord Shiva to tend four animals of opposite dispositions: a lion, a serpent, a cow, and a goat. The lion attacked the cow; the serpent attacked the goat, but the Charan quieted them by offering some of the flesh of his own arm and he brought the four beings safe back.[22]

Promise of the Goddess

Source:[23]

Charans were one of the ganas of Shiva. Once the wife of Shiva, Sati, was attending a grand Yajna organized by her father, King Daksha. She attended against Shiva's wishes. Aggrieved that Shiva was not invited, she questioned her father, at which Daksha said insulting words for her husband Shiva. Sati threw herself in the same fire that was kindled for the Yajna.

Learning of the events of Sati's self-immolation, the grief-stricken Shiva banished the ganas, that is, the Charans who were sent along with Sati. Charans ceased to be immortal and were banished to Earth to live among the mortals. The Charans pleaded with mother Sati, fell at her lifeless body, and lamented. At this point, Sati appeared before the Charans and stated that the curse of Shiva would have to be borne. They would have to leave heaven and live on Earth. But, Sati said, that since she is responsible for this outcome, she promises to be born in the Charan community as one of their own whenever she incarnates as a human.

Due to this blessing of the Goddess, there have been numerous Sagatis(mother-goddesses) among Charans including Hinglaj, Avad Mata, Khodiyar Mata, and Karni Mata. Ever since Charans have been referred to as 'Devi-Putra' or the 'sons of the goddess'.

Afterward, wherever the pieces of Sati's body fell on Earth, the places were considered divine & sacred as the Shaktipeeth of the Goddess. The place where Sati's head fell came to be known as Hinglaj around which Charan clans lived. This region later came under Islamic influence and the local population of Charans converted but remained faithful to Hinglaj.

Since Shiva created the Charans, they have also been called "the Children of Shiva".[24]

Ancient Era

Charans find a multitude of references in the ancient epics of India including Valmiki Ramayan, Mahabharata, and Puranas. These provide the places or locations associated with Charans and their significant role in the progression of these epics.

Valmiki Ramayana

Among the multitude of mentions of Charans in the Valmiki Ramayan, which narrates the story of Hindu God, Shri Ram Chandra, few important ones:

Progenitors of Vanaras

Commanded by Brahma, Charans along with other celestial races fathered the race of vanaras to aid Lord Rama in annihilating Ravana.

The great-souled rishis, the siddhas, the vidyadharas, and the Charanas created brave sons who roamed around in the forest. They created many thousand, who would rise up to slay Dashagriva. They were brave and valiant, immeasurable in strength. They swiftly took birth as rikshas, vanaras and gopuchchhas. —Valmiki Ramayan(Bala Kand, Sarga-17, Sholka-9)[25]

Charans living in Himalayas

Sage Gautam after cursing his wife Ahalya leaves for peaks of the Himalyas where Charans are said to reside.

Highly powerful Gautama who had performed rigid austerities thus cursed the wicked Ahalya and left this hermitage, for the peaks of Himavat mountain served by siddhas and Charanas. Here he performed austerities —Valmiki Ramayana(Bala Kand, Sarga-48, Shloka-33)[26]

Paths travelled by Charanas

Hanuman travels along the routes which are used by the Charans in order to find Sita who was abducted by Ravana.

Then Hanuman, the vanquisher of foes, desired to search along the route frequented by the Charanas for the place where Sita, carried off by Ravana, was. —Valmiki Ramayan(Sundar Kand, Sarga-1, Sholka-1)[27]

Mahabharata

Apsara on the path of Charans

The Apsara, after giving birth to Satyavati, went on the path trodden by Rishis and Charans.

Then, according to these words, having given birth to the two children, and been killed by the fishermen, she left her fishform and assumed her own celestial shape. The Apsara then rose up on the path trodden by the Siddhas, the Rishis and the Charanas. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-57, Verse-53)[28]

King Shantanu encounters Charans

King Shantanu comes to a place frequented by Charans while hunting at the banks of Ganga.

King Shantanu was intelligent and became a famous archer on earth. He loved hunting and spent a lot of time in the forest. Once, that best of kings killed many deer and buffaloes. Wandering alone along the banks of the Ganga, he came to a place frequented by the Siddhas and the Charanas. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-92, Verse-25)[29]

Charans with the Kurus

Describing their prosporous reign in relation to their northern brethren, Southern Kurus are shown living with the Charans in their kingdom.

And the southern Kurus, in their virtuous rivalry with their northern kinsmen, walked about in the company of Siddhas and Charanas and Rishis. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-109, Verse-10)[28]

King Pandu lives among Charans

King Pandu, accompanied by his two wives, went on to the mountains of Himalayas. He travelled to Chaitraratha, and then crossed the Kalakuta, and finally, crossing the Himavat, he arrived at Gandhamadana. Protected by Charans and Rishis, Pandu lived an ascetic life. He then journeyed on to Hansakuta, continued to practise ascetic austerities. He becomes favourite of the Charans and soon he is blessed with 5 sons, known as Pandavas.[28]

Pandu, possessed of great energy, then devoted himself to asceticism. Within a short time he became the favourite of the whole body of the Siddhas and Charanas residing there. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-120, Verse-1)[28]

Death of Pandu

Some time after the Pandavas were born, Pandu died which was attributed to some curse. Madri commited Sati in grief for her husband, Pandu. Charans & Rishis assembled to decide the next course of action regarding Kunti and her children.

Having consulted with each other, those who are engaged in the welfare of all beings decided to go to the city of Nagasahrya(Hastinapur), with Pandu’s sons in front of them. Those generous and accomplished ones decided on the journey, so as to give the Pandavas to Bhishma and Dhritarashtra. As soon as they decided, the ascetics set out at that very moment, with Pandu’s sons and wife and the two bodies. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-124, Verse-1-6)[29]

Arrival at Hastinapur

Charan-Munis arrived at Kurujangala in a short time and Kunti identified introduced herself at the main gate. The ascetics then gave the porters orders to notify the king of their arrival. The message was delivered to the court. Citizens of Hastinapur were amazed at the arrival of thousands of Charans along with Rishis to the city.

And the citizens of Hastinapura, hearing of the arrival of thousands of Charanas and Munis, were filled with wonder. And it was soon after sunrise that they began to come out in numbers with their wives and children to behold those ascetics. Seated in all kinds of cars and conveyances by thousands, vast numbers of Kshatriyas with their wives, and Brahmanas with theirs came out. And the concourse of Vaisyas and Sudras too was as large on the occasion. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-126, Verse-9-12)[28]

Address to the Assembly

Bhisma, Dritrashtra, and the Kauravas accompanied by their priests assembled before the Charan-Munis, bowed and took their seats. At this, the eldest of the Maharshis from among the Charans & Munis, addressed the assembly & explained the events at Shatashringa. He spoke:

King Pandu of the Kuru lineage gave up a life of desire and pleasure and left for Shatashringa. He lived the life of a brahmachari there. But to accomplish the purposes of the gods, this son Yudhishthira was born there from Dharma himself. Then that great-souled king was given another son named Bhima by Matarishva and he is immensely powerful, best among those who are strong. Puruhuta gave Kunti this son. Truth is his strength and his exploits will shadow those of all other great archers. These two sons of Madri are great archers and supreme among those of the Kuru lineage. The illustrious Pandu always lived a life of dharma in the forest and in this way he revived his ancestral lineage. He never deviated from the righteous path. Having left these sons, Pandu has departed for the land of the ancestors seventeen days ago. On seeing him on the funeral pyre and about to be consumed by the face of the fire, Madri entered the fire and gave up her own life. She has followed to the world of her husband. Now perform those rites that should be performed for them. These are the two bodies and here are the supreme sons. Let these scorchers of enemies and their mother be respectfully received with rites of welcome. —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-127, Verse-1-8)[29]

Departure

Having thus delivered Kunti & the Pandavas in the care of Bhisma and Dhritrashtra, Charans along with other Guhyakas departed at once and dissapeared into the horizon.

Having thus addressed the Kurus, all the Charanas, Guhyakas, Rishis and Siddhas vanished in an instant before the eyes of the Kurus, like a city of the gandharvas, leading to great amazement.’ —Mahabharata(Adi Parva, Chapter-128, Verse-32)[29]

Pandavas meet Charans

In course of time, Pandavas are banished from Hastinapur and they roam through the countryside and forests. Once, while they were staying in the hermitage of sage Arshtishena, they met the Charans:

Those magnanimous ones passed many months in the hermitage of Arshtishena, witnessing many marvels. And as the Pandavas were sporting there pleasantly, there came to see them some complacent vow-observing Munis and Charanas of high fortune, and pure souls. And those foremost of the Bharata race conversed with them on earthly topics. —Mahabharata(Van Parva, Chapter-159, Verse-32)[28]

Charans search for Pandavas

During their banishment & the condition of non-discovery, Pandavas became scarce & hard to find. It was decided that the learned Charans and Brahmins were to be sent in order to locate Pandavas.

Heroic and sinless and possessed of ascetic merit, the Pandavas are difficult to be discovered (within the period of non-discovery). Intelligent and possessed of every virtue, devoted to truth and versed in the principles of policy, endued with purity and holiness, and the embodiment of immeasurable energy, the son of Pritha is capable of consuming (his foes) by a glance alone of his eyes. Knowing all this, do what is proper. Let us, therefore, once more search after them, sending Brahmanas and Charanas, ascetics crowned with success, and others of this kind who may have a knowledge of those heroes!Heroic and sinless and possessed of ascetic merit, the Pandavas are difficult to be discovered (within the period of non-discovery). Intelligent and possessed of every virtue, devoted to truth and versed in the principles of policy, endued with purity and holiness, and the embodiment of immeasurable energy, the son of Pritha is capable of consuming (his foes) by a glance alone of his eyes. Knowing all this, do what is proper. Let us, therefore, once more search after them, sending Brahmanas and Charanas, ascetics crowned with success, and others of this kind who may have a knowledge of those heroes! —Mahabharata(Virata Parva, Chapter-27, Verse-10-20)[30]

Arrival in Rajasthan

Charans arrived in Rajasthan in large numbers[31] from Sindh during 8-9th century AD due to political tensions arising from the rise of Islam in Sindh.[32] They are supposed to be led by Goddess Avad who killed Sumra around 800 A.D., the Islamic ruler of Sindh, and other Muslim rulers in a series of battles from Sindh to modern-day Rajasthan .[15]

Social structure

Members of the caste are considered to be divine by a large section of society. Women of the caste are adored as mother goddesses by other major communities of this region including, Khatris and Rajputs.[33] For centuries, Charans were known for their reputation of preferring to die rather than break a promise.[34]

A Charan will consider all the other Charans as equal even if they do not know each other and have radically different economic or geographic status.[35]

Charan men are also known as the sacrosanct guides of camel and pack oxen and carvans through Thar desert and as traders in horses, wool and salts , suppliers of food and weaponry to armies.[36]

Anil Chandra Banerjee, a professor of history, has said that

In them we have a combination of the traditional characteristics of the Brahmin and the Kshatriyas. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti and engaged in military activities. They stood at the front gate of the fort to receive the first blow of the sword.[37]

Banerjee's opinion is shared by another historian, G. N. Sharma, who said that

Charans exercise great respectability and influence in Rajasthan. The speciality of the caste is that it combines in its character the characteristics of Rajputs and Brahmans in an adequate manner.[38]

Clans

Charans have mainly 2 endogamous sections in India: Maru Charan(those from Rajasthan) and Kachela Charan(those from Gujarat)[11]

Major clans among Maru-Charans are Rohariya, Detha, Ratnoo, Ashiya,Mehru,Kiniya, and Arha. Kachelas are divided into 7 main exogamous clans: Nara, Chorada, Chana, Avsura, Maru, Bati, and Tumbel.[11]

Customs and Traditions

In Rajasthani society, widow remarriage was forbidden in high castes such as Charans, Rajputs, and Brahmins.[39] The practice of purdah is strictly observed in Charan community.[11]

Mode of Greeting

Charan and Rajput men greet each other by saying 'Jai Mataji Ki'(Victory to the Mother Goddess).[40]

Inheritance

One of the Charan customs where they differ from Rajputs is in their laws of inheritance. 'Charania Bunt', as it is popularily known, indicates the equal division of the land among the sons whereas in Rajputs, a major portion of the land is given to the elder son.[11]

Food and drink

Charans used to enjoy consumption of opium (also known as Afeem in regional languages), practices which are also popular among the Rajputs of this region. But unlike Rajputs, Charan women do not consume liquor. [41] Charans do not eat the flesh of cows, and hold those who do in utter disregard. Cows are respected like mothers. Before Indian independence in 1947, a sacrifice of a male buffalo constituted a major part of the celebration of Navratri.[42] Such celebrations quite often used to be presided over by Charan woman.[43]

Opium Consumption

In the 'First Report of the Royal Commission on Opium' in Rajputana, Charans were found to be among the topmost opium consuming community in accordance with their feudal standing.[44]

The occasions on which it was considered obligatory to take opium were:[44]

  1. Betrothals.
  2. Weddings.
  3. The visit of a son-in law to his father-in-law's house.
  4. After a death, for 12 days by Rajputs and Charans, and for the same or lesser periods by other castes.
  5. On the birth of a male child among Rajputs and Charans.
  6. First removal of hair of a male child among Rajputs and Charans.
  7. On the parting (or shaving in the middle) of the beard by Rajputs and Charans.
  8. On the 'Akhatij' festival.
  9. On reconciliations. It is also considered the right thing to do at other festivals, friendly greetings, and on certain days at the temples.

Navratra

In pre-independence India, royal Navratra celebrations in Rajput kingdoms were presided by a Charan women, considered as an avatar of Shakti, while a Rajput carried out the task of killing the sacrificial animal.[45]


Historical Occupations

Traders & Merchants

Exercising their privilege to transport goods between various states with impunity and utilising the large wealth of cattle as pack animals, Charans were able to establish a “virtual monopoly of trade in North-Western India”. Many Charans are said to have become wealthy merchants and money-lenders. Their caravans were considered to be insured against bandits. In Rajasthan, the Kachela Charans excelled as merchants. [46][11][47]

Utilizing their favourable position since they had “exemption from perpetual and harassing imposts...they gradually became chief carriers and traders”.In Mallani, Charans were described as “large traders" possessing great privileges as a sacred race being exempted from local dues throughout Marwar.[12]

Charan traders took large caravans of bullocks north to Marwar and Hindustan, and east to Malwa through Gujarat. They traded in various commodities including ivory, coconuts, alum, and dry dates which they take from Kutch while bringing back corn and tobacco from Marwar & Hindustan. Ivory, brought from Africa to Mandvi in Gujarat, was bought by Charan traders in return for grain and coarse cloth. Then the Charan traders transported the ivory back to Marwar and sold it there.[14]

The Salt-Trade in Marwar involved thousands of people & pack animals like oxen & camels. Charans along with Pushkarna Brahmins and Bhils were engaged in salt-trade and exempted from the payment of custom duties. Kachela Charans from Sindhari used to collect salt from Talwara & sell in other parts of Marwar.[12]

Caravan Protectors

The Charans held the reputation of defending the merchandise entrusted to their charge through sword and shield if necessary; or else, if outnumbered, by threatening to take, or even taking, their own life.[14]

Charans were described as “greatest carriers of goods” for delivery in important centres of Malpura, Pali, Sojat, Ajmer, and Bhilwara by acting as escorts(bailers).[48] The route of the caravans was through Suigam(Gujarat), Sanchor, Bhinmal, Jalor to Pali.[49] The inviolability of a Charan along with their knowledge of the trade routes distinguished them as ideal caravan escorts.[11] Caravans of horses, camels and pack oxen carrying various commodities passed through desolate stretches of desert & forested hills which were always under threat of bandits & dacoits. Charans acted as the protectors & escorts. As caravan protectors, "sacred Charans" thwarted the attempts of bandits.[47][50] If not strong enough to defend their convoy with sword and shield, they would threaten to kill themselves. Given the position of Charans in the socio-cultural system of the time, the wilful killing of a Charan was equivalent to equally abominable crime of killing a Brahmin. As such, if a Charan did commit suicide over any transgression of the caravans under his guardianship, the marauder-robbers responsible for the suicide were deemed to have "earned the sin of a Charan’s death, with all its post-life connotations of hell-fire and damnation." Thus, under the safety of Charans, commodities were transported from one region to another.[51][52][12][14]

Horse Trade

Horse trade was one of the prominent occupations of Charans.[53][54] Some Charan sub-groups like Kachela Charans(from Kutch & Sindh) and Sorathia Charans(from Kathiawar) were historically engaged in horse breeding & trading.[55][56] The common connection of horses also led to bonds between Charans & the Kathi tribe. Some Kuchela Charans settled around Mallani(Barmer, Rajasthan) in western Rajasthan which was notable for its horse-breeding. Marwari horses from this area came to be known as Mallani horses. By the 18th century, most of the horse trade business in the Bikaner kingdom was controlled by Charans, besides Afghans. Charan horse dealers were considered to be very well networked. In another example of the clout of horse-trading Charans, a Charan from the Kachela subgroup arrived at the court of Marwar ruler, Maharaja Takhat Singh, under the auspices of the sect leader of Nath Sampradaya, and marketed his horses, with 10 horses being directly purchased by the ruler himself. [57][47][58]

Dingal

Dingal is a language or poetic medium developed by Charans from Old Rajasthani around 9-10 CE AD. As Charans themselves became part of court & feudal elite, Dingal became the literary language of the courts and spread throughout Rajasthan, Gujarat, Sindh, Malwa, and Kathiyawad region of North-Western India. Dingal Bhasha and Marwari are synonymous.[14]

Contributions to Indian literature

A whole genre of literature is known as Charan literature.[59] The Dingal language and literature exist largely due to this caste.[60][61] Zaverchand Meghani divides Charani sahitya (literature) into thirteen subgenres:[59]

  • Songs in praise of gods and goddesses (stavan)
  • Songs in praise of heroes, saints and patrons (birdavalo)
  • Descriptions of war (varanno)
  • Rebukes of wavering great kings and men who use their power for evil (upalambho)
  • Mockery of a standing treachery of heroism (thekadi)
  • Love stories
  • Laments for dead warriors, patrons and friends (marasiya or vilap kavya)
  • Praise of natural beauty, seasonal beauty and festivals
  • Descriptions of weapons
  • Songs in praise of lions, horses, camels, and buffalo
  • Sayings about didactic and practical cleverness
  • Ancient epics
  • Songs describing the anguish of people in times of famine and adversity

Other classifications of Charani sahitya are Khyatas (chronicles), Vartas and Vatas (stories), Raso (martial epics), Veli - Veli Krishan Rukman ri, Doha-Chhand (verses).[60][61]

Modern Era

After the independence of India in 1947 and the establishmeent of democarcy, princly states were merged into the Indian Union. Shortly after, in 1952, jagirdari system(feudal land tenure system) was abolished by the government of India. This adversaly affected the dominance of upper castes such as Charans(as well as Rajputs) who were a part of feudal class. They no longer held the entirety of village land as ownership was transferred to the communities such as Jat & Patel who cultivated the land. Gradually, Charans lost their feudal rights and privilages and their dominance declined. [12]Charans as an upper caste group were found to have higher landholding per capita figures relative to other communities.[62]

However, Charans continue to hold large tracts of land themselves and maintain a certain traditional lifestyle. Charan women continue to observe purdah(customary veil) in addition to ghungat.[47] Charans use their land for agriculture but do not cultivate themselves but with hired labour. Their dominance, although declined, continues due to adapting to modern education and access to white-collar government jobs.[12]


References

  1. ↑ Palriwala, Rajni (1993). "Economics and Patriliny: Consumption and Authority within the Household". Social Scientist. 21 (9/11): 47–73. doi:10.2307/3520426. ISSN 0970-0293. In Rajasthan, they were bards and 'literateurs', but also warriors and jagirdars, holders of land and power over men; the dependents of Rajputs, their equals and their teachers. On my initial visit and subsequently, I was assured of this fact vis-a-vis Panchwas and introduced to the thakurs, who in life-style, the practice of female seclusion, and various reference points they alluded to appeared as Rajputs. While other villagers insisted that Rajputs and Charans were all the same to them, the Charans, were not trying to pass themselves off as Rajputs, but indicating that they were as good as Rajputs if not ritually superior....most of the ex-landlord households, the Charans and one Pathan, remained in the middle and upper ranks of village society
  2. ↑ Sharma, K. L. (2019-02-02). Caste, Social Inequality and Mobility in Rural India: Reconceptualizing the Indian Village. SAGE Publishing India. pp. 322–323. ISBN 978-93-5328-202-8. "Charans, a landowning caste (ex-zamindars), Brahmins and Banias were at the centre of the village...the upper castes, namely, Brahmins, Charans and Banias were dominant and grabbed new jobs and opportunities.
  3. ↑ Patel, Tulsi (2006-11-30). Fertility Behaviour: Population and Society in a Rajasthan Village. OUP India. ISBN 978-0-19-568706-4. The jagir was held by members of the Charan caste...By this criterion most of the vegetarian castes enjoy a high rank while the non-vegetarian castes belong to the lower category, except Charan and Rajput who belong to the highest category, despite being non-vegetarian and non-teetotaler...While the abolition of feudal land tenures has led to downward mobility of Charans and Rajputs, it has helped upward mobility of Patels and Jats...Except for Charans and Rajputs, all others cultivate land as tenants and sharecroppers, especially if their own holding is small...However, Brahmins do take up wage labour in agriculture, unlike Banias, Charans and Rajputs...My entry into homes of higher castes, especially those of Charans and Rajputs, was not easy either.
  4. ↑ Paul, Kim (1993-01-01). "Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 16 (sup001): 49–60. doi:10.1080/00856409308723191. ISSN 0085-6401. In the past some Charans were agriculturalists, engaged in farming lands which were divided equally between male descendants of the lineage.
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Tambs-Lyche2017
  6. ↑ Marcus, George E. (1983). Elites, Ethnographic Issues. University of New Mexico Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-8263-0658-6. Charans were court poets and historians.
  7. ↑ Shah, P. R. (1982). Raj Marwar During British Paramountcy: A Study in Problems and Policies Up to 1923. Sharda Publishing House. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-7855-1985-0. The Charans constituted a body of faithful companions of the Rajputs. They composed poems in praise of the heroic deeds of the Rajputs, and thus inspired them with courage and fortitude. They also guarded the mansions of their patrons, gave protection to their women and children during emergency and also acted as tutors for the young ones. In return land gifts and honours were conferred upon them. The Charans, who could not devote themselves to intellectual pursuits, took to trade. They also protected merchants and travellers passing through desolate regions and forests. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 62 (help)
  8. ↑ Chandra, Yashaswini (2021-01-22). The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback. Pan Macmillan. p. 235. ISBN 978-93-89109-92-4. Charans were poets
  9. ↑ Gupta, Saurabh (2015-10-01). Politics of Water Conservation: Delivering Development in Rural Rajasthan, India. Springer. p. 42. ISBN 978-3-319-21392-7. Sharma (ibid) argues that the ex-Zamindars (or landlords) who own big landholdings even today are influential but those who do not retain it are not only less influential but have also slid down the scale of status hierarchy. The families most affected by this belong to the Rajputs, Jats, Charans and Brahmins (all traditionally powerful caste groups).
  10. ↑ Matheson, Sylvia A. (1984). Rajasthan, Land of Kings. Vendome Press. ISBN 978-0-86565-046-6.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Commissioner, India Census (2018-02-22). Census of India, 1901, Volume 25, Parts 1-2. Creative Media Partners, LLC. ISBN 978-1-378-47136-4. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":1" defined multiple times with different content
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Patel, Tulsi (2006-11-30). Fertility Behaviour: Population and Society in a Rajasthan Village. OUP India. ISBN 978-0-19-568706-4. "Kalan was a khalsa (ryotwari) and Khurd a jagir village. The jagir was held by members ofthe Charan caste. After 1952, it was converted, like many other jagir villages in the region, into a khalsa village.... A street or ward is named after the caste numerically dominant in it. For instance, there is Charan vah.... Upper Brahmin, Bania, Charan, Rajput... Vegetarianism and teetotalism are ranked as superior attributes of a caste. By this criterion most ofthe vegetarian castes enjoy a high rank while the non-vegetarian castes belong to the lower category, except Charan and Rajput who belong to the highest category, despite being non-vegetarian and non-teetotaler. The non-vegetarianism of Charan and Rajput has, however, one connotation while that of the lower castes has another. The Bhambi, Bhangi and Sargara eat carrion, which Charan and Rajput do not. True to their martial tradition, they occasionally hunt animals and birds for food. Ritual defilement through alcohol and non-vegetarian food among the Charan and Rajput is considered temporary as against permanent ritual defilement ofthe untouchables....The abolition of the feudal land tenure system of jagirdari in 1952 has adversely affected the dominance ofthe upper castes, especially Charans and Rajputs....although the Charans and Rajputs have lost their old feudal rights and privileges, they continue to hold large tracts of land...Charans and Rajputs continue to be dominant also due to their access to formal education and consequent naukri... Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  13. ↑ Tambs-Lyche, Harald (2017-08-09). Transaction and Hierarchy: Elements for a Theory of Caste. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-39396-6. ...the murder of a Charan was as much a sacrilege as that of a Brahmin...This status led to a number of other roles, such as envoys to the enemy in wartime, or protectors of trade caravans...Charan bards received lands in jagir for their services, and in parts of Marwar, certain Charan families were effectively Darbars...all the goddesses of the area are deified Charan women...the Charani goddess creates and protects kingdoms and chiefs, looks after individual destiny, and protects the dharmic world order, often metonymized as the chastity of women. The king who runs after women not allowed to him, is destroyed by the Goddess' terrible vengeance, whether she appears as a lion and gobbles him up on the spot or changes the course of the Indus to convert his kingdom into a desert... the Charans, known as Deviputra, children of the goddess, occupy a pivotal position in traditional society...The cult of the Goddess had no need for Brahmin priesthood: far more important as mediators between the Goddess and the king were the Charan...In the old Rajput world, the Charan bard was the arbiter of morals and honour...For medieval Rajputs, the link went through the Charan to the Goddess, with no need for Brahmin mediation...
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Jr, Dr Cecil Thomas Ault (2017-02-09). Folk Theatre of Rajasthan: Introducing Three Marwari Khyal Plays Translated into English. Partridge Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4828-8816-4. ...It became an independent language around the fifteenth century, eventually becoming the poetic language of the Rajputs, particularly the Charans who became the most important literary force in Rajputana... Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":3" defined multiple times with different content
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Kamphorst, Janet (2008). In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia). Leiden: Leiden University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-0603-3. OCLC 614596834. ...Various myth-histories relate Charan ancestry to classical traditions, Sanskritic gods and mythical and/or historical abodes in the Himalayas...The Maru Charan of Marwar, for example, relate their ancestry to semi-divine beings or spirit-beings like the half-divine Siddhas of Vedic lore and Puranic Sutas who used to eulogize the gods and allegedly became demi-gods themselves...Maru and other Charan lineages have also been traced to Charan Munis of the Mahābhārat, of whom it is said that they looked after Raja Pandu when he stayed in the "Land of Charans" and who, after Pandu's demise, accompanied his queen and son on their way to Dhritarashtra in Hastinapur. Other comparable tales relate Charan ancestry to the semi-divine DevCharan of Mount Sumeru. One such tale records how the Dev-Charan are thought to have left Mount Sumeru due to the increase in members of the divine populace, which caused several groups of divine and semi-divine origin to move elsewhere...
  16. ↑ "Srimad Bhagavatam in Sanskrit". bhagavata.org. Retrieved 2022-01-02.
  17. ↑ "SB 3.10.28-29 - Vanisource". vanisource.org. Retrieved 2022-01-02.
  18. ↑ "SB 2.1.36 - Vanisource". vanisource.org. Retrieved 2022-01-02.
  19. ↑ Mubārak, Abū al-Faz̤l ibn (1993). The Ain i Akbari. Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften. In the ninth district is the Cháran tribe. Mahadeva formed a man from the sweat of his brow and gave him the charge of his own bull. Ho spoke in rhythmic sentences and sang the divine praises and revealed the past and the future. His descendants are known by his name. They chiefly recite panegyrics and gonealogies and in battle chant deeds of valour and animate the warriors and some of them revoal future events....This district farnishes 500 horse and 4,000 foot....that the Chárans were called into life by the mere volition of the divinity
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Chandra, Yashaswini (2021-01-22). The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-93-89109-92-4. According to the Mughal gazetteer Ain-i Akbari, cited in relation to Gujarat, the progenitor of the Charans, 'spoke in rhythmic sentences and sang the divine praises and revealed the past and the future. [His descendants] chiefly recite panegyrics and genealogies and in battle chant deeds of valour and animate the warriors'. However, they were not just supposed to eulogize the Rajputs, but also display moral courage and hold a mirror to those of their patrons who strayed from the righteous path, as they saw it.
  21. ↑ Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016-03-14). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-67389-8.
  22. ↑ Cutch, Palanpur (1880). Gazetteer Of The Bombay Presidency Vol-v.
  23. ↑ "The sons of a goddess – The Mythology Project". Retrieved 2022-01-02.
  24. ↑ "India: the children of Shiva". Easyvoyage. Retrieved 2022-01-02.
  25. ↑ Debroy, Bibek (2017-10-25). The Valmiki Ramayana: Vol. 1. Penguin Random House India Private Limited. ISBN 978-93-87326-26-2.
  26. ↑ "Content | Valmiki Ramayanam". www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
  27. ↑ Sastri, P. p s Tr (1935). Valmiki Ramayana.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 Vyasa, Krishna-Dwaipayana (2014-03-25). THE MAHABHARATA of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa: Complete 18 Parvas. Darryl Morris.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 The Mahabharata: Volume 1. Penguin UK. 2015-06-01. ISBN 978-81-8475-388-2.
  30. ↑ www.wisdomlib.org (2014-09-05). "Section XXVII [Mahabharata, English]". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
  31. ↑ Devaṛā, Ji. Esa. Ela (2012). Environmental crisis and social dismemberment in Northwest India: during the Pre-Colonial period. ISBN 978-81-87614-40-1. OCLC 859170434. ...The Chroniclers of Sind associate such incidents with the fall of local Sumra and Sama dynasties that succeeded after the fall of Arab regime. A good number of historical tales of Sind elaborate that the tyrannical and unjust rule of these local dynasties offended the river goddess. Hence she decided to move from her original path and flow in another direction. Rajasthani tales related to the incidents of Awad or Karni Shakti or goddess worship also support such occurrences. Oppressive regimes and growing desiccation probably compelled a large number of people from the Charan community to migrate from Sind to Rajasthan...
  32. ↑ Tambs-Lyche, Harald. "Between the Desert and the Sown: Pastoralists of Western India through the Centuries". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ↑ Shah, A. M.; Shroff, R. G. (1958). "The Vahivanca Barots of Gujarat: A Caste of Genealogists and Mythographers". Journal of American Folk-Lore. 71 (281): 246–276. doi:10.2307/538561. JSTOR 538561.
  34. ↑ "Cāraṇ, Hindu caste". Britannica.com.
  35. ↑ Thomson, G. R. (1991). "Charans of Gujarat: Caste Identity, Music and Cultural Change". Ethnomusicology. 35 (3): 381–391. doi:10.2307/851968. JSTOR 851968.
  36. ↑ Kamphorst, J. (June 18, 2008). In praise of death : history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia) (Thesis). Leiden University. hdl:1887/12986 – via scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl.
  37. ↑ Banerjee, Anil Chandra. (1983). Aspects of Rajput State and Society. pp. 124–125. OCLC 12236372.
  38. ↑ Sharma, G. N. (1968). Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan. Agra: Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher. p. 111.
  39. ↑ Hunter, William Wilson (2020-11-19). The Imperial Gazetteer Of India (Volume Xxi) Pushkar To Salween. Alpha Editions. ISBN 978-93-5421-782-1.
  40. ↑ "Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Nagaur". INDIAN CULTURE. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
  41. ↑ Singh, Khushwant (1982). We Indians. Delhi: Orient Paperbacks. OCLC 10710940.
  42. ↑ Harlan L (2003). Goddesses' Henchmen - Gender in Hero Worship. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 258.
  43. ↑ "Matanamadh, Desh Devi Ashapura". Matanamadh Jagir, Kachchh, India. 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-08-08. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Opium, Great Britain Royal Commission on (1895). First Report of the Royal Commission on Opium: With Minutes of Evidence and Appendices. H.M. Stationery Office.
  45. ↑ Berger, Peter; Heidemann, Frank (2013-06-03). The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-06118-1.
  46. ↑ Matheson, Sylvia A. (1984). Rajasthan, Land of Kings. Vendome Press. ISBN 978-0-86565-046-6.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 Chandra, Yashaswini (2021-01-22). The Tale of the Horse: A History of India on Horseback. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-93-89109-92-4.
  48. ↑ "Rajasthan, District Gazetteers: Pali". INDIAN CULTURE. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  49. ↑ "The Rajput States and the East India Company". INDIAN CULTURE. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  50. ↑ Paul, Kim (1993-01-01). "Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 16 (sup001): 49–60. doi:10.1080/00856409308723191. ISSN 0085-6401.
  51. ↑ Hunter, William Wilson (2020-11-19). The Imperial Gazetteer Of India (Volume Xxi) Pushkar To Salween. Alpha Editions. ISBN 978-93-5421-782-1.
  52. ↑ Sahai, Nandita Prasad (2006). Politics of Patronage and Protest: The State, Society, and Artisans in Early Modern Rajasthan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-567896-3.
  53. ↑ Jansen, Jan; Maier, Hendrik M. J. (2004). Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents. Lit. ISBN 978-3-8258-6758-4.
  54. ↑ Deva, B. Chaitanya (1992). INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN MUSIC. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. ISBN 978-81-230-2103-4.
  55. ↑ Social Scientist. Indian School of Social Sciences. 2005.
  56. ↑ Dutson, Judith (2012-05-07). Storey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America. Storey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60342-918-4.
  57. ↑ Kamphorst, Janet (2008). In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia). Leiden: Leiden University Press. ISBN 978-90-485-0603-3. OCLC 614596834.
  58. ↑ Saxena, Rajendra Kumar (2002). Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana. Publication Scheme. ISBN 978-81-86782-75-0.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Meghani, Z. (1943). Charano and Charani Sahitya. Ahmedabad.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Sharma, G. N. (1968). Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan. Agra: Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal Educational Publisher. pp. 94–96.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Smith, J. D. (1974). "An introduction to language of the historical documents from Rajasthan". Modern Asian Studies. 9 (4): 433–464. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00012841.
  62. ↑ Agrawal, Arun; Agrawal, Associate Professor of Political Science Arun (1999). Greener Pastures: Politics, Markets, and Community Among a Migrant Pastoral People. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2233-7. Brahmins, Rajputs, and Charans, the upper castes, form just 10 percent of the population...The charans and the patels have the highest landholding figures in the village..Although the members of the panchayat are drawn from different castes, charans, patels, and brahmins form a majority in it...

Further reading

Charan

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