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| {{short description|Additive process used to make a three-dimensional object}} | | [[File:MakerBot ThingOMatic Bre Pettis.jpg|thumb|A 3D Printer|alt=|400x400px]]'''3D printing''' is a way of creating [[three dimensional]] (3D) solid objects.<ref name="engineer">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/the-rise-of-additive-manufacturing/|title=The rise of additive manufacturing|last=Cummins|first=Kate|date=2010-05-23|website=The Engineer|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-14}}</ref> 3D printing is done by building up the object layer by layer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.createitreal.com/index.php/en/3d-printer/48|title=3D Printer Technology - Animation of layering|publisher=Create It Real|access-date=January 31, 2012}}</ref> Usually, 3D printers use [[plastic]], because it is easier to use and cheaper. Some 3D printers can 3D print with other materials, like [[metal]]s and [[ceramic]]s, but they cost too much money for most people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://all3dp.com/2/how-much-does-a-metal-3d-printer-cost/|title=How Much Does a Metal 3D Printer Cost in 2019?|date=July 2, 2019|website=All3DP|language=en|access-date=November 14, 2019}}</ref> |
| {{About|| methods of transferring an image onto a 3D surface|pad printing|methods of generating autostereoscopic lenticular images|lenticular printing|and|holography}} | |
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
| | 3D printers are useful because they can make new objects very fast, and are good at making them very detailed. This means an [[engineer]] can test a lot of new designs and not have to wait for someone else to make them. They are also useful for fixing parts made of plastic, and for making toys, figures, and models. There are a lot of people who print 3D objects at home. |
| {{EngvarB|date=May 2014}}
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| [[File:Ultimaker History - 6 Ultimaker 2.png|thumb|A three-dimensional printer]]
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| [[File:Robot_3D_print_timelapse_on_RepRapPro_Fisher.gif|thumb|[[Timelapse]] of a three-dimensional printer in action]]
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| {{History of printing}}
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| '''3D printing''', or '''additive manufacturing''', is the construction of a three-dimensional object from a [[computer-aided design|CAD]] model or a digital [[3D modeling|3D model]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/technology-quarterly/2013/09/05/3d-printing-scales-up|title=3D printing scales up|date=5 September 2013|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> The term "3D printing" can refer to a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified under [[Computer Numerical Control|computer control]] to create a [[three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] object,<ref name="engineer" /> with material being added together (such as plastics, liquids or powder grains being fused together), typically layer by layer.
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| In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the production of functional or aesthetic prototypes, and a more appropriate term for it at the time was [[rapid prototyping]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tmg-muenchen.de/training-course/11/Additive-Manufacturing?flang=en|title=Learning Course: Additive Manufacturing – Additive Fertigung|website=tmg-muenchen.de}}</ref> {{As of|2019}}, the precision, repeatability, and material range of 3D printing have increased to the point that some 3D printing processes are considered viable as an industrial-production technology, whereby the term ''additive manufacturing'' can be used synonymously with ''3D printing''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lam|first1=Hugo K.S.|last2=Ding|first2=Li|last3=Cheng|first3=T.C.E.|last4=Zhou|first4=Honggeng|date=2019-01-01|title=The impact of 3D printing implementation on stock returns: A contingent dynamic capabilities perspective|url=https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOPM-01-2019-0075|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|volume=39|issue=6/7/8|pages=935–961|doi=10.1108/IJOPM-01-2019-0075|s2cid=211386031|issn=0144-3577}}</ref> One of the key advantages of 3D printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes or geometries that would be otherwise impossible to construct by hand, including hollow parts or parts with internal truss structures to reduce weight. [[Fused filament fabrication#Fused deposition modeling|Fused deposition modeling]] (FDM), which uses a continuous filament of a [[thermoplastic]] material, is the most common 3D printing process in use {{as of|2020|lc=y}}.<ref name="statista1"/>
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| == Terminology ==
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| The [[umbrella term]] ''additive manufacturing (AM)'' gained popularity in the 2000s,<ref name="Ngram_additive_manufacturing" /> inspired by the theme of material being added together ([[3D printing processes|in any of various ways]]). In contrast, the term ''subtractive manufacturing'' appeared as a [[retronym]] for the large family of [[machining]] processes with material ''removal'' as their common process. The term ''3D printing'' still referred only to the polymer technologies in most minds, and the term ''AM'' was more likely to be used in metalworking and end-use part production contexts than among polymer, inkjet, or stereolithography enthusiasts. Inkjet was the least familiar technology even though it was invented in 1950 and poorly understood because of its complex nature. The earliest inkjets were used as recorders and not printers. As late as the 1970s the term recorder was associated with inkjet. Continuous Inkjet later evolved to On-Demand or Drop-On-Demand Inkjet. Inkjets were single nozzle at the start; they may now have as many as thousands of nozzles for printing in each pass over a surface.
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| By the early 2010s, the terms ''3D printing'' and ''additive manufacturing'' evolved [[word sense|senses]] in which they were alternate umbrella terms for additive technologies, one being used in popular language by consumer-maker communities and the media, and the other used more formally by industrial end-use part producers, machine manufacturers, and global technical standards organizations. Until recently, the term ''3D printing'' has been associated with machines low in price or in capability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iso.org/standard/69669.html|title=ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 – Additive manufacturing – General principles – Terminology|website=iso.org|language=en|access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref> ''3D printing'' and ''additive manufacturing'' reflect that the technologies share the theme of material addition or joining throughout a 3D work envelope under automated control. Peter Zelinski, the editor-in-chief of ''Additive Manufacturing'' magazine, pointed out in 2017 that the terms are still often [[synonym]]ous in casual usage,<ref name="Zelinski_2017-08-04">{{Citation |last=Zelinski |first=Peter |date=4 August 2017 |title=Additive manufacturing and 3D printing are two different things |journal=Additive Manufacturing |url=http://www.additivemanufacturing.media/columns/additive-manufacturing-and-3d-printing-are-two-different-things |access-date=11 August 2017 |postscript=.}}</ref> but some manufacturing industry experts are trying to make a distinction whereby additive manufacturing [[hyponymy and hypernymy|comprises]] 3D printing plus other technologies or other aspects of a [[manufacturing process]].<ref name="Zelinski_2017-08-04" />
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| Other terms that have been used as synonyms or [[hyponymy and hypernymy|hypernyms]] have included ''desktop manufacturing'', ''rapid manufacturing'' (as the logical production-level successor to ''[[rapid prototyping]]''), and ''on-demand manufacturing'' (which echoes ''[[print on demand|on-demand printing]]'' in the 2D sense of ''printing''). Such application of the adjectives ''rapid'' and ''on-demand'' to the noun ''manufacturing'' was novel in the 2000s reveals the prevailing [[mental model]] of the long industrial era in which almost all production manufacturing involved long [[lead time]]s for laborious tooling development. Today, the term ''subtractive'' has not replaced the term ''machining'', instead [[wikt:complement#Verb|complementing]] it when a term that covers any removal method is needed. [[Agile tooling]] is the use of modular means to design tooling that is produced by additive manufacturing or 3D printing methods to enable quick [[Prototype|prototyping]] and responses to tooling and fixture needs. Agile tooling uses a cost-effective and high-quality method to quickly respond to customer and market needs, and it can be used in [[Hydroforming|hydro-forming]], [[Stamping (metalworking)|stamping]], [[Injection molding machine|injection molding]] and other manufacturing processes.
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| | Since 2003, many more materials printers have been sold than before. Also, the cost of 3D printers has gone down.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ptonline.com/articles/200408cu3.html|title=3D Printers Lead Growth of Rapid Prototyping (Plastics Technology, August 2004)|last=Sherman|first=Lilli Manolis|access-date=January 31, 2012|archive-date=January 23, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123144538/http://www.ptonline.com/articles/200408cu3.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
| == History == | | == History == |
| === 1940s and 1950s ===
| | '''1974''' [[David E. H. Jones]] first wrote about the idea of 3D printing in the journal [[New Scientist]]<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 5, 2001|title=You Read It Here First|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.291.5501.39b|journal=Science|volume=291|issue=5501|pages=39b–39|doi=10.1126/science.291.5501.39b|s2cid=220111512|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> |
| The general concept of and procedure to be used in 3D-printing was first described by [[Murray Leinster]] in his 1945 short story [[Things Pass By]] "But this constructor is both efficient and flexible. I feed magnetronic plastics — the stuff they make houses and ships of nowadays — into this moving arm. It makes drawings in the air following drawings it scans with photo-cells. But plastic comes out of the end of the drawing arm and hardens as it comes ... following drawings only" <ref>M. Leinster, Things Pass By, in ''The Earth In Peril'' (D. Wollheim ed.)''. Ace Books 1957, USA, [[List of Ace SF double titles]] D-205, p.25, story copyright 1945, by Standard Magazines Inc.</ref>
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| It was also described by [[Raymond F. Jones]] in his story, "Tools of the Trade," published in the November 1950 issue of Astounding Science Fiction magazine. He referred to it as a "molecular spray" in that story.
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| === 1970s ===
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| In 1971, Johannes F Gottwald patented the Liquid Metal Recorder, {{US Patent | 3596285A}}, a continuous Inkjet metal material device to form a removable metal fabrication on a reusable surface for immediate use or salvaged for printing again by remelting. This appears to be the first patent describing 3D printing with rapid prototyping and controlled on-demand manufacturing of patterns.
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| The patent states "As used herein the term printing is not intended in a limited sense but includes writing or other symbols, character or pattern formation with an ink. The term ink as used in is intended to include not only dye or pigment-containing materials, but any flowable substance or composition suited for application to the surface for forming symbols, characters, or patterns of intelligence by marking. The preferred ink is of a Hot melt type. The range of commercially available ink compositions which could meet the requirements of the invention are not known at the present time. However, satisfactory printing according to the invention has been achieved with the conductive metal alloy as ink."
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| "But in terms of material requirements for such large and continuous displays, if consumed at theretofore known rates, but increased in proportion to increase in size, the high cost would severely limit any widespread enjoyment of a process or apparatus satisfying the foregoing objects."
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| "It is therefore an additional object of the invention to minimize use to materials in a process of the indicated class."
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| "It is a further object of the invention that materials employed in such a process be salvaged for reuse."
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| "According to another aspect of the invention, a combination for writing and the like comprises a carrier for displaying an intelligence pattern and an arrangement for removing the pattern from the carrier."
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| In 1974, [[David E. H. Jones]] laid out the concept of 3D printing in his regular column ''Ariadne'' in the journal ''[[New Scientist]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=3 October 1974 |title=Ariadne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvabM3KXNsUC&pg=PA80 |journal=New Scientist |volume=64 |issue=917 |pages=80|issn=0262-4079|last1=Information |first1=Reed Business }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Ellam | first=Richard | title=3D printing: you read it here first | website=New Scientist | date=26 February 2019 | url=https://www.newscientist.com/letter/mg23230991-100-1-editors-pick-3d-printing-you-read-it-here-first/ | access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref>
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| === 1980s ===
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| Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s.<ref name="3D opp" />
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| In April 1980, Hideo Kodama of [[Nagoya]] Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two additive methods for fabricating three-dimensional plastic models with photo-hardening [[thermosetting polymer|thermoset polymer]], where the [[UV exposure]] area is controlled by a mask pattern or a scanning fiber transmitter.<ref>Hideo Kodama, " Background of my invention of 3D printer and its spread," Patent Magazine of Japan Patent Attorneys Association, vo.67, no.13, pp.109-118, November 2014.</ref>
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| He filed a patent for this XYZ plotter, which was published on 10 November 1981. ([https://www.j-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/PU/JP-S56-144478/1D0ADD2064383A29D55152F0210F025DEFC37B25B70242A69D2F88F6F3A29A10/11/en JP S56-144478]).<ref>{{Cite patent |number=JP-S56-144478 |title=JP Patent: S56-144478 - 3D figure production device |gdate=10 November 1981|inventor1-first=Hideo Kodama|url= https://www.j-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/PU/JP-S56-144478/1D0ADD2064383A29D55152F0210F025DEFC37B25B70242A69D2F88F6F3A29A10/11/en}}</ref>
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| His research results as journal papers were published in April and November in 1981.<ref>Hideo Kodama, "A Scheme for Three-Dimensional Display by Automatic Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Model," IEICE Transactions on Electronics (Japanese Edition), vol. J64-C, No. 4, pp. 237–41, April 1981</ref><ref>Hideo Kodama, "Automatic method for fabricating a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer," ''Review of Scientific Instruments'', Vol. 52, No. 11, pp. 1770–73, November 1981</ref>
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| However, there was no reaction to the series of his publications. His device was not highly evaluated in the laboratory and his boss did not show any interest. His research budget was just 60,000 yen or $545 a year. Acquiring the patent rights for the XYZ plotter was abandoned, and the project was terminated.
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| A Patent US 4323756, Method of Fabricating Articles by Sequential Deposition, Raytheon Technologies Corp granted 6 April 1982 using hundreds or thousands of 'layers' of powdered metal and a laser energy source is an early reference to forming "layers" and the fabrication of articles on a substrate.
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| On 2 July 1984, American entrepreneur [[William (Bill) Masters|Bill Masters]] filed a patent for his Computer Automated Manufacturing Process and System ([https://patents.google.com/patent/US4665492 US 4665492]).<ref>{{Cite patent|number=4665492|title=United States Patent: 4665492 - Computer automated manufacturing process and system|gdate=12 May 1987|invent1=Masters|inventor1-first=William E.|url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PTXT&s1=4665492.PN.&OS=PN/4665492&RS=PN/4665492}}</ref> This filing is on record at the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|USPTO]] as the first 3D printing patent in history; it was the first of three patents belonging to Masters that laid the foundation for the 3D printing systems used today.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://upstatebusinessjournal.com/3-d-printing-steps-into-the-spotlight/|title=3-D Printing Steps into the Spotlight|date=2013-04-11|website=Upstate Business Journal|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-20|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220194129/https://upstatebusinessjournal.com/3-d-printing-steps-into-the-spotlight/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n25nXHZ8vwMC&q=Special+Report:+Rapid+Prototyping+Systems&pg=PA149|title=Concurrent Design of Products, Manufacturing Processes and Systems|last=Wang|first=Ben|date=1999-01-27|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-90-5699-628-4|language=en}}</ref>
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| On 16 July 1984, [[Alain Le Mehaute|Alain Le Méhauté]], Olivier de Witte, and Jean Claude André filed their patent for the [[stereolithography]] process.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bases-brevets.inpi.fr/fr/document/FR2567668/publications.html|title=Disdpositif pour realiser un modele de piece industrielle|last=Jean-Claude|first=Andre|newspaper=National De La Propriete Industrielle}}</ref> The application of the French inventors was abandoned by the French General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and [[CILAS]] (The Laser Consortium).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://3dprint.com/65466/reflections-alain-le-mehaute/|title=Alain Le Méhauté, The Man Who Submitted Patent For SLA 3D Printing Before Chuck Hull|last=Mendoza|first=Hannah Rose|date=15 May 2015|publisher=3dprint.com}}</ref> The claimed reason was "for lack of business perspective".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.primante3d.com/inventeur|title=Interview d'Alain Le Méhauté, l'un des pères de l'impression (Interview of Alain Le Mehaute, one of the 3D printinf technologies fathers) 3D|last=Moussion|first=Alexandre|date=2014|newspaper=Primante 3D}}</ref>
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| In 1983, Robert Howard started R.H. Research, later named Howtek, Inc. in Feb 1984 to develop a color inkjet 2D printer, Pixelmaster, commercialized in 1986, using Thermoplastic (hot-melt) plastic ink.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Howard, Robert, 1923-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/455879561|title=Connecting the dots : my life and inventions, from X-rays to death rays|date=2009|publisher=Welcome Rain|isbn=978-1-56649-957-6|location=New York, NY|pages=195–197|oclc=455879561}}</ref> A team was put together, 6 members<ref name=":3" /> from Exxon Office Systems, Danbury Systems Division, an inkjet printer startup and some members of Howtek, Inc group who became popular figures in 3D Printing Industry. One Howtek member, Richard Helinski patent US5136515A, Method and Means for constructing three-dimensional articles by particle deposition, application 11/07/1989 granted 8/04/1992 formed a New Hampshire company C.A.D-Cast, Inc, name later changed to Visual Impact Corporation (VIC) on 8/22/1991. A prototype of the VIC 3D printer for this company is available with a video presentation showing a 3D model printed with a single nozzle inkjet. Another employee Herbert Menhennett formed a New Hampshire company HM Research in 1991 and introduced the Howtek, Inc, inkjet technology and thermoplastic materials to Royden Sanders of SDI and Bill Masters of Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (BPM) where he worked for a number of years. Both BPM 3D printers and SPI 3D printers use Howtek, Inc style Inkjets and Howtek, Inc style materials. Royden Sanders licensed the Helinksi patent prior to manufacturing the Modelmaker 6 Pro at Sanders prototype, Inc (SPI) in 1993. James K. McMahon who was hired by Howtek, Inc to help develop the inkjet, later worked at Sanders Prototype and now operates Layer Grown Model Technology, a 3D service provider specializing in Howtek single nozzle inkjet and SDI printer support. James K. McMahon worked with Steven Zoltan, 1972 drop-on-demand inkjet inventor, at Exxon and has a patent in 1978 that expanded the understanding of the single nozzle design inkjets( Alpha jets) and help perfect the Howtek, Inc hot-melt inkjets. This Howtek hot-melt thermoplastic technology is popular with metal investment casting, especially in the 3D printing jewelry industry.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Barnatt, Christopher, 1967-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/854672031|title=3D printing : the next industrial revolution|date=2013|publisher=ExplainingTheFuture.com|isbn=978-1-4841-8176-8|location=[Nottingham, England?]|oclc=854672031}}</ref> Sanders (SDI) first Modelmaker 6Pro customer was Hitchner Corporations, Metal Casting Technology, Inc in Milford, NH a mile from the SDI facility in late 1993-1995 casting golf clubs and auto engine parts.
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| On 8 August 1984 a patent, US4575330, assigned to UVP, Inc., later assigned to [[Chuck Hull]] of [[3D Systems]] Corporation<ref name="AutoSQ-1" /> was filed, his own patent for a [[stereolithography]] fabrication system, in which individual laminae or layers are added by curing [[photopolymers]] with impinging radiation, particle bombardment, chemical reaction or just [[ultraviolet light]] [[laser]]s. Hull defined the process as a "system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed,".<ref name="AutoSQ-4" /><ref name="AutoSQ-5" /> Hull's contribution was the [[STL (file format)|STL (Stereolithography) file format]] and the digital slicing and infill strategies common to many processes today. In 1986, Charles "Chuck" Hull was granted a patent for this system, and his company, 3D Systems Corporation was formed and it released the first commercial 3D printer, the SLA-1,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://all3dp.com/2/history-of-3d-printing-when-was-3d-printing-invented/|title=History of 3D Printing: When Was 3D Printing Invented?|date=10 December 2018|website=All3DP|language=en|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> later in 1987 or 1988.
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| The technology used by most 3D printers to date—especially hobbyist and consumer-oriented models—is [[fused deposition modeling]], a special application of plastic [[extrusion]], developed in 1988 by [[S. Scott Crump]] and commercialized by his company [[Stratasys]], which marketed its first FDM machine in 1992.<ref name=":4" />
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| Owning a 3D printer in the 1980s cost upwards of $300,000 ($650,000 in 2016 dollars).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-08-01|title=The Evolution of 3D Printing: Past, Present and Future|url=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/evolution-3d-printing-past-present-future-90605/|access-date=2021-02-24|website=3D Printing Industry|language=en-US}}</ref>
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| === 1990s ===
| | '''1984''' [[Alain Le Mehaute|Alain Le Méhauté]] and others filed a patent for [[stereolithography]] (a laser-based 3D printer).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bases-brevets.inpi.fr/fr/document/FR2567668/publications.html|title=Notice|website=bases-brevets.inpi.fr|access-date=November 13, 2019}}</ref> |
| AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as [[selective laser sintering]], [[direct metal laser sintering]], and selective laser melting) usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. At the time, all metalworking was done by processes that are now called non-additive ([[casting]], [[metal fabrication|fabrication]], [[stamping (metalworking)|stamping]], and [[machining]]); although plenty of [[automation]] was applied to those technologies (such as by [[robot welding]] and [[numerical control|CNC]]), the idea of a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of [[raw material]] into a desired shape with a toolpath was associated in metalworking only with processes that removed metal (rather than adding it), such as CNC [[milling (machining)|milling]], CNC [[electrical discharge machining|EDM]], and many others. But the automated techniques that ''added'' metal, which would later be called additive manufacturing, were beginning to challenge that assumption. By the mid-1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at [[Stanford]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]], including microcasting<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Amon|first1=C. H.|last2=Beuth|first2=J. L.|last3=Weiss|first3=L. E.|last4=Merz|first4=R.|last5=Prinz|first5=F. B.|date=1998|title=Shape Deposition Manufacturing With Microcasting: Processing, Thermal and Mechanical Issues|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1219&context=ece|format=PDF|journal=Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering|volume=120|issue=3|pages=656–665|doi=10.1115/1.2830171|access-date=20 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220122716/http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1219&context=ece|archive-date=20 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and sprayed materials.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beck |first1=J.E. |last2=Fritz |first2=B. |last3=Siewiorek |first3=Daniel |last4=Weiss |first4=Lee |date=1992 |title=Manufacturing Mechatronics Using Thermal Spray Shape Deposition |url=http://utwired.engr.utexas.edu/lff/symposium/proceedingsarchive/pubs/manuscripts/1992/1992-31-beck.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the 1992 Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium |access-date=20 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224142429/http://utwired.engr.utexas.edu/lff/symposium/proceedingsarchive/pubs/manuscripts/1992/1992-31-beck.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2014 }}</ref> Sacrificial and support materials had also become more common, enabling new object geometries.<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Prinz|first1=F. B.|last2=Merz|first2=R.|last3=Weiss|first3=Lee|title=Building Parts You Could Not Build Before|conference=Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Production Engineering|editor-last=Ikawa|editor-first=N.|publisher=Chapman & Hall|place=London, UK|date=1997|pages=40–44}}</ref>
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| The term ''3D printing'' originally referred to a powder bed process employing standard and custom [[inkjet]] print heads, developed at [[MIT]] by Emanuel Sachs in 1993 and commercialized by Soligen Technologies, Extrude Hone Corporation, and [[Z Corporation]].{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}
| | '''1989''': [[S. Scott Crump]] developed FDM. It is the technology used by most 3D printers today.<ref>{{Cite patent|title=Apparatus and method for creating three-dimensional objects|gdate=1989-10-30|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US5121329A/en}}</ref> |
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| The year 1993 also saw the start of an inkjet 3D printer company initially named Sanders Prototype, Inc and later named [[Solidscape]], introducing a high-precision polymer jet fabrication system with soluble support structures, (categorized as a "dot-on-dot" technique).<ref name=":4" /> | | '''1992''' The first FDM machine was sold in 1992 by S. Scott Crump's company, Stratasys.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/stratasys-inc-history/|title=History of Stratasys, Inc. – FundingUniverse|website=www.fundinguniverse.com|access-date=November 17, 2019}}</ref> |
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| In 1995 the [[Fraunhofer Society]] developed the [[selective laser melting]] process.
| | '''2005''' RepRap became the first [[open source]] printer project <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Rhys|last2=Haufe|first2=Patrick|last3=Sells|first3=Edward|last4=Iravani|first4=Pejman|last5=Olliver|first5=Vik|last6=Palmer|first6=Chris|last7=Bowyer|first7=Adrian|title=RepRap – the replicating rapid prototyper|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/robotica/article/reprap-the-replicating-rapid-prototyper/5979FD7B0C066CBCE43EEAD869E871AA|journal=Robotica|year=2011|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=177–191|doi=10.1017/S026357471000069X|s2cid=3330830|issn=1469-8668}}</ref> |
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| === 2000s ===
| | '''2008''' Shapeways became the first service that would 3D print an object and send it to customers <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/history-of-3d-printing-milestones/|title=The brief but building history of 3D printing|last=Dormehl|first=Luke|website=www.digitaltrends.com|date=25 February 2019 |access-date=2020-07-14}}</ref> |
| Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printing process patents expired in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2016/05/15/how-expiring-patents-are-ushering-in-the-next-generation-of-3d-printing/|title=How expiring patents are ushering in the next generation of 3D printing}}</ref>
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| === 2010s === | | '''2017''' The first 3D printed house that humans could live in was built in Russia <ref>{{Cite web|date=November 20, 2019|title=Europe's first habitable 3d printing building|url=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20171024-amt-specavia-builds-europes-first-habitable-3d-printed-building.html|url-status=live|access-date=November 20, 2019|website=3orders.org|language=en-US}}</ref> |
| As the various additive processes matured, it became clear that soon metal removal would no longer be the only [[metalworking]] process done through a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope, transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer. The 2010s were the first decade in which metal end use parts such as engine brackets<ref name="GrabCAD_GE_bracket" /> and large nuts<ref name="AutoSQ-6" /> would be grown (either before or instead of machining) in [[job production]] rather than [[wikt:obligate#Adjective|obligately]] being machined from [[bar stock]] or plate. It is still the case that casting, fabrication, stamping, and machining are more prevalent than additive manufacturing in metalworking, but AM is now beginning to make significant inroads, and with the advantages of [[design for additive manufacturing]], it is clear to engineers that much more is to come.
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| One place that AM is making a significant inroad is in the aviation industry. With nearly 3.8 billion air travelers in 2016,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/urban-expeditions/transportation/air-travel-fuel-emissions-environment/|title=As Billions More Fly, Here's How Aviation Could Evolve|date=22 June 2017|website=National Geographic|language=en-US|access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref> the demand for fuel efficient and easily produced jet engines has never been higher. For large OEMs (original equipment manufacturers) like Pratt and Whitney (PW) and General Electric (GE) this means looking towards AM as a way to reduce cost, reduce the number of nonconforming parts, reduce weight in the engines to increase fuel efficiency and find new, highly complex shapes that would not be feasible with the antiquated manufacturing methods. One example of AM integration with aerospace was in 2016 when Airbus was delivered the first of GE's LEAP engine. This engine has integrated 3D printed fuel nozzles giving them a reduction in parts from 20 to 1, a 25% weight reduction and reduced assembly times.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ge.com/additive/additive-manufacturing/industries/aviation-aerospace/|title=Aviation and Aerospace Industry|website=GE Additive|language=en-US|access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref> A fuel nozzle is the perfect in road for additive manufacturing in a jet engine since it allows for optimized design of the complex internals and it is a low stress, non-rotating part. Similarly, in 2015, PW delivered their first AM parts in the PurePower PW1500G to Bombardier. Sticking to low stress, non-rotating parts, PW selected the compressor stators and synch ring brackets <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://additivemanufacturing.com/2015/04/06/pratt-whitney-to-deliver-first-entry-into-service-engine-parts-using-additive-manufacturing/|title=Pratt & Whitney to Deliver First Entry Into Service Engine Parts Using Additive Manufacturing|date=6 April 2015|website=Additive Manufacturing|language=en-US|access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref> to roll out this new manufacturing technology for the first time. While AM is still playing a small role in the total number of parts in the jet engine manufacturing process, the return on investment can already be seen by the reduction in parts, the rapid production capabilities and the "optimized design in terms of performance and cost".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Han|first1=Pinlina|year=2017|title=Additive Design and Manufacturing of Jet Engine Parts|journal=Engineering|volume=3|issue=5|pages=648–652|doi=10.1016/j.eng.2017.05.017|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| | == How they work == |
| | [[File:STL sample 2.png|thumb|A computer model of an object before printing|alt=]] |
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| As technology matured, several authors had begun to speculate that 3D printing could aid in [[sustainable development]] in the developing world.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=r.Ishengoma|first2=Fredrick|year=2014|title=3D Printing: Developing Countries Perspectives|journal=International Journal of Computer Applications|volume=104|issue=11|page=30|bibcode=2014IJCA..104k..30R|doi=10.5120/18249-9329|last1=b. Mtaho|first1=Adam|arxiv=1410.5349|s2cid=5381455}}</ref>
| | === Modelling === |
| | | The first step in 3D printing something is to make it on a computer. People do this with [[computer-aided design|CAD]] (Computer Aided Design) software or a [[3D scanner#Hand-held laser scanners|3D scanner]]. To design [https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3D_model models]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Alina|first=Heer|date=July 4, 2022|title=How to Design 3D Model with Free cad|url=https://www.digthisout.com/download-3d-print-models-free-exclusive-3d-print-templates/|url-status=live|access-date=July 17, 2022|website=Digthisout.com}}</ref> in CAD, people start with basic shapes, and build from that point. 3D scanners are machines that take lots of measurements of the object and automatically make a model on the computer. They can be very fast, but are also more expensive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vermeulen|first1=M. M. P. A.|last2=Rosielle|first2=P. C. J. N.|last3=Schellekens|first3=P. H. J.|date=January 1, 1998|title=Design of a High-Precision 3D-Coordinate Measuring Machine|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007850607628716|journal=CIRP Annals|volume=47|issue=1|pages=447–450|doi=10.1016/S0007-8506(07)62871-6|issn=0007-8506}}</ref>[[File:UHTC Propeller.webm|thumb|A 3D printer printing a propellor. The video is 4 times faster than real life.|left]]CAD models are usually saved on computers as [[STL (file format)|STL]] files. They are saved as lots of triangles, which saves space on the computer.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/jurnal-teknologi-science-and-engineering/oclc/889967279|title=Jurnal Teknologi|date=1977|publisher=Penerbit UTM Press|location=Johor Bahru|language=en|oclc=889967279}}</ref> |
| In 2012, Filabot developed a system for closing the loop<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.miltonindependent.com/local-invention-excites-tech-world/|title=Filabot: Plastic Filament Maker|date=24 May 2012|website=Kickstarter|language=en-US|access-date=1 December 2018}}</ref> with plastic and allows for any FDM or FFF 3D printer to be able to print with a wider range of plastics.
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| In 2014, [[Benjamin S. Cook]] and Manos M. Tentzeris demonstrate the first multi-material, vertically integrated printed electronics additive manufacturing platform (VIPRE) which enabled 3D printing of functional electronics operating up to 40 GHz.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/51844|title=VIPRE 3D Printed Electronics|access-date=2 April 2019|language=en-US}}</ref>
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| As the price of printers started to drop people interested in this technology had more access and freedom to make what they wanted. The price as of 2014 was still high with the cost being over $2,000, yet this still allowed hobbyists an entrance into printing outside of production and industry methods.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-22|title=3D Printer Price: How Much Does a 3D Printer Cost?|url=https://3dinsider.com/cost-of-3d-printer/|access-date=2021-02-24|website=3D Insider|language=en-US}}</ref>
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| The term "3D printing" originally referred to a process that deposits a binder material onto a powder bed with inkjet printer heads layer by layer. More recently, the popular vernacular has started using the term to encompass a wider variety of additive-manufacturing techniques such as electron-beam additive manufacturing and selective laser melting. The United States and global technical standards use the official term ''additive manufacturing'' for this broader sense.
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| The most-commonly used 3D printing process (46% {{as of|2018|lc=on}}) is a material extrusion technique called [[Fused filament fabrication#Fused deposition modeling|fused deposition modeling]], or FDM.<ref name="statista1">{{Cite web|url= https://www.statista.com/statistics/560304/worldwide-survey-3d-printing-top-technologies/|title= Most used 3D printing technologies 2017–2018 {{!}} Statistic|website= Statista|language= en|access-date= 2 December 2018}}</ref> While FDM technology was invented after the other two most popular technologies, stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS), FDM is typically the most inexpensive of the three by a large margin,{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} which lends to the popularity of the process.
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| === 2020s ===
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| As of 2020, 3D printers have reached the level of quality and price that allows most people to enter the world of 3D printing. In 2020 decent quality printers can be found for less than US$200 for entry level machines. These more affordable printers are usually [[fused deposition modeling]] (FDM) printers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Much Does a 3D Printer Cost? Calculate the ROI Now|url=https://formlabs.com/blog/how-to-calculate-3d-printer-cost/|access-date=2021-02-24|website=Formlabs|language=en-us}}</ref> In November 2021 a British patient named Steve Verze received the world's first fully 3D-printed prosthetic eye from the [[Moorfields Eye Hospital]] in [[London]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Patient receives the world's first fully 3D-printed prosthetic eye|url=https://www.engadget.com/patient-receives-a-fully-3-d-printed-eye-for-the-first-time-ever-142528877.html|access-date=2021-12-04|website=Engadget|language=en-US}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|title=Vsak dan prvi - 24ur.com|url=https://www.24ur.com/novice/znanost-in-tehnologija/britanec-prvi-clovek-na-svetu-s-3d-natisnjenim-ocesom.html|access-date=2021-12-04|website=www.24ur.com}}</ref>
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| == General principles ==
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| === Modeling ===
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| {{main|3D modeling}}
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| [[File:84530877 FillingSys (9415669149).jpg|thumb|[[CAD]] model used for 3D printing]] | |
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| [[File:Doob NY SOHO 3D selfie photo booth IMG 4939 FRD.jpg|thumb|upright|3D models can be generated from 2D pictures taken at a 3D photo booth.]]
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| 3D printable models may be created with a [[computer-aided design]] (CAD) package, via a [[3D scanner#Hand-held laser scanners|3D scanner]], or by a plain [[digital camera]] and [[photogrammetry software]]. 3D printed models created with CAD result in relatively fewer errors than other methods. Errors in 3D printable models can be identified and corrected before printing.<ref name="Jacobs">{{Cite book|title=Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing: Fundamentals of Stereolithography|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=HvcN0w1VyxwC}}|publisher=Society of Manufacturing Engineers|date=1 January 1992|isbn=978-0-87263-425-1|first=Paul Francis|last=Jacobs}}</ref> The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of collecting digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object, creating a digital model based on it.
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| CAD models can be saved in the [[STL (file format)|stereolithography file format (STL)]], a de facto CAD file format for additive manufacturing that stores data based on triangulations of the surface of CAD models. STL is not tailored for additive manufacturing because it generates large file sizes of topology optimized parts and lattice structures due to the large number of surfaces involved. A newer CAD file format, the [[Additive manufacturing file format|Additive Manufacturing File format (AMF)]] was introduced in 2011 to solve this problem. It stores information using curved triangulations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Azman|first1=Abdul Hadi|last2=Vignat|first2=Frédéric|last3=Villeneuve|first3=François|date=29 April 2018|url=https://jurnalteknologi.utm.my/index.php/jurnalteknologi/article/view/12058|journal=Jurnal Teknologi|language=en|volume=80|issue=4|issn=2180-3722|doi=10.11113/jt.v80.12058|title=Cad Tools and File Format Performance Evaluation in Designing Lattice Structures for Additive Manufacturing|doi-access=free|access-date=9 November 2018|archive-date=9 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109153359/https://jurnalteknologi.utm.my/index.php/jurnalteknologi/article/view/12058|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |
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| === Printing === | | === Printing === |
| | There are a lot of different ways that 3D printers work. There are also many different materials that can be used. Every method and material has its advantages and disadvantages.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/2007/11/15/a-whole-new-dimension|title=A whole new dimension|date=November 15, 2007|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=November 13, 2019|issn=0013-0613}}</ref> |
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| Before printing a 3D model from an [[STL (file format)|STL]] file, it must first be examined for errors. Most [[Computer-aided design|CAD]] applications produce errors in output STL files,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://print.limitstate.com/ |title=3D solid repair software – Fix STL polygon mesh files – LimitState:FIX |publisher=Print.limitstate.com |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yellowgurl.com/best-3d-pens-reviews/ |title=3D Printing Pens |publisher=yellowgurl.com |access-date=9 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916124703/http://www.yellowgurl.com/best-3d-pens-reviews/ |archive-date=16 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> of the following types:
| | The main things to think about when choosing a machine are usually speed, costs, and color. Printers that work directly with metals are generally expensive. However less expensive printers can be used to make a mold, which is then used to make metal parts.[[File:3D printed tactile replica of the Tsar Cannon.jpg|thumb|A finished 3D print of a cannon|alt=]]Typical layers are around 100 [[Dots per inch|μm]] thick, or about one tenth the thickness of a human hair.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://laylahair.com/the-thickness-of-human-hair/|title=Here's What Experts Say About The Thickness Of Human Hair|date=August 5, 2018|website=TOP Cambodian Hair and Vietnam Human Virgin Hair Extensions|access-date=November 20, 2019}}</ref> Prints can take anywhere from less than an hour to many days, depending on how complicated and big it is.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.3dprinterprices.net/advantages-of-3d-printing-over-traditional-manufacturing-2/|title=Advantages of 3D printing over traditional manufacturing|last=Andy|date=July 10, 2013|website=3DPrinterPrices.net|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2019|archive-date=October 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030200200/http://www.3dprinterprices.net/advantages-of-3d-printing-over-traditional-manufacturing-2/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
| # holes
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| # faces normals
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| # self-intersections
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| # noise shells
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| # manifold errors<ref>{{cite web |url=https://modelrepair.azurewebsites.net/ |title=Model Repair Service |publisher=Modelrepair.azurewebsites.net |access-date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053710/https://modelrepair.azurewebsites.net/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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| # overhang issues <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-16|title=3D Printing Overhang: How to 3D Print Overhangs|url=https://all3dp.com/2/3d-printing-overhang-how-to-master-overhangs-exceeding-45/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=All3DP|language=en}}</ref>
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| A step in the STL generation known as "repair" fixes such problems in the original model.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://software.materialise.com/magics |title=Magics, the Most Powerful 3D Printing Software | Software for additive manufacturing |publisher=Software.materialise.com |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.netfabb.com/netfabbcloud.php |title=netfabb Cloud Services |publisher=Netfabb.com |date=15 May 2009 |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> Generally STLs that have been produced from a model obtained through [[3D scanner|3D scanning]] often have more of these errors <ref>{{cite web|url=http://anamarva.com/how-to-repair-a-3d-scan-for-printing/ |title=How to repair a 3D scan for printing |publisher=Anamarva.com |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> as 3D scanning is often achieved by point to point acquisition/mapping. [[3D reconstruction]] often includes errors.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fausto Bernardini, [[Holly Rushmeier|Holly E. Rushmeier]] |title=The 3D Model Acquisition Pipeline GAS |journal=Computer Graphics Forum |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=149–72 |year=2002 |url=http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~allen/PHOTOPAPERS/pipeline.fausto.pdf |doi=10.1111/1467-8659.00574|s2cid=15779281 }}</ref>
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| Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software called a "slicer," which converts the model into a series of thin layers and produces a [[G-code]] file containing instructions tailored to a specific type of 3D printer ([[Fused deposition modeling|FDM printers]]).<ref name="Satyanarayana" /> This G-code file can then be printed with 3D printing client software (which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the 3D printing process).
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| Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X–Y resolution in [[dots per inch]] (dpi) or [[micrometre|micrometer]]s (µm). Typical layer thickness is around {{convert|100|pitch|dpi|lk=on}}, although some machines can print layers as thin as {{convert|16|pitch|dpi}}.<ref name="Auto3D-17" /> X–Y resolution is comparable to that of [[laser printer]]s. The particles (3D dots) are around {{convert|50|to|100|pitch|dpi}} in diameter.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} For that printer resolution, specifying a mesh resolution of {{nowrap|0.01–0.03 mm}} and a chord length {{nowrap|≤ 0.016 mm}} generates an optimal STL output file for a given model input file.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/340051/Design_Guides/Xometry_DesignGuide_3DPrinting.pdf?submissionGuid=d1681094-eb0b-46c0-9e8a-b265cf26f5be|title=Design Guide: Preparing a File for 3D Printing|website=Xometry}}</ref> Specifying higher resolution results in larger files without increase in print quality.
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| [[File:Hyperboloid Print.ogv|thumb|3:31 Timelapse of an 80-minute video of an object being made out of [[Polylactic acid|PLA]] using molten polymer deposition]]
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| Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.
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| === Finishing === | | === Finishing === |
| Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, greater accuracy can be achieved by printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard resolution and then removing material using a higher-resolution subtractive process.<ref name="smooth" />
| | After the machine has finished printing, sometimes people [[Surface finishing|finish]] the model. This means making small fixes to make it look better. Finishing includes taking off material that the printer placed to support the model. This sometimes can take a lot of time. There are ways to make it quicker, but it is often easiest to remove plastic by hand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.3dhubs.com/talk/t/best-way-to-remove-rafts-supports-and-other-extraneous-filament/494|title=Best way to remove rafts, supports and other extraneous filament?|date=January 30, 2015|website=Talk Manufacturing {{!}} 3D Hubs|language=en-US|access-date=November 20, 2019}}</ref> |
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| The layered structure of all additive manufacturing processes leads inevitably to a stair-stepping effect on part surfaces which are curved or tilted in respect to the building platform. The effects strongly depend on the orientation of a part surface inside the building process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Delfs|first1=P.|last2=T̈ows|first2=M.|last3=Schmid|first3=H.-J.|date=October 2016|title=Optimized build orientation of additive manufactured parts for improved surface quality and build time|journal=Additive Manufacturing|volume=12|pages=314–320|doi=10.1016/j.addma.2016.06.003|issn=2214-8604}}</ref>
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| Some printable polymers such as [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]], allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor processes<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kraft|first1=Caleb|title=Smoothing Out Your 3D Prints With Acetone Vapor|url=http://makezine.com/2014/09/24/smoothing-out-your-3d-prints-with-acetone-vapor/|website=Make|publisher=Make|access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> based on [[acetone]] or similar solvents.
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| Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course of constructing parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not necessarily require painting.
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| Some printing techniques require internal supports to be built for overhanging features during construction. These supports must be mechanically removed or dissolved upon completion of the print.
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| All of the commercialized metal 3D printers involve cutting the metal component off the metal substrate after deposition. A new process for the [[GMAW]] 3D printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove [[aluminum]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1089/3dp.2014.0015 |title=Substrate Release Mechanisms for Gas Metal Arc Weld 3D Aluminum Metal Printing |journal=3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=204 |year=2014 |last1=Haselhuhn |first1=Amberlee S. |last2=Gooding |first2=Eli J. |last3=Glover |first3=Alexandra G. |last4=Anzalone |first4=Gerald C. |last5=Wijnen |first5=Bas |last6=Sanders |first6=Paul G. |last7=Pearce |first7=Joshua M. |s2cid=135499443 }}</ref> or [[steel]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.06.038 |title=In situ formation of substrate release mechanisms for gas metal arc weld metal 3-D printing |journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology |volume=226 |page=50 |year=2015 |last1=Haselhuhn |first1=Amberlee S. |last2=Wijnen |first2=Bas |last3=Anzalone |first3=Gerald C. |last4=Sanders |first4=Paul G. |last5=Pearce |first5=Joshua M. |url=https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=materials_fp }}</ref>
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| === Materials ===
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| [[image:Stoofbrug Amsterdam detail 1.jpg|thumb|Detail of the [[Stoofbrug]] in Amsterdam, the world's first 3D-printed metal bridge.]]
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| Traditionally, 3D printing focused on [[polymers]] for printing, due to the ease of manufacturing and handling polymeric materials. However, the method has rapidly evolved to not only print various polymers<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.11.034 |title=3D printing of polymer matrix composites: A review and prospective |journal=Composites Part B: Engineering |volume=110 |pages=442–458 |year=2017 |last1=Wang |first1=Xin |last2=Jiang |first2=Man |last3=Zhou |first3=Zuowan |last4=Gou |first4=Jihua |last5=Hui |first5=David }}</ref> but also [[metals]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=On the degradation of porous stainless steel |first=L. |last=Rose |pages=104–143 |year=2011 |doi=10.14288/1.0071732 |publisher=University of British Columbia }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/285/1/012028 |title=Additive manufacturing for steels: a review |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |volume=285 |issue=1 |page=012028 |year=2018 |last1=Zadi-Maad |first1=Ahmad |last2=Rohbib |first2=Rohbib |last3=Irawan |first3=A |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322816447|bibcode=2018MS&E..285a2028Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[ceramics]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.dental.2019.02.026 |pmid=30948230 |title=Additive manufacturing of ceramics for dental applications |journal=Dental Materials |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=825–846 |year=2019 |last1=Galante |first1=Raquel |last2=G. Figueiredo-Pina |first2=Celio |last3=Serro |first3=Ana Paula |s2cid=96434269 }}</ref> making 3D printing a versatile option for manufacturing. Layer-by-layer fabrication of three-dimensional physical models is a modern concept that "stems from the ever-growing CAD industry, more specifically the solid modeling side of CAD. Before solid modeling was introduced in the late 1980s, three-dimensional models were created with wire frames and surfaces."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cooper, Kenneth G., 1973-|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45873626|title=Rapid prototyping technology : selection and application|date=2001|publisher=Marcel Dekker|isbn=0-8247-0261-1|location=New York|pages=39–41|oclc=45873626}}</ref> but in all cases the layers of materials are controlled by the printer and the material properties. The three-dimensional material layer is controlled by deposition rate as set by the printer operator and stored in a computer file. The earliest printed patented material was a Hot melt type ink for printing patterns using a heated metal alloy. See 1970's history above.
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| Charles Hull filed the first patent on August 8, 1984, to use a UV-cured acrylic resin using a UV masked light source at UVP Corp to build a simple model. The SLA-1 was the first SL product announced by 3D Systems at Autofact Exposition, Detroit, November 1978 in Detroit. The SLA-1 Beta shipped in Jan 1988 to Baxter Healthcare, Pratt and Whitney, General Motors and AMP. The first production SLA-1 shipped to Precision Castparts in April 1988. The UV resin material changed over quickly to an epoxy-based material resin. In both cases SLA-1 models needed UV oven cure after being rinsed in a solvent cleaner to remove uncured boundary resin. A Post Cure Apparatus (PCA) was sold with all systems. The early resin printers required a blade to move fresh resin over the model on each layer. The layer thickness was 0.006 inches and the HeCd Laser model of the SLA-1 was 12 watts and swept across the surface at 30 in per second. UVP was acquired by 3D Systems in Jan 1990.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Burns|first=Marshall|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27810960|title=Automated fabrication : improving productivity in manufacturing|date=1993|publisher=PTR Prentice Hall|isbn=0-13-119462-3|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.|pages=8, 15, 49, 95, 97|oclc=27810960}}</ref>
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| A review in the history shows a number of materials (resins, plastic powder, plastic filament and hot-melt plastic ink) were used in the 1980s for patents in the rapid prototyping field. Masked lamp UV-cured resin was also introduced by Cubital's Itzchak Pomerantz in the Soldier 5600, Carl Deckard's (DTM) Laser sintered thermoplastic powders, and adhesive-laser cut paper (LOM) stacked to form objects by Michael Feygin before 3D Systems made its first announcement. Scott Crump was also working with extruded "melted" plastic filament modeling (FDM) and Drop deposition had been patented by William E Masters a week after Charles Hull's patent in 1984, but he had to discover Thermoplastic Inkjets introduced by Visual Impact Corporation 3D printer in 1992 using inkjets from Howtek, Inc., before he formed BPM to bring out his own 3D printer product in 1994.<ref name=":0" />
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| === Multi-material 3D printing ===
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| {{main|Multi-material 3D printing}}
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| [[File:3DBenchy created using color mixing on an FDM printer.jpg|thumb|A multi-material [[3DBenchy]].]] | |
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| Efforts to achieve multi-material 3D printing range from enhanced FDM-like processes like VoxelJet, to novel voxel-based printing technologies like [[Layered Assembly]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.addma.2019.03.032|title=Parallel electrostatic grippers for layered assembly|year=2019|last1=Mici|first1=Joni|last2=Ko|first2=Jang Won|last3=West|first3=Jared|last4=Jaquith|first4=Jeffrey|last5=Lipson|first5=Hod|journal=Additive Manufacturing|volume=27|pages=451–460|s2cid=141154762}}</ref>
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| A drawback of many existing 3D printing technologies is that they only allow one material to be printed at a time, limiting many potential applications which require the integration of different materials in the same object. Multi-material 3D printing solves this problem by allowing objects of complex and heterogeneous arrangements of materials to be manufactured using a single printer. Here, a material must be specified for each [[voxel]] (or 3D printing pixel element) inside the final object volume.
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| The process can be fraught with complications, however, due to the isolated and monolithic algorithms. Some commercial devices have sought to solve these issues, such as building a Spec2Fab translator, but the progress is still very limited.<ref name="source">{{cite conference |title=Spec2Fab: A reducer-tuner model for translating specifications to 3D prints |language= en |conference=Spec2Fab |citeseerx=10.1.1.396.2985 }}</ref> Nonetheless, in the medical industry, a concept of 3D printed pills and vaccines has been presented.<ref name="source6">{{cite conference |title=Researchers Turn to Multi-Material 3D Printing to Develop Responsive, Versatile Smart Composites |language=en |url=https://3dprint.com/191717/sequential-cell-opening-mechanism/ |conference=Researchers Turn to Multi-Material 3D Printing to Develop Responsive, Versatile Smart Composites }}</ref>
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| With this new concept, multiple medications can be combined, which will decrease many risks. With more and more applications of multi-material 3D printing, the costs of daily life and high technology development will become inevitably lower.
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| Metallographic materials of 3D printing is also being researched.<ref name="source001">{{cite conference |title= CIMP-3D |language=zh|url=http://www.51shape.com/?p=10586|conference= CIMP-3d }}</ref> By classifying each material, CIMP-3D can systematically perform 3D printing with multiple materials.<ref name="source2">{{cite conference |title=CIMP-3D |language=en |url=https://www.mri.psu.edu/mri/facilities-and-centers/cimp-3d-center-innovative-materials-processing-through-direct-digital|conference=CIMP-3d }}</ref>
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| === 4D Printing ===
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| {{main|4D printing}}
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| Using 3D printing and multi-material structures in additive manufacturing has allowed for the design and creation of what is called 4D printing. 4D printing is an additive manufacturing process in which the printed object changes shape with time, temperature, or some other type of stimulation. 4D printing allows for the creation of dynamic structures with adjustable shapes, properties or functionality. The smart/stimulus responsive materials that are created using 4D printing can be activated to create calculated responses such as self-assembly, self-repair, multi-functionality, reconfiguration and shape shifting. This allows for customized printing of shape changing and shape-memory materials.<ref>Momeni, Farhang, Xun Liu, and Jun Ni. "A review of 4D printing." Materials & design 122 (2017): 42-79.</ref>
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| 4D printing has the potential to find new applications and uses for materials (plastics, composites, metals, etc.) and will create new alloys and composites that were not viable before. The versatility of this technology and materials can lead to advances in multiple fields of industry, including space, commercial and the medical field. The repeatability, precision, and material range for 4D printing must increase to allow the process to become more practical throughout these industries.
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| To become a viable industrial production option, there are a couple of challenges that 4D printing must overcome. The challenges of 4D printing include the fact that the microstructures of these printed smart materials must be close to or better than the parts obtained through traditional machining processes. New and customizable materials need to be developed that have the ability to consistently respond to varying external stimuli and change to their desired shape. There is also a need to design new software for the various technique types of 4D printing. The 4D printing software will need to take into consideration the base smart material, printing technique, and structural and geometric requirements of the design.<ref>Joshi, Siddharth, et al. "4D printing of materials for the future: Opportunities and challenges." Applied Materials Today 18 (2020): 100490.</ref>
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| == Processes and printers ==
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| {{Main|3D printing processes}}
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| {{Summary too long|3D printing processes|date=August 2017}}
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| There are many different branded [[3D printing processes|additive manufacturing processes]], that can be grouped into seven categories:<ref>{{cite journal |title=Additive manufacturing – General Principles – Overview of process categories and feedstock |journal=ISO/ASTM International Standard |date=2015 |issue=17296–2:2015(E)}}</ref>
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| * [[3D printing processes#Photopolymerization|Vat photopolymerization]]
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| * [[3D printing processes#material jetting|Material jetting]]
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| * [[3D printing processes#Binder jetting|Binder jetting]]
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| * Powder bed fusion
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| * [[3D printing processes#Extrusion deposition|Material extrusion]]
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| * Directed energy deposition
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| * [[3D printing processes#Lamination|Sheet lamination]]
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| [[File:Schematic representation of Fused Filament Fabrication 01.png|thumb|Schematic representation of the 3D printing technique known as Fused Filament Fabrication; a filament '''a)''' of plastic material is fed through a heated moving head '''b)''' that melts and extrudes it depositing it, layer after layer, in the desired shape '''c)'''. A moving platform '''e)''' lowers after each layer is deposited. For this kind of technology additional vertical support structures '''d)''' are needed to sustain overhanging parts]]
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| The main differences between processes are in the way layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that are used. Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies offer a choice of powder and polymer for the material used to build the object.<ref name="Auto3D-7" /> Others sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of the printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and color capabilities.<ref name="Auto3D-8" /> Printers that work directly with metals are generally expensive. However less expensive printers can be used to make a mold, which is then used to make metal parts.<ref name="Auto3D-9" />
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| ISO/ASTM52900-15 defines seven categories of Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes within its meaning: binder jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, and vat photopolymerization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astm.org/Standards/ISOASTM52900.htm|title=Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing – General Principles – Terminology|date=1 December 2015|website=ASTM International – Standards Worldwide|access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref>
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| The first process where three-dimensional material is deposited to form an object was done with [[3D printing processes#material jetting|Material Jetting]]<ref name=":4" /> or as it was originally called particle deposition. Particle deposition by inkjet first started with Continuous Inkjet technology (CIT) (1950's) and later with drop-On-Demand Inkjet technology.(1970's) using Hot-melt inks. Wax inks were the first three-dimensional materials jetted and later low temperature alloy metal was jetted with CIT. Wax and thermoplastic hot-melts were jetted next by DOD. Objects were very small and started with text characters and numerals for signage. An object must have form and can be handled. Wax characters tumbled off paper documents and inspired a Liquid Metal Recorder patent to make metal characters for signage in 1971. Thermoplastic color inks (CMYK) printed with layers of each color to form the first digitally formed layered objects in 1984. The idea of investment casting with Solid-Ink jetted images or patterns in 1984 led to the first patent to form articles from particle deposition in 1989, issued in 1992.
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| Some methods melt or soften the material to produce the layers. In [[Fused filament fabrication]], also known as [[Fused deposition modeling]] (FDM), the model or part is produced by extruding small beads or streams of material which harden immediately to form layers. A filament of [[thermoplastic]], metal wire, or other material is fed into an [[extrusion]] nozzle head ([[3D printer extruder]]), which heats the material and turns the flow on and off. FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of shapes that may be fabricated. Another technique fuses parts of the layer and then moves upward in the working area, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Selective Heat Sintering Works |url=https://thre3d.com/how-it-works/powder-bed-fusion/selective-heat-sintering-shs |publisher=THRE3D.com |access-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203071153/https://thre3d.com/how-it-works/powder-bed-fusion/selective-heat-sintering-shs |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref> Recently, FFF/FDM has expanded to 3-D print directly from pellets to avoid the conversion to filament. This process is called fused particle fabrication (FPF) (or fused granular fabrication (FGF) and has the potential to use more recycled materials.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woern|first1=Aubrey|last2=Byard|first2=Dennis|last3=Oakley|first3=Robert|last4=Fiedler|first4=Matthew|last5=Snabes|first5=Samantha|date=12 August 2018|title=Fused Particle Fabrication 3-D Printing: Recycled Materials' Optimization and Mechanical Properties|journal=Materials|language=en|volume=11|issue=8|pages=1413|doi=10.3390/ma11081413|pmc=6120030|pmid=30103532|bibcode=2018Mate...11.1413W|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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| Powder Bed Fusion techniques, or PBF, include several processes such as [[Direct Metal Laser Sintering|DMLS]], [[Selective laser sintering|SLS]], SLM, MJF and [[Electron-beam additive manufacturing|EBM]]. Powder Bed Fusion processes can be used with an array of materials and their flexibility allows for geometrically complex structures,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://make.3dexperience.3ds.com/processes/powder-bed-fusion|title=3DEXPERIENCE Platform|website=make.3dexperience.3ds.com}}</ref> making it a go to choice for many 3D printing projects. These techniques include [[selective laser sintering]], with both metals and polymers, and [[direct metal laser sintering]].<ref name="DMLS" /> [[Selective laser melting]] does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will completely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical properties similar to those of conventional manufactured metals. [[Electron beam melting]] is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g. [[titanium alloy]]s). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum.<ref name="Auto3D-12" /><ref name="Auto3D-13" /> Another method consists of an [[Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing|inkjet 3D printing]] system, which creates the model one layer at a time by spreading a layer of powder ([[plaster]], or [[resin]]s) and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an inkjet-like process. With [[laminated object manufacturing]], thin layers are cut to shape and joined together. In addition to the previously mentioned methods, [[HP Inc.|HP]] has developed the Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) which is a powder base technique, though no lasers are involved. An inkjet array applies fusing and detailing agents which are then combined by heating to create a solid layer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://make.3dexperience.3ds.com/processes/material-extrusion|title=3DEXPERIENCE Platform|website=make.3dexperience.3ds.com}}</ref> [[File:Schematic representation of Stereolithography.png|thumb|upright|Schematic representation of Stereolithography; a light-emitting device ''a)'' (laser or [[Digital Light Processing|DLP]]) selectively illuminate the transparent bottom ''c)'' of a tank ''b)'' filled with a liquid photo-polymerizing resin; the solidified resin ''d)'' is progressively dragged up by a lifting platform ''e)'']] Other methods cure liquid materials using different sophisticated technologies, such as [[stereolithography]]. [[Photopolymerization]] is primarily used in stereolithography to produce a solid part from a liquid. Inkjet printer systems like the ''Objet PolyJet'' system spray [[photopolymer]] materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30 µm) until the part is completed.<ref name="Coward2015">{{cite book|author=Cameron Coward|title=3D Printing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1cpBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT74|date=7 April 2015|publisher=DK Publishing|isbn=978-1-61564-745-3|page=74}}</ref> Each photopolymer layer is [[Curing (chemistry)|cured]] with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in [[two-photon absorption|multiphoton]] photopolymerisation. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser was focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.<ref name="Auto3D-15" /> Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using [[LED]]s.<ref name="Auto3D-16" />
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| In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography, a 3D digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a two-dimensional mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the layer.<ref name="k1113" /> [[Continuous liquid interface production]] begins with a pool of liquid [[photopolymer]] [[resin]]. Part of the pool bottom is transparent to [[ultraviolet light]] (the "window"), which causes the resin to solidify. The object rises slowly enough to allow resin to flow under and maintain contact with the bottom of the object.<ref name="St. Fleur">{{cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/03/3d-printing-just-got-100-times-faster/388051/|title=3-D Printing Just Got 100 Times Faster|last=St. Fleur|first=Nicholas|date=17 March 2015|work=[[The Atlantic]]|access-date=19 March 2015}}</ref> In powder-fed directed-energy deposition, a high-power laser is used to melt metal powder supplied to the focus of the laser beam. The powder fed directed energy process is similar to Selective Laser Sintering, but the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the part at that moment.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11837-015-1759-z |title=Review of Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Made by Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing Using Powder Feedstock |journal=JOM |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=724 |year=2015 |last1=Beese |first1=Allison M. |last2=Carroll |first2=Beth E. |bibcode=2016JOM....68c.724B |s2cid=138250882 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-2113-3 |title=Additive Manufacturing Technologies |year=2015 |last1=Gibson |first1=Ian |last2=Rosen |first2=David |last3=Stucker |first3=Brent |isbn=978-1-4939-2112-6 }}</ref>
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| {{As of|December 2017}}, additive manufacturing systems were on the market that ranged from $99 to $500,000 in price and were employed in industries including aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. For example, [[General Electric]] uses high-end 3D Printers to build parts for [[turbine]]s.<ref name="cfr2013" /> Many of these systems are used for rapid prototyping, before mass production methods are employed. Higher education has proven to be a major buyer of desktop and professional 3D printers which industry experts generally view as a positive indicator.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bold.global/jordan-brehove/2015/12/02/despite-market-woes-3d-printing-has-a-future-thanks-to-higher-education/|title=Despite Market Woes, 3D Printing Has a Future Thanks to Higher Education – Bold|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> Libraries around the world have also become locations to house smaller 3D printers for educational and community access.<ref>{{cite web | title=UMass Amherst Library Opens 3-D Printing Innovation Center | website=Library Journal | date=2 April 2015 | url=http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2015/03/technology/umass-amherst-library-opens-3d-printing-innovation-center/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402221847/http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2015/03/technology/umass-amherst-library-opens-3d-printing-innovation-center/ | archive-date=2 April 2015 | url-status=dead | access-date=23 August 2019 }}</ref> Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this work has been driven by and targeted at [[Do it yourself|DIY]]/[[Maker culture|Maker]]/enthusiast/[[early adopter]] communities, with additional ties to the academic and [[Hacker (hobbyist)|hacker]] communities.<ref name="Auto3D-26" />
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| [[Computed axial lithography]] is a method for 3D printing based on [[CT scan|computerised tomography scans]] to create prints in photo-curable resin. It was developed by a collaboration between the [[University of California, Berkeley]] with [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]].<ref name="TomoVoluAM">{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=Brett E.|last2=Bhattacharya|first2=Indrasen|last3=Heidari|first3=Hossein|last4=Shusteff|first4=Maxim|last5=Spadaccini|first5=Christopher M.|last6=Taylor|first6=Hayden K.|date=31 January 2019|title=Volumetric additive manufacturing via tomographic reconstruction|journal=Science|volume=363|issue=6431|language=en|pages=1075–1079|doi=10.1126/science.aau7114|issn=0036-8075|pmid=30705152|bibcode=2019Sci...363.1075K|s2cid=72336143|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Replicator">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/01/star-trek-replicator-creates-entire-objects-minutes|title=Star Trek–like replicator creates entire objects in minutes|website=Science|language=en|access-date=31 January 2019|date=31 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Arbitrary">{{cite arxiv|last1=Kelly|first1=Brett|last2=Bhattacharya|first2=Indrasen|last3=Shusteff|first3=Maxim|last4=Panas|first4=Robert M.|last5=Taylor|first5=Hayden K.|last6=Spadaccini|first6=Christopher M.|date=16 May 2017|title=Computed Axial Lithography (CAL): Toward Single Step 3D Printing of Arbitrary Geometries|eprint=1705.05893|class=cs.GR}}</ref> Unlike other methods of 3D printing it does not build models through depositing layers of material like [[Fused filament fabrication|fused deposition modelling]] and [[stereolithography]], instead it creates objects using a series of 2D images projected onto a cylinder of resin.<ref name="TomoVoluAM" /><ref name="Arbitrary" /> It is notable for its ability to build an object much more quickly than other methods using resins and the ability to embed objects within the prints.<ref name="Replicator" />
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| [[Liquid additive manufacturing]] (LAM) is a 3D printing technique which deposits a liquid or high viscose material (e.g. Liquid Silicone Rubber) onto a build surface to create an object which then is [[Vulcanization|vulcanised]] using heat to harden the object.<ref name="RepRap">{{Cite web|url=https://www.3ders.org/articles/20181105-german-reprap-introduces-l280-first-liquid-additive-manufacturing-lam-production-ready-3d-printer.html|title=German RepRap introduces L280, first Liquid Additive Manufacturing (LAM) production-ready 3D printer|website=3ders.org|language=en-US|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tctmagazine.com/api/content/891e038e-dea8-11e8-a18f-120e7ad5cf50/|title=German RepRap to present series-ready Liquid Additive Manufacturing system at Formnext|last=Davies|first=Sam|date=2 November 2018|website=TCT Magazine|language=en-gb|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tctmagazine.com/api/content/3a2c34f8-3571-11e7-b9f5-0aea2a882f79/|title=German RepRap presenting Liquid Additive Manufacturing technology at RAPID+TCT|date=10 May 2017|website=TCT Magazine|language=en-gb|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref> The process was originally created by [[Adrian Bowyer]] and was then built upon by German RepRap.<ref name="RepRap" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/229102/german-reprap-presents-liquid-additive-manufacturing-and-l280/|title=German RepRap to Present Liquid Additive Manufacturing and L280 3D Printer at Formnext|last=Scott|first=Clare|date=2 November 2018|website=3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|language=en-US|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tctmagazine.com/api/content/6bb17f10-7761-11e7-ba83-0a72cbefeab2/|title=German RepRap develops new polyurethane material for Liquid Additive Manufacturing|date=2 August 2017|website=TCT Magazine|language=en-gb|access-date=13 April 2019}}</ref>
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| == Applications ==
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| {{Main|Applications of 3D printing}}
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| [[File:I robot car.jpg|thumb|The [[Audi RSQ]] was made with rapid prototyping industrial [[KUKA]] robots]]
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| [[File:3D selfie in 1 20 scale in my palm after one spray of clear satin acrylic varnish IMG 4751 FRD.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[3D selfie]] in 1:20 scale printed using gypsum-based printing]]
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| [[File:HCC 3D printed turbine view 1.jpg|thumb|A 3D printed jet engine model]]
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| [[File:30 Tasses 30 jours 3D Printing Céramique émaillée, impression 3D Bernat Cuni, 2011 (1).jpg|thumb|3D printed enamelled pottery]]
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| [[File:Ted Noten Fashionista in green 2009.jpg|thumb|3D printed necklace]]
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| [[File:3D Printed Ancient Egyptian Figurine.png|thumb|upright|3D printed sculpture of an Egyptian pharaoh shown at [[Threeding]]]]
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| 3D printing or additive manufacturing has been used in manufacturing, medical, industry and sociocultural sectors (eg. Cultural Heritage) to create successful commercial technology.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taufik|first1=Mohammad|last2=Jain|first2=Prashant K.|title= Additive Manufacturing: Current Scenario|url=https://www.ikbooks.com/books/book/engineering-computer-science/mechanical-production-industrial-engineering/proceedings-international-conference-on/9789385909511/|journal= Proceedings of International Conference on: Advanced Production and Industrial Engineering -ICAPIE 2016|date=10 December 2016| pages=380–386}}</ref> More recently, 3D printing has also been used in the humanitarian and development sector to produce a range of medical items, prosthetics, spares and repairs.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Corsini|first1=Lucia|last2=Aranda-Jan|first2=Clara B.|last3=Moultrie|first3=James|date=2019|title=Using digital fabrication tools to provide humanitarian and development aid in low-resource settings|journal=Technology in Society|language=en|volume=58|pages=101117|doi=10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.02.003|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/290180| issn=0160-791X|doi-access=free}}</ref> The earliest application of additive manufacturing was on the [[toolroom]] end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example, [[rapid prototyping]] was one of the earliest additive variants, and its mission was to reduce the [[lead time]] and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods such as CNC milling, turning, and precision grinding.<ref name="TMW_2011-02_Origins" /> In the 2010s, additive manufacturing entered [[production line|production]] to a much greater extent.
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| === Food industry ===
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| [[3D food printing|Additive manufacturing of food]] is being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta,<ref name="AutoSQ-72" /> and pizza.<ref>{{cite web | title =Did BeeHex Just Hit 'Print' to Make Pizza at Home? | url = http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/cohan-chew/did-beehex-just-hit-print_b_10108424.html|access-date =28 May 2016| date = 27 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Foodini 3D Printer Cooks Up Meals Like the Star Trek Food Replicator|url=http://inhabitat.com/foodini-3d-printer-will-make-all-your-meals-for-you-like-the-star-trek-food-replicator|access-date=27 January 2015}}</ref> NASA is looking into the technology in order to create 3D printed food to limit [[food waste]] and to make food that is designed to fit an astronaut's dietary needs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sbir.gsfc.nasa.gov/SBIR/abstracts/12/sbir/phase1/SBIR-12-1-H12.04-9357.html?solicitationId=SBIR_12_P1.|title=3D Printed Food System for Long Duration Space Missions|website=sbir.gsfc.nasa.gov|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> In 2018, Italian bioengineer [[Giuseppe Scionti]] developed a technology allowing to generate fibrous plant-based meat analogues using a custom [[3D bioprinting|3D bioprinter]], mimicking meat texture and nutritional values.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/09/27/inenglish/1538061240_449222.html|title=Barcelona researcher develops 3D printer that makes 'steaks'|last=Bejerano|first=Pablo G.|date=28 September 2018|work=El País|access-date=21 June 2019|language=en|issn=1134-6582}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/this-fake-meat-is-printed-in-a-lab-using-vegetables-and-a-3d-printer-2018-11|title=A researcher has developed a plant-based meat substitute that's made with a 3D printer|last=España|first=Lidia Montes, Ruqayyah Moynihan, Business Insider|website=Business Insider|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref>
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| === Fashion industry ===
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| 3D printing has entered the world of clothing, with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed [[bikini]]s, shoes, and dresses.<ref name="resins-online.com" /> In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.<ref name="resins-online.com" /><ref name="AutoSQ-45" /> 3D printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer grade eyewear with on-demand custom fit and styling (although they cannot print the lenses). On-demand customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.<ref name="Forbes.com" />
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| Vanessa Friedman, fashion director and chief fashion critic at ''The New York Times'', says 3D printing will have a significant value for fashion companies down the road, especially if it transforms into a print-it-yourself tool for shoppers. "There's real sense that this is not going to happen anytime soon," she says, "but it will happen, and it will create dramatic change in how we think both about intellectual property and how things are in the supply chain." She adds: "Certainly some of the fabrications that brands can use will be dramatically changed by technology."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Alvarez|first1=Edgar|title=Fashion and technology will inevitably become one|url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/05/23/the-future-of-fashion-and-technology/|website=Engagdet}}</ref>
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| === Transportation industry ===
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| [[Image:Stoofbrug-JUL2021-3Dbridge.jpg|thumb|The [[Stoofbrug]] in Amsterdam, the world's first 3D-printed metal bridge]]
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| In cars, trucks, and aircraft, Additive Manufacturing is beginning to transform both (1) [[unibody]] and [[fuselage]] design and production and (2) [[powertrain]] design and production. For example:
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| * In early 2014, Swedish [[supercar]] manufacturer [[Koenigsegg]] announced the One:1, a supercar that utilizes many components that were 3D printed.<ref name="AutoSQ-36" /> [[Urbee]] is the name of the first car in the world car mounted using the technology 3D printing (its bodywork and car windows were "printed").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tecmundo.com.br/impressora/6260-conheca-o-urbee-primeiro-carro-a-ser-fabricado-com-uma-impressora-3d.htm|title=Conheça o Urbee, primeiro carro a ser fabricado com uma impressora 3D|website=tecmundo.com.br}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://truth-out.org/news/item/27430-the-urbee-3d-printed-car-coast-to-coast-on-10-gallons|title=The ''Urbee'' 3D-Printed Car: Coast to Coast on 10 Gallons?|first=Max|last=Eternity}}</ref><ref>{{youtube|id=vI12MqoYQto|title= 3D Printed Car Creator Discusses Future of the Urbee}}</ref>
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| * In 2014, [[Local Motors]] debuted Strati, a functioning vehicle that was entirely 3D Printed using ABS plastic and carbon fiber, except the powertrain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2015/01/13/local-motors-shows-strati-the-worlds-first-3d-printed-car/|title=Local Motors shows Strati, the world's first 3D-printed car|date=13 January 2015}}</ref>
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| * In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new [[Airbus A350 XWB]] included over 1000 components manufactured by 3D printing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Airbus had 1,000 parts 3D printed to meet deadline|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-32597809|access-date=27 November 2015|date=6 May 2015 |first=Dan|last=Simmons|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
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| * In 2015, a [[Royal Air Force]] [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] fighter jet flew with printed parts. The [[United States Air Force]] has begun to work with 3D printers, and the [[Israeli Air Force]] has also purchased a 3D printer to print spare parts.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 3D printer revolution comes to the IAF|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4684682,00.html|access-date=29 September 2015|date=27 July 2015 |first=Yoav|last=Zitun|publisher=Ynet News}}</ref>
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| * In 2017, [[GE Aviation]] revealed that it had used [[design for additive manufacturing]] to create a helicopter engine with 16 parts instead of 900, with great potential impact on reducing the complexity of [[supply chain]]s.<ref name="Zelinski_2017-03-31">{{Citation |last=Zelinski |first=Peter |date=31 March 2017 |title=GE team secretly printed a helicopter engine, replacing 900 parts with 16 |journal=Modern Machine Shop |url=http://www.additivemanufacturing.media/blog/post/ge-team-secretly-printed-a-helicopter-engine-replacing-900-parts-with-16 |access-date=9 April 2017 |postscript=.}}</ref>
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| === Firearm industry ===
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| AM's impact on firearms involves two dimensions: new manufacturing methods for established companies, and new possibilities for the making of [[do-it-yourself]] firearms. In 2012, the US-based group [[Defense Distributed]] disclosed plans to design a working plastic [[3D printed firearms|3D printed firearm]] "that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer."<ref name="f20120823" /><ref name="pcm20120824" /> After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D printing and widespread consumer-level [[CNC]] machining<ref name="AutoSQ-54" /><ref name="AutoSQ-55" /> may have on [[gun control]] effectiveness.<ref name="AutoSQ-56" /><ref name="AutoSQ-57" /><ref name="AutoSQ-58" /><ref name="AutoSQ-59" /> Moreover, armour design strategies can be enhanced by taking inspiration from nature and prototyping those designs easily possible using additive manufacturing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Islam |first1=Muhammed Kamrul |last2=Hazell |first2=Paul J. |last3=Escobedo |first3=Juan P. |last4=Wang |first4=Hongxu |title=Biomimetic armour design strategies for additive manufacturing: A review |journal=Materials & Design |date=July 2021 |volume=205 |pages=109730 |doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109730|doi-access=free }}</ref>
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| === Health sector ===
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| Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a history beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical modeling for bony reconstructive surgery planning. Patient-matched implants were a natural extension of this work, leading to truly personalized implants that fit one unique individual.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Sadove|first2=A. M.|date=1 November 1998|title=Computer-generated patient models for reconstruction of cranial and facial deformities|journal=J Craniofac Surg|volume=9|issue=6|pages=548–556|doi=10.1097/00001665-199811000-00011|pmid=10029769|first1=B. L.|last1=Eppley}}</ref> Virtual planning of surgery and guidance using 3D printed, personalized instruments have been applied to many areas of surgery including total joint replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with great success.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Poukens|first=Jules|date=1 February 2008|title=A classification of cranial implants based on the degree of difficulty in computer design and manufacture|journal=The International Journal of Medical Robotics and Computer Assisted Surgery|volume=4|issue=1|pages=46–50|doi=10.1002/rcs.171|pmid=18240335|s2cid=26121479}}</ref> One example of this is the bioresorbable trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchomalacia<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMc1206319 |pmid=23697530 |title=Bioresorbable Airway Splint Created with a Three-Dimensional Printer |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=368 |issue=21 |pages=2043–5 |year=2013 |last1=Zopf |first1=David A. |last2=Hollister |first2=Scott J. |last3=Nelson |first3=Marc E. |last4=Ohye |first4=Richard G. |last5=Green |first5=Glenn E. }}</ref> developed at the University of Michigan. The use of additive manufacturing for serialized production of orthopedic implants (metals) is also increasing due to the ability to efficiently create porous surface structures that facilitate osseointegration. The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D printing technology.<ref name="AutoSQ-49" />
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| In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident.<ref name="AutoSQ-50" /> In May 2018, 3D printing has been used for the kidney transplant to save a three-year-old boy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/video/3d-printing-assists-kidney-transplant-in-boy-11374845|title=Boy gets kidney transplant thanks to 3D printing|work=Sky News|access-date=11 June 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref> {{As of|2012}}, 3D [[bio-printing]] technology has been studied by [[biotechnology]] firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using [[inkjet printing]] techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.<ref name="Auto3D-38" /> Recently, a heart-on-chip has been created which matches properties of cells.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scitechdaily.com/harvard-engineers-create-the-first-fully-3d-printed-heart-on-a-chip/|title=Harvard engineers create the first fully 3D printed heart-on-a-chip|date=25 October 2016}}</ref>
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| Thermal degradation during 3D printing of resorbable polymers, same as in [[surgical sutures]], has been studied, and parameters can be adjusted to minimize the degradation during processing. Soft pliable scaffold structures for cell cultures can be printed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahlinder |first1=Astrid |title=Degradable copolymers in additive manufacturing: controlled fabrication of pliable scaffolds |date=2021 |isbn=978-91-7873-778-9 |url=http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1530592/FULLTEXT01.pdf}}</ref>
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| In 3D printing, computer-simulated microstructures are commonly used to fabricate objects with spatially varying properties. This is achieved by dividing the volume of the desired object into smaller subcells using computer aided simulation tools and then filling these cells with appropriate microstructures during fabrication. Several different candidate structures with similar behaviours are checked against each other and the object is fabricated when an optimal set of structures are found. Advanced [[topology optimization]] methods are used to ensure the compatibility of structures in adjacent cells. This flexible approach to 3D fabrication is widely used across various disciplines from [[biomedical sciences]] where they are used to create complex bone structures<ref>{{cite web |url=https://3dprint.com/234196/researchers-discuss-microstructural-optimization-for-3d-printing/|title=TU Delft Researchers Discuss Microstructural Optimization for 3D Printing Trabecular Bone|date=18 January 2019}}</ref> and human tissue<ref>{{cite web|url=https://knect365.com/pharmanext/article/a98a315a-716d-4116-bcbf-8d92825743ca/how-doctors-can-use-3d-printing-to-help-their-patients-recover-faster|title=How Doctors Can Use 3D Printing to Help Their Patients Recover Faster |publisher= PharmaNext | df=dmy-all}}</ref> to [[robotics]] where they are used in the creation of soft robots with movable parts.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Review of manufacturing processes for soft biomimetic robots|journal=International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing|volume=10|issue=3|pages=171–181|doi=10.1007/s12541-009-0064-6|year = 2009|last1 = Cho|first1 = Kyu-Jin|last2=Koh|first2=Je-Sung|last3=Kim|first3=Sangwoo|last4=Chu|first4=Won-Shik|last5=Hong|first5=Yongtaek|last6=Ahn|first6=Sung-Hoon|s2cid=135714305}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Design, fabrication and control of soft robots|journal=Nature|volume=521|issue=7553|pages=467–75|bibcode=2015Natur.521..467R|last1=Rus|first1=Daniela|last2=Tolley|first2=Michael T.|year=2015|doi=10.1038/nature14543|pmid = 26017446|url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/100772/1/SoftRoboticsReview-FinalAuthorVersion.pdf|hdl=1721.1/100772|s2cid=217952627|hdl-access=free}}</ref> 3D printing also finds its uses more and more in design and fabrication of [[Laboratory]] apparatus <ref>{{cite journal | title=Automated device for continuous stirring while sampling in liquid chromatography systems | journal=Communications Chemistry | volume=3 | pages=180 | year=2020 | doi=10.1038/s42004-020-00427-5| last1=Markovitch | first1=Omer | last2=Ottelé | first2=Jim | last3=Veldman | first3=Obe | last4=Otto | first4=Sijbren | s2cid=227250565 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
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| 3D printing has also been employed by researchers in the pharmaceutical field. During the last few years there's been a surge in academic interest regarding drug delivery with the aid of AM techniques. This technology offers a unique way for materials to be utilized in novel formulations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melocchi|first1=Alice|last2=Uboldi|first2=Marco|last3=Cerea|first3=Matteo|last4=Foppoli|first4=Anastasia|last5=Maroni|first5=Alessandra|last6=Moutaharrik|first6=Saliha|last7=Palugan|first7=Luca|last8=Zema|first8=Lucia|last9=Gazzaniga|first9=Andrea|date=2020-10-01|title=A Graphical Review on the Escalation of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D Printing in the Pharmaceutical Field|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022354920303774|journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|language=en|volume=109|issue=10|pages=2943–2957|doi=10.1016/j.xphs.2020.07.011|pmid=32679215|s2cid=220630295|issn=0022-3549}}</ref> AM manufacturing allows for the usage of materials and compounds in the development of formulations, in ways that are not possible with conventional/traditional techniques in the pharmaceutical field, e.g. tableting, cast-molding, etc. Moreover, one of the major advantages of 3D printing, especially in the case of Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), is the personalization of the dosage form that can be achieved, thus, targeting the patient's specific needs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Afsana|last2=Jain|first2=Vineet|last3=Haider|first3=Nafis|last4=Jain|first4=Keerti|date=2019-03-20|title=3D Printing in Personalized Drug Delivery|url=http://www.eurekaselect.com/170028/article|journal=Current Pharmaceutical Design|language=en|volume=24|issue=42|pages=5062–5071|doi=10.2174/1381612825666190215122208|pmid=30767736|s2cid=73421860}}</ref> In the not-so-distant future, 3D printers are expected to reach hospitals and pharmacies in order to provide on demand production of personalized formulations according to the patients' needs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trenfield|first1=Sarah J|last2=Awad|first2=Atheer|last3=Madla|first3=Christine M|last4=Hatton|first4=Grace B|last5=Firth|first5=Jack|last6=Goyanes|first6=Alvaro|last7=Gaisford|first7=Simon|last8=Basit|first8=Abdul W|date=2019-10-03|title=Shaping the future: recent advances of 3D printing in drug delivery and healthcare|journal=Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery|language=en|volume=16|issue=10|pages=1081–1094|doi=10.1080/17425247.2019.1660318|pmid=31478752|s2cid=201805196|issn=1742-5247|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10082473/1/Gaisford_AAM_Shaping%20the%20future-%20Recent%20advances%20of%203D%20printing%20in%20drug%20delivery%20and%20healthcare%20R1.pdf}}</ref>
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| | == Uses == |
| | === DIY === |
| | Lots of people are trying to develop cheap 3D printers for people to use at home.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/best-3d-printer|title=Best 3D printers of 2019|last1=Printers|first1=Matt Hanson 2019-11-19T19:43:25Z|last2=scanners|website=TechRadar|language=en|access-date=November 20, 2019}}</ref> Libraries have also started to buy smaller 3D printers so that people can learn about them without having to buy one. Lots of work has been done by [[Do it yourself|DIY]] communities, as well as schools and [[Hacker (hobbyist)|hacker]] communities. By 2017, more people were starting to use 3D printing in their own home for small items such as [[gear]]s and small decorations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2015/03/technology/umass-amherst-library-opens-3d-printing-innovation-center/|title=UMass Amherst Library Opens 3-D Printing Innovation Center|date=April 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402221847/http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2015/03/technology/umass-amherst-library-opens-3d-printing-innovation-center/|access-date=November 13, 2019|archive-date=2015-04-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://travelinlibrarian.info/2015/01/map-3d-printers-libraries/|title=A Map of 3D Printers in Libraries|last=Sauers|first=Michael|date=January 12, 2015|website=The Travelin' Librarian|language=en-US|access-date=November 17, 2019}}</ref>[[File:3-D Printed Spinal Disc (5165) (18306277429).jpg|thumb|300x300px|3D printed spinal disc]] |
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| In 2018, 3D printing technology was used for the first time to create a matrix for cell immobilization in fermentation. Propionic acid production by ''Propionibacterium acidipropionici'' immobilized on 3D-printed nylon beads was chosen as a model study. It was shown that those 3D-printed beads were capable of promoting high density cell attachment and propionic acid production, which could be adapted to other fermentation bioprocesses.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.10.087|pmid = 29136932|title = Cell immobilization on 3D-printed matrices: A model study on propionic acid fermentation|journal = Bioresource Technology|volume = 249|pages = 777–782|year = 2018|last1 = Belgrano|first1 = Fabricio dos Santos|last2 = Diegel|first2 = Olaf|last3 = Pereira|first3 = Nei|last4 = Hatti-Kaul|first4 = Rajni}}</ref>
| | === Medical === |
| | 3D printing is used to make medical supplies cheaply. People think that the two biggest uses will be making hearing aids and false teeth <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Corsini|first1=Lucia|last2=Aranda-Jan|first2=C. B.|last3=Moultrie|first3=James|journal=Technology in Society|date=August 1, 2019|title=Using digital fabrication tools to provide humanitarian and development aid in low-resource settings|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/290180|language=en|doi=10.17863/CAM.37408|s2cid=216610718 |issn=0160-791X}}</ref> |
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| In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing technology.<ref name="Auto3D-34" /> {{As of|2017}}, domestic 3D printing was reaching a consumer audience beyond hobbyists and enthusiasts. Off the shelf machines were increasingly capable of producing practical household applications, for example, ornamental objects. Some practical examples include a working clock<ref name="Auto3D-21" /> and [[gear]]s printed for home woodworking machines among other purposes.<ref name="Auto3D-23" /> Web sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include backscratchers, coat hooks, door knobs, etc.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yeggi.com/q/backscratcher/?s=tt|title="backscratcher" 3D Models to Print – yeggi|website=yeggi.com}}</ref> | | In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been badly injured in a road accident.{{cn}}[[File:HCC 3D printed turbine view 1.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A 3D printed engine]] |
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| === Education sector === | | === Manufacturing === |
| | In 2014, a supercar was made by a Swedish company that utilizes many 3D printed components. [[Urbee]] was the first car in the world to have its bodywork and windows 3D printed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://truthout.org/articles/the-urbee-3d-printed-car-coast-to-coast-on-10-gallons/|title=The "Urbee" 3D-Printed Car: Coast to Coast on 10 Gallons?|last=Eternity|first=Max|website=Truthout|language=en-US|access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=3D Printed Car Creator Discusses Future of the Urbee|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vI12MqoYQto|language=en|access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref> |
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| 3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the classroom.<ref>Schelly, C., Anzalone, G., Wijnen, B., & Pearce, J. M. (2015). "Open-source 3-D printing Technologies for education: Bringing Additive Manufacturing to the Classroom." ''Journal of Visual Languages & Computing''.</ref><ref>Grujović, N., Radović, M., Kanjevac, V., Borota, J., Grujović, G., & Divac, D. (September 2011). "3D printing technology in education environment." In ''34th International Conference on Production Engineering'' (pp. 29–30).</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1109/ISECon.2014.6891037 |chapter=An educational venture into 3D Printing |title=2014 IEEE Integrated STEM Education Conference |pages=1–6 |year=2014 |last1=Mercuri |first1=Rebecca |last2=Meredith |first2=Kevin |isbn=978-1-4799-3229-0 |s2cid=16555348 }}</ref> Some authors have claimed that 3D printers offer an unprecedented "revolution" in [[Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math|STEM]] education.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oppliger|first1=Douglas E.|last2=Anzalone|first2=Gerald|last3=Pearce|first3=Joshua M.|last4=Irwin|first4=John L.|date=15 June 2014|title=The RepRap 3-D Printer Revolution in STEM Education|url=https://peer.asee.org/the-reprap-3-d-printer-revolution-in-stem-education|journal=2014 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition|pages=24.1242.1–24.1242.13|issn=2153-5868}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gillen|first=Andrew|date=2016|title=Teacher's Toolkit: The New Standard in Technology Education: 3-D Design Class|journal=Science Scope|volume=039|issue=9|doi=10.2505/4/ss16_039_09_8|issn=0887-2376}}</ref> The evidence for such claims comes from both the low-cost ability for [[rapid prototyping]] in the classroom by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from [[open hardware]] designs forming [[open-source labs]].<ref name="AutoSQ-68" /> Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment.<ref name="AutoSQ-68" /><ref name="AutoQK-4" />
| | In 2015, a [[Royal Air Force]] [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] fighter jet flew with 3D printed parts. The [[United States Air Force]] has begun to work with 3D printers, and the [[Israeli Air Force]] has also purchased a 3D printer to print spare parts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4684682,00.html|title=The 3D printer revolution comes to the IAF|date=July 27, 2015|website=Ynetnews|language=en|access-date=November 22, 2019|last1=Zitun |first1=Yoav }}</ref> |
| | [[File:3D printed sugar cube.gk.jpg|thumb|A 3D printed sugar cube]] |
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| === Cultural heritage and museum-based digital twin === | | === Food === |
| | Food can be 3D printed. Lots of different foods can be printed, like chocolate and candy, and also flat foods such as crackers, pasta, and pizza.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://futurism.com/nasa-astronauts-can-now-3d-print-pizzas-in-space|title=NASA Astronauts Can Now 3D-Print Pizzas in Space|website=Futurism|language=en|access-date=December 3, 2019}}</ref> NASA is printing food to create less waste and to make food that has all the right nutrients for astronauts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/home/feature_3d_food.html|title=3D Printing: Food in Space|last=Hall|first=Loura|date=June 7, 2013|website=NASA|language=en|access-date=December 3, 2019}}</ref> In 2018, [[Giuseppe Scionti]] printed a food that was similar to meat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprinting.com/news/researchers-develop-plant-based-steak-printing-method/|title=Researchers Develop Plant Based Steak Printing Method|date=September 28, 2018|website=3D Printing|language=en-US|access-date=December 3, 2019}}</ref>[[File:3D Printed Ancient Egyptian Figurine 1.png|thumb|3D printed Egyptian Pharaoh for sale on Threeding |alt=]] |
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| In the last several years 3D printing has been intensively used by in the [[cultural heritage]] field for preservation, restoration and dissemination purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/cgf.12781 |title=Digital Fabrication Techniques for Cultural Heritage: A Survey] |journal=Computer Graphics Forum |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=6–21 |year=2017 |url=http://vcg.isti.cnr.it/Publications/2017/SCPCD17/DigitalFabricationForCH.pdf
| | === Guns === |
| |last1=Scopigno |first1=R. |last2=Cignoni |first2=P. |last3=Pietroni |first3=N. |last4=Callieri |first4=M. |last5=Dellepiane |first5=M. |s2cid=26690232 }}</ref> Many Europeans and North American Museums have purchased 3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces of their relics<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150714-museum-uses-3d-printing-to-take-fragile-maquette-by-thomas-hart-benton-on-tour.html |title=Museum uses 3D printing to take fragile maquette by Thomas Hart Benton on tour through the States |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014241/http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150714-museum-uses-3d-printing-to-take-fragile-maquette-by-thomas-hart-benton-on-tour.html |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}</ref> and archaeological monuments such as [[Tiwanaku]] in [[Bolivia]].<ref>Vranich A., Reconstructing ancient architecture at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the potential and promise of 3D printing, "Heritage Science" (2018) 6:65; doi:10.1186/s40494-018-0231-0</ref> The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] and the [[British Museum]] have started using their 3D printers to create museum souvenirs that are available in the museum shops.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/british-museum-releases-scans-of-artefacts-to-let-you-3d-print-your-own-museum-at-home-9837654.html|title=British Museum releases 3D printer scans of artefacts|website=[[Independent.co.uk]]|date=4 November 2014 }}</ref> Other museums, like the National Museum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum, have gone further and sell through the online platform [[Threeding]] digital models of their artifacts, created using [[Artec 3D]] scanners, in 3D printing friendly file format, which everyone can 3D print at home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://3dprint.com/45699/threeding-artec-museum/|title=Threeding Uses Artec 3D Scanning Technology to Catalog 3D Models for Bulgaria's National Museum of Military History|date=20 February 2015 |publisher=3dprint.com}}</ref>
| | In 2012, [[Defense Distributed]] uploaded files to the internet for a [[3D printed firearms|3D printed gun]] "that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer". After Defense Distributed released their plans, people were worried that they may cause problems with [[gun control]]{{cn}} A year later, in May 2013, the US State Department asked [[Defense Distributed]] to take down the plans, which they did.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/05/state-department-defense-distributed-3d-printed-gun-plans/315405/|title=State Department Asks Defense Distributed to Take Down Its 3D-Printed Gun Plans|last=Bump|first=Philip|date=May 9, 2013|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref> |
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| The application of 3D printing for the representation of architectural assets has many challenges. In 2018, the structure of Iran National Bank was traditionally surveyed and modelled in computer graphics(CG) software (Cinema4D) and was optimised for 3D printing. The team tested the
| | '''Education''' |
| technique for the construction of the part and it was successful. After testing the procedure, the modellers reconstructed the structure in Cinema4D and exported the front part of the model to Netfabb. The entrance of the building was chosen due to the 3D printing limitations and the budget of the project for producing the maquette. 3D Printing was only one of the capabilities enabled by the produced 3D model of the bank, but due to the project limited brief, the team did not continue modelling for the virtual representation or other applications.<ref name="BST">{{cite journal |doi=10.16995/bst.364 |title=Production of Iranian Architectural Assets for Representation in Museums: Theme of Museum-Based Digital Twin |journal=Body, Space and Technology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=61–74 |year=2021 |last1=Parsinejad |first1=H. |last2=Choi |first2=I. |last3=Yari |first3=M.|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2021, Parsinejad et al. comprehensively compared the hand surveying method for 3D reconstruction ready for 3D printing with Digital Recording (adoption of Photogrammetry method).<ref name="BST" />
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| === Recent other applications ===
| | 3D printing has increased innovation and problem-solving in classrooms. Design students can use it to print prototypes in subjects such as engineering 3D printing; demonstrations of this have already been deployed throughout some institutions around the world. |
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| 3D printed soft [[actuators]] is a growing application of 3D printing technology which has found its place in the 3D printing applications. These soft actuators are being developed to deal with soft structures and organs especially in biomedical sectors and where the interaction between human and robot is inevitable. The majority of the existing soft actuators are fabricated by conventional methods that require manual fabrication of devices, post processing/assembly, and lengthy iterations until maturity of the fabrication is achieved. Instead of the tedious and time-consuming aspects of the current fabrication processes, researchers are exploring an appropriate manufacturing approach for effective fabrication of soft actuators. Thus, 3D printed soft actuators are introduced to revolutionise the design and fabrication of soft actuators with custom geometrical, functional, and control properties in a faster and inexpensive approach. They also enable incorporation of all actuator components into a single structure eliminating the need to use external [[joint]]s, [[adhesive]]s, and [[fastener]]s.
| | === Historical === |
| Circuit board manufacturing involves multiple steps which include imaging, drilling, plating, soldermask coating, nomenclature printing and surface finishes. These steps include many chemicals such as harsh solvents and acids. 3D printing circuit boards remove the need for many of these steps while still producing complex designs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shortsleeveandtieclub.com/3d-printed-circuit-boards-are-the-next-big-thing-in-additive-manufacturing/|title=3D Printed Circuit Boards are the Next Big Thing in Additive Manufacturing|date=20 June 2018|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-date=24 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424233926/http://shortsleeveandtieclub.com/3d-printed-circuit-boards-are-the-next-big-thing-in-additive-manufacturing/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Polymer ink is used to create the layers of the build while silver polymer is used for creating the traces and holes used to allow electricity to flow.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nano-di.com/materials|title=Additive Manufacturing Inks & Materials for Custom 3D Printing Solutions|first=Nano|last=Dimension|website=nano-di.com}}</ref> Current circuit board manufacturing can be a tedious process depending on the design. Specified materials are gathered and sent into inner layer processing where images are printed, developed and etched. The etches cores are typically punched to add lamination tooling. The cores are then prepared for lamination. The stack-up, the buildup of a circuit board, is built and sent into lamination where the layers are bonded. The boards are then measured and drilled. Many steps may differ from this stage however for simple designs, the material goes through a plating process to plate the holes and surface. The outer image is then printed, developed and etched. After the image is defined, the material must get coated with soldermask for later soldering. Nomenclature is then added so components can be identified later. Then the surface finish is added. The boards are routed out of panel form into their singular or array form and then electrically tested. Aside from the paperwork which must be completed which proves the boards meet specifications, the boards are then packed and shipped. The benefits of 3D printing would be that the final outline is defined from the beginning, no imaging, punching or lamination is required and electrical connections are made with the silver polymer which eliminates drilling and plating. The final paperwork would also be greatly reduced due to the lack of materials required to build the circuit board. Complex designs which may takes weeks to complete through normal processing can be 3D printed, greatly reducing manufacturing time.
| | In the last several years 3D printing has been used to make sure that important things from history are safe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scopigno|first1=R.|last2=Cignoni|first2=P.|last3=Pietroni|first3=N.|last4=Callieri|first4=M.|last5=Dellepiane|first5=M.|title=Digital Fabrication Techniques for Cultural Heritage: A Survey: Fabrication Techniques for Cultural Heritage|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/cgf.12781|journal=Computer Graphics Forum|date=January 2017 |language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=6–21|doi=10.1111/cgf.12781|s2cid=26690232}}</ref> Many museums have bought 3D printers and are making pieces to fix their relics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150714-museum-uses-3d-printing-to-take-fragile-maquette-by-thomas-hart-benton-on-tour.html|title=3ders.org - Museum uses 3D printing to take fragile maquette by Thomas Hart Benton on tour through the States {{!}} 3D Printer News & 3D Printing News|date=November 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014241/http://www.3ders.org/articles/20150714-museum-uses-3d-printing-to-take-fragile-maquette-by-thomas-hart-benton-on-tour.html|access-date=November 22, 2019|archive-date=2015-11-17}}</ref> The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] and the [[British Museum]] have started using their 3D printers to make replicas to sell in the gift shop.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/british-museum-releases-scans-of-artefacts-to-let-you-3d-print-your-own-museum-at-home-9837654.html|title=British Museum releases 3D printer scans of artefacts|date=November 4, 2014|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref> The National Museum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum sell digital versions of their items online, which everyone can 3D print at home.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprint.com/45699/threeding-artec-museum/|title=Threeding Uses Artec 3D Scanning Technology to Catalog 3D Models for Bulgaria's National Museum of Military History|last=O'Neal|first=Bridget|date=2015-02-20|website=3DPrint.com}}</ref> |
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| During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] 3d printers were used to supplement the strained supply of [[Personal protective equipment|PPE]] through volunteers using their personally owned printers to produce various pieces of personal protective equipment (i.e. frames)
| | == 3D Printing Noise == |
| | 3d printers do produce noise as its operation involves a lot of vibration. The University of Michigan<ref>{{Cite web|title=Harmful Noise Levels {{!}} Michigan Medicine|url=https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/tf4173#:~:text=A%20sound%27s%20loudness%20is%20measured,concert%20is%20about%20120%20dB.|access-date=2022-07-17|website=www.uofmhealth.org}}</ref> shown how much sound does a 3d printer may produce. Their research shows that sounds more than 85 DB is harmful for human. However, the good 3d printers with silent motherboard may limit the noise up to 55 DB. Still there are plenty of manufacturers who could not even identify the best way of reducing 3D printer's noise. But, there are some techniques that can help you to identify the quiet 3d printers<ref>{{Cite web|last=Heer_Alina|date=2022-06-29|title=What makes a 3D Printer Noisy|url=https://www.digthisout.com/best-quiet-3d-printer/|access-date=2022-07-17|website=Dig This Out|language=en-US}}</ref> and prepare yourself to reduce the noise at a substantial level. |
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| As of 2021 and the years leading up to it, 3D printing has become both an industrial tool as well as a consumer product. With the price of certain 3D printers becoming ever cheaper and the quality constantly increasing many people have picked up the hobby of 3D printing. As of current estimates there are over 2 million people around the world who have purchased a 3D printer for hobby use.<ref>Congressional Research Service. "3D Printing: Overview, Impacts, and the Federal Role" (august 2, 2019) Fas.org</ref>
| | There are plenty of things to consider such as fan size and its rotation, stepper motor and the stepper drivers' performance etc. However, the noise may also arise due to dust clogged in the extruder or lack of maintenance. |
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| == Legal aspects ==
| | A recent study by Boston University<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghaffarivardavagh|first=Reza|last2=Nikolajczyk|first2=Jacob|last3=Anderson|first3=Stephan|last4=Zhang|first4=Xin|date=2019-01-04|title=Ultra-open acoustic metamaterial silencer based on Fano-like interference|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.99.024302|journal=Physical Review B|volume=99|issue=2|pages=024302|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.99.024302}}</ref> has shown that a simple trick can minimize the 3d printing sound considerably. So far, this is the last progress in this area. |
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| === Intellectual property ===
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| {{See also|Free hardware}}
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| 3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries where many legal regimes, including [[patent]]s, [[industrial design right]]s, [[copyright]]s, and [[trademark]]s may apply. However, there is not much [[jurisprudence]] to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and individuals or hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non-profit distribution, or for sale.
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| Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, where an active intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, non-commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
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| Patents cover inventions including processes, machines, manufacturing, and compositions of matter and have a finite duration which varies between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.<ref name="AutoSQ-82" />
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| Copyright covers an expression<ref name="wired" /> in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years thereafter.<ref name="deal" /> If someone makes a statue, they may have a copyright mark on the appearance of that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identical or similar statue.
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| When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from the functional aspects of the item.<ref name="deal" /> In other countries the law and the courts may apply a different approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding that, in case of unauthorized copying, only the non-functional features may be claimed under design law whereas any technical features could only be claimed if covered by a valid patent.
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| === Gun legislation and administration ===
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| {{Main|3D printed firearms}}
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| The US [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] and the [[Joint Regional Intelligence Center]] released a memo stating that "significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing may present public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns" and that "proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent, their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files."<ref name="AutoSQ-83" /> Currently, it is not prohibited by law to manufacture firearms for personal use in the United States, as long as the firearm is not produced with the intent to be sold or transferred, and meets a few basic requirements. A license is required to manufacture firearms for sale or distribution. The law prohibits a person from assembling a non–sporting semiautomatic rifle or shotgun from 10 or more imported parts, as well as firearms that cannot be detected by metal detectors or x–ray machines. In addition, the making of an NFA firearm requires a tax payment and advance approval by ATF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atf.gov/firearms/qa/does-individual-need-license-make-firearm-personal-use|title=Does an individual need a license to make a firearm for personal use? {{!}} Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives|website=www.atf.gov|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref>
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| Attempting to restrict the distribution of gun plans via the Internet has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of [[DeCSS]], which enabled DVD [[ripping]].<ref name="AutoSQ-90" /><ref name="AutoSQ-91" /><ref name="AutoSQ-92" /><ref name="AutoSQ-93" /> After the US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via the [[The Pirate Bay|Pirate Bay]] and other file sharing sites.<ref name="AutoSQ-94" /> Downloads of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.<ref name="AutoSQ-88" /><ref name="AutoSQ-89" /> Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers to prevent them from being used for printing guns.<ref name="AutoSQ-95" /><ref name="AutoSQ-96" /> 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor [[Hod Lipson]] suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.<ref name="AutoSQ-97" /><ref name="AutoSQ-98" /><ref name="AutoSQ-99" /><ref name="AutoSQ-101" /><ref name="AutoSQ-102" /><ref name="AutoSQ-103" />
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| Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter than in the United States, some commentators have said the impact may be more strongly felt since alternative firearms are not as easily obtainable.<ref name="AutoSQ-84" /> Officials in the United Kingdom have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their gun control laws.<ref name="AutoSQ-85" /> [[Europol]] stated that criminals have access to other sources of weapons but noted that as technology improves, the risks of an effect would increase.<ref name="AutoSQ-86" /><ref name="AutoSQ-87" />
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| === Aerospace regulation ===
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| In the United States, the FAA has anticipated a desire to use additive manufacturing techniques and has been considering how best to regulate this process.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spacenews.com/faa-prepares-guidance-for-wave-of-3d-printed-aerospace-parts/|title=FAA prepares guidance for wave of 3D-printed aerospace parts|date=20 October 2017|website=SpaceNews.com}}</ref> The FAA has jurisdiction over such fabrication because all aircraft parts must be made under FAA production approval or under other FAA regulatory categories.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?rgn=div5;node=14:1.0.1.3.9#se14.1.21_19|title=eCFR – Code of Federal Regulations|website=ecfr.gov}}</ref> In December 2016, the FAA approved the production of a 3D printed fuel nozzle for the GE LEAP engine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/faa-launch-eight-year-additive-manufacturing-road-map-123108/|title=FAA to launch eight-year additive manufacturing road map|date=21 October 2017|website=3D Printing Industry}}</ref> Aviation attorney Jason Dickstein has suggested that additive manufacturing is merely a production method, and should be regulated like any other production method.<ref name="arsa.org">{{Cite web|url=http://arsa.org/news-media/newsletters/2017-edition-4/|title=2017 – Edition 4 – May 5, 2017 – ARSA|website=arsa.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mro-network.com/safety-regulatory/embracing-drones-and-3d-printing-regulatory-framework|title=Embracing Drones and 3D Printing in the Regulatory Framework|date=10 January 2018|website=MRO Network}}</ref> He has suggested that the FAA's focus should be on guidance to explain compliance, rather than on changing the existing rules, and that existing regulations and guidance permit a company "to develop a robust quality system that adequately reflects regulatory needs for quality assurance."<ref name="arsa.org" />
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| == Health and safety ==
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| {{Main|Health and safety hazards of 3D printing}}
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| {{See also|Health and safety hazards of nanomaterials}}
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| [[File:NIOSH Scientists Investigating Pollution From Office Equipment.webm|thumb|A video on research done on printer emissions]]
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| Research on the health and safety concerns of 3D printing is new and in development due to the recent proliferation of 3D printing devices. In 2017, the [[European Agency for Safety and Health at Work]] has published a discussion paper on the processes and materials involved in 3D printing, potential implications of this technology for occupational safety and health and avenues for controlling potential hazards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://osha.europa.eu/en/highlights/3d-printing-and-monitoring-workers-new-industrial-revolution|title=3D Printing and monitoring of workers: a new industrial revolution?|last=EU-OSHA|first=European Agency for Safety and Health|date=7 June 2017|website=osha.europa.eu|access-date=31 October 2017}}</ref>
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| == Impact ==
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| Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible, [[continuous improvement process|ever-improving]] users of all available technologies to remain competitive. Advocates of [[additive manufacturing]] also predict that this arc of technological development will counter [[globalization]], as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy products from other people and corporations.<ref name="3D opp" /> The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.<ref name="Albert_2011-02_MMS_column" />
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| The [[futurologist]] [[Jeremy Rifkin]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thethirdindustrialrevolution.com/|title=Jeremy Rifkin and The Third Industrial Revolution Home Page|publisher=The third industrial revolution.com|access-date=4 January 2016|archive-date=25 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225091019/http://thethirdindustrialrevolution.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> claimed that 3D printing signals the beginning of a [[third industrial revolution]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21552901|title=A third industrial revolution|date=21 April 2012|work=The Economist|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> succeeding the [[production line]] assembly that dominated manufacturing starting in the late 19th century.
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| === Social change ===
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| [[File:3D Printing-skylt.jpg|thumb|Street sign in [[Windhoek]], [[Namibia]], advertising 3D printing, July 2018]]
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| Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated in some depth about the social and cultural changes that might result from the advent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing technology.<ref name="AutoSQ-104" /> In recent years, 3D printing is creating significant impact in the humanitarian and development sector. Its potential to facilitate distributed manufacturing is resulting in supply chain and logistics benefits, by reducing the need for transportation, warehousing and wastage. Furthermore, social and economic development is being advanced through the creation of local production economies.<ref name="auto" />
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| Others have suggested that as more and more 3D printers start to enter people's homes, the conventional relationship between the home and the workplace might get further eroded.<ref name="AutoSQ-105" /> Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight services might also become less.<ref name="AutoSQ-106" /> Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be replicated, it remains to be seen whether changes will be made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property rights with the new technology widely available.
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| As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, online social platforms have developed to support the community.<ref name="AutoSQ-107" /> This includes websites that allow users to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, as well as social forums that discuss how to improve 3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well as social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D models.<ref name="AutoSQ-108" /><ref name="AutoSQ-109" /><ref name="AutoSQ-110" /> RepRap is a wiki based website that was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has developed into a community that aims to bring 3D printing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such as [[Pinshape]], [[Thingiverse]] and [[MyMiniFactory]], which were created initially to allow users to post 3D files for anyone to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of sharing 3D files. These websites have allowed greater social interaction between users, creating communities dedicated to 3D printing.
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| Some call attention to the conjunction of [[Commons-based peer production]] with 3D printing and other low-cost manufacturing techniques.<ref name="triple-c.at" /><ref name="AutoSQ-111" /><ref name="AutoSQ-112" /> The self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be overcome with the development of economies of scope, and here, society can play an important role contributing to the raising of the whole productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customized productivity.<ref name="triple-c.at" /> Further, it is true that many issues, problems, and threats arise due to the democratization of the means of production, and especially regarding the physical ones.<ref name="triple-c.at" /> For instance, the recyclability of advanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons manufacturing could become easier; not to mention the implications for counterfeiting<ref name="AutoSQ-113" /> and on intellectual property.<ref name="AutoSQ-114" /> It might be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose competitive dynamics were about economies of scale, [[Commons-based peer production]] 3D printing could develop economies of scope. While the advantages of scale rest on cheap global transportation, the economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of the capabilities of the fabrication tools.<ref name="triple-c.at" /> And following Neil Gershenfeld<ref name="AutoSQ-115" /> in that "some of the least developed parts of the world need some of the most advanced technologies," Commons-based peer production and 3D printing may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but acting locally in response to certain needs.
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| [[Larry Summers]] wrote about the "devastating consequences" of 3D printing and other technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform routine tasks. In his view, "already there are more American men on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will increase rapidly in the years ahead." Summers recommends more vigorous cooperative efforts to address the "myriad devices" (e.g., tax havens, bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of great wealth to "a paying" income and estate taxes, and to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring "great social contributions" in return, including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly laws, reductions in "excessive" protection for intellectual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements, improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of financial regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity, easing of land-use restrictions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep rising in value, better training for young people and retraining for displaced workers, and increased public and private investment in infrastructure development—e.g., in energy production and transportation.<ref name="AutoSQ-116" />
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| [[Michael Spence]] wrote that "Now comes a ... powerful, wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitution and [[disintermediation]] has been underway for some time in service sectors—think of ATMs, online banking, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor." In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D printers) and, more important, in creating the software that enables machines to carry out various tasks. "Once this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relatively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling."<ref name="AutoSQ-117" />
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| Spence believes that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital technologies "is cost reduction via the replacement of labor." For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is "easy to imagine" that production may become "extremely" local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand, not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth and employment expansion, with labor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will appear in both developed and developing countries. In his view, production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around digital technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment and expansion. Spence writes that "the world we are entering is one in which the most powerful global flows will be ideas and digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital. Adapting to this will require shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in human capital), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution."<ref name="AutoSQ-117" />
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| [[Naomi Wu]] regards the usage of 3D printing in the Chinese classroom (where rote memorization is standard) to teach design principles and creativity as the most exciting recent development of the technology, and more generally regards 3D printing as being the next [[desktop publishing]] revolution.<ref name="3D Printing in the Chinese Classroom">{{Cite web |url=https://womenin3dprinting.com/2017/11/29/naomi-wu-my-visibility-allows-me-to-direct-more-attention-to-important-issues-and-other-deserving-women/ |title=Naomi Wu – "My visibility allows me to direct more attention to important issues and other deserving women" |last=Andre |first=Helene |date=29 November 2017 |website=Women in 3D Printing |access-date=3 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204171133/https://womenin3dprinting.com/2017/11/29/naomi-wu-my-visibility-allows-me-to-direct-more-attention-to-important-issues-and-other-deserving-women/ |archive-date=4 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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| === Environmental change ===
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| The growth of additive manufacturing could have a large impact on the environment. As opposed to traditional manufacturing, for instance, in which pieces are cut from larger blocks of material, additive manufacturing creates products layer-by-layer and prints only relevant parts, wasting much less material and thus wasting less energy in producing the raw materials needed.<ref name="Is 3D Printing the Future of Sustainable Manufacturing?">{{Cite web |url=https://www.environmentalleader.com/2015/11/is-3d-printing-the-future-of-sustainable-manufacturing/ |title=Is 3D Printing the Future of Sustainable Manufacturing? |last=Hardcastle |first=Jessica Lyons |date=24 November 2015 |website=Environmental Leader |access-date=21 January 2019}}</ref> By making only the bare structural necessities of products, additive manufacturing also could make a profound contribution to [[lightweighting]], reducing the energy consumption and [[greenhouse gas emissions]] of vehicles and other forms of transportation.<ref name="Lightweighting with Lattices">{{Cite web |url=https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/blog/post/lightweighting-with-lattices(2) |title=Lightweighting with Lattices |last=Simpson |first=Timothy W. |date=31 January 2018 |website=Additive Manufacturing |access-date=21 January 2019}}</ref> A case study on an airplane component made using additive manufacturing, for example, found that the component's use saves 63% of relevant energy and carbon dioxide emissions over the course of the product's lifetime.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.econolyst.co.uk/resources/documents/files/Presentation___2012___AM_and_carbon_footprint.pdf |title=Example of Econolyst Research-Understanding the Benefits of AM on CO2 |last=Reeves |first=P. |date=2012 |website=The Econolyst |access-date=21 January 2019}}</ref> In addition, previous [[life-cycle assessment]] of additive manufacturing has estimated that adopting the technology could further lower carbon dioxide emissions since 3D printing creates localized production, and products would not need to be transported long distances to reach their final destination.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gelber |first1=Malte |last2=Uiterkamp |first2=Anton J.M. Schoot|last3=Visser |first3=Cindy |date=October 2015 |title=A Global Sustainability Perspective of 3D Printing Technologies |journal=Energy Policy |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=158–167 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2014.08.033
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| }}</ref>
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| Continuing to adopt additive manufacturing does pose some environmental downsides, however. Despite additive manufacturing reducing waste from the subtractive manufacturing process by up to 90%, the additive manufacturing process creates other forms of waste such as non-recyclable material (metal) powders. Additive manufacturing has not yet reached its theoretical [[material efficiency]] potential of 97%, but it may get closer as the technology continues to increase productivity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Tao |last2=Kellens |first2=Karel |last3=Tang |first3=Renzhong |last4=Chen |first4=Chao |last5=Chen |first5=Gang |date=May 2018 |title=Sustainability of additive manufacturing: An overview on its energy demand and environmental impact |journal=Additive Manufacturing |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=694–704 |doi=10.1016/j.addma.2018.04.022
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| }}</ref>
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| Some large FDM printers which melt [[High-density polyethylene]] (HDPE) pellets may also accept sufficiently clean recycled material such as chipped milk bottles. In addition these printers can use shredded material coming from faulty builds or unsuccessful prototype versions thus reducing overall project wastage and materials handling and storage. The concept has been explored in the [[RecycleBot]].
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| == See also ==
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| {{div col|colwidth=20em}}
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| * [[3D modeling]]
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| * [[3D scanning]]
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| * [[3D printing marketplace]]
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| * [[3D bioprinting]]
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| * [[3D food printing]]
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| * [[3D Manufacturing Format]]
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| * [[3D printing speed]]
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| * [[3D Systems]]
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| * [[Additive Manufacturing File Format]]
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| * [[Actuator]]
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| * [[AstroPrint]]
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| * [[Cloud manufacturing]]
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| * [[Computer numeric control]]
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| * [[Delta robot]]
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| * [[Fusion3]]
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| * [[Laser cutting]]
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| * [[Limbitless Solutions]]
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| * [[List of 3D printer manufacturers]]
| |
| * [[List of common 3D test models]]
| |
| * [[List of emerging technologies]]
| |
| * [[List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts]]
| |
| * [[Magnetically assisted slip casting]]
| |
| * [[MakerBot Industries]]
| |
| * [[Milling center]]
| |
| * [[Organ-on-a-chip]]
| |
| * [[Robocasting]]
| |
| * [[Self-replicating machine]]
| |
| * [[Ultimaker]]
| |
| * [[Volumetric printing]]
| |
| {{div col end}}
| |
|
| |
|
| == References == | | == References == |
| {{reflist|refs= | | {{reflist}} |
| <ref name="engineer">{{cite web |last=Excell |first=Jon |url=http://www.theengineer.co.uk/in-depth/the-big-story/the-rise-of-additive-manufacturing/1002560.article |title=The rise of additive manufacturing |work=The Engineer |access-date=30 October 2013|date=23 May 2010 }}</ref>
| | [[Category:Innovation]] |
| <ref name="3D opp">{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6dc11070-d763-11e1-a378-00144feabdc0.html#axzz24gFn5Cal |title=Exploring the 3D printing opportunity |work=[[Financial Times]] |author=Jane Bird |date=8 August 2012 |access-date=30 August 2012}}</ref>
| | [[Category:Printing]] |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-1">{{cite news |url=https://www.pcmag.com/slideshow_viewer/0,3253,l=293816&a=289174&po=1,00.asp |title=3D Printing: What You Need to Know |publisher=PCMag.com |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-4">{{US patent|4575330|Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography (8 August 1984)}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-5">{{cite journal | last1 = Freedman | first1 = David H | year = 2012 | title = Layer By Layer | journal = Technology Review | volume = 115 | issue = 1| pages = 50–53 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Ngram_additive_manufacturing">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=additive+manufacturing&year_start=1940&year_end=2014&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cadditive%20manufacturing%3B%2Cc0t1;,additive+manufacturing;,c0|title=Google Ngram Viewer|website=books.google.com}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="GrabCAD_GE_bracket">{{ citation |author=GrabCAD |title=GE jet engine bracket challenge |url=http://grabcad.com/challenges/ge-jet-engine-bracket-challenge}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-6">{{ citation |last=Zelinski |first=Peter |date=2 June 2014 |title=How do you make a howitzer less heavy? |journal=[[Modern Machine Shop]] |url=http://www.mmsonline.com/blog/post/how-do-you-make-a-howitzer-less-heavy}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-17">{{cite web |url=http://www.ops-uk.com/3d-printers/objet-connex |title=Objet Connex 3D Printers |publisher=Objet Printer Solutions |access-date=31 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107022935/http://www.ops-uk.com/3d-printers/objet-connex |archive-date=7 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name=smooth>{{Cite web|url=https://www.machinedesign.com/3d-printing/how-smooth-3d-printed-parts|title=How to Smooth 3D-Printed Parts|date=29 April 2014|website=Machine Design}}</ref>
| |
| <!--
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-6">D. T. Pham, S. S. Dimov, Rapid manufacturing, Springer-Verlag, 2001, ISBN 978-1-85233-360-7, page 6</ref>
| |
| -->
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-7">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/theworldin/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10105016 |title=A whole new dimension – Rich homes can afford 3D printers |work=The Economist |date=15 November 2007 |first=Lilli Manolis |last=Sherman}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-8">{{cite web |url=http://wohlersassociates.com/NovDec05TCT3dp.htm |title=Factors to Consider When Choosing a 3D Printer (WohlersAssociates.com, Nov/Dec 2005) |first=Terry |last=Wohlers}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-9">{{cite web |author=3ders.org |url=http://www.3ders.org/articles/20120925-casting-aluminum-parts-directly-from-3d-printed-pla-parts.html |title=Casting aluminum parts directly from 3D printed PLA parts |publisher=3ders.org |date=25 September 2012 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name=DMLS>{{Cite web|url=https://www.machinedesign.com/metals/aluminum-powder-dmls-printed-part-finishes-race-first|title=Aluminum-powder DMLS-printed part finishes race first|date=3 March 2014|website=Machine Design}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-12">{{cite web |url = http://www.eetimes.com/design/industrial-control/4013703/Rapid-prototypes-move-to-metal-components |title = Rapid prototypes move to metal components (EE Times, 3/9/2007) |first = Joe |last = Hiemenz }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-13">{{cite web|url=https://www.smu.edu/Lyle/Centers/RCAM/Labs/RapidManufacturing/RMbyEBM |title=Rapid Manufacturing by Electron Beam Melting |publisher=SMU.edu }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-15">{{cite web |url=http://www.eetimes.com/news/semi/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=198701422 |title=Cheaper avenue to 65 nm? (EE Times, 3/30/2007) |first=R. Colin |last=Johnson}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-16">{{cite web |url=http://amt.tuwien.ac.at/projekte/micro_printer |title=The World's Smallest 3D Printer |date=12 September 2011 |publisher=[[Vienna University of Technology|TU Wien]] |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920233607/http://amt.tuwien.ac.at/projekte/micro_printer/ |archive-date=20 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="k1113">{{cite web |url=http://www.kurzweilai.net/3d-printing-multi-material-objects-in-minutes-instead-of-hours-to-minutes |title=3D-printing multi-material objects in minutes instead of hours |date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Kurzweil Accelerating Intelligence}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="cfr2013">{{cite web |url= http://www.cfr.org/technology-and-science/3d-printing-challenges-opportunities-international-relations/p31709 |title= 3D Printing: Challenges and Opportunities for International Relations |date= 23 October 2013 |publisher= [[Council on Foreign Relations]] |access-date= 30 October 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131028064336/http://www.cfr.org/technology-and-science/3d-printing-challenges-opportunities-international-relations/p31709 |archive-date= 28 October 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-26">{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=131644649 |title=A Space For DIY People To Do Their Business (NPR.org, November 28, 2010) |first=Jon |last=Kalish |website=[[NPR]] |access-date=31 January 2012}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="TMW_2011-02_Origins">{{harvnb|Vincent|Earls|2011}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-36">{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/koenigsegg-one1-comes-with-3d-printed-parts-2014-2 |title=Koenigsegg One:1 Comes With 3D Printed Parts |work=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=14 May 2014}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-21">{{cite web |author=ewilhelm |url=http://www.instructables.com/id/3D-Printed-Clock-and-Gears/ |title=3D printed clock and gears |publisher=Instructables.com |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-23">{{cite web|url=http://3d-printer-kit.com/?p=565 |title=Successful Sumpod 3D printing of a herringbone gear |publisher=3d-printer-kit.com |date=23 January 2012 |access-date=30 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102233354/http://3d-printer-kit.com/?p=565 |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="resins-online.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.resins-online.com/blog/3d-printed-clothing/ |title=3D Printed Clothing Becoming a Reality |publisher=Resins Online |date=17 June 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101165629/http://www.resins-online.com/blog/3d-printed-clothing/ |archive-date=1 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-45">{{cite web |author=Michael Fitzgerald |url=http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/with-3-d-printing-the-shoe-really-fits/ |title=With 3-D Printing, the Shoe Really Fits |publisher=MIT Sloan Management Review |date=28 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Forbes.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rakeshsharma/2013/09/10/custom-eyewear-the-next-focal-point-for-3d-printing/ |title=3D Custom Eyewear The Next Focal Point For 3D Printing |work=Forbes.com |first=Rakesh |last=Sharma |date=10 September 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-38">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18677627|title=3D-printed sugar network to help grow artificial liver |work=BBC News|date=2 July 2012 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-49">{{cite web |url=http://www.fiercemedicaldevices.com/story/surgeons-have-implanted-3-d-printed-pelvis-uk-cancer-patient/2014-02-11 |title=Surgeons have implanted a 3-D-printed pelvis into a U.K. cancer patient |author=Moore, Calen |publisher=fiercemedicaldevices.com |date=11 February 2014 |access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-50">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/10691753/Man-makes-surgical-history-after-having-his-shattered-face-rebuilt-using-3D-printed-parts.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/10691753/Man-makes-surgical-history-after-having-his-shattered-face-rebuilt-using-3D-printed-parts.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Man makes surgical history after having his shattered face rebuilt using 3D printed parts |first=Keith | last=Perry |work=The Daily Telegraph|date=12 March 2014 |access-date=12 March 2014 |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="f20120823">{{cite news |last=Greenberg |first=Andy |title='Wiki Weapon Project' Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print at Home |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/08/23/wiki-weapon-project-aims-to-create-a-gun-anyone-can-3d-print-at-home/ |work=[[Forbes]] |date=23 August 2012 |access-date=27 August 2012}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="pcm20120824">{{cite news |last=Poeter |first=Damon |title=Could a 'Printable Gun' Change the World? |url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2408899,00.asp |publisher=[[PC Magazine]] |date=24 August 2012 |access-date=27 August 2012}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-54">{{cite web |first=Aaron |last=Samsel |url=http://www.guns.com/2013/05/23/3d-printers-meet-othermill-a-cnc-machine-for-your-home-office/ |title=3D Printers, Meet Othermill: A CNC machine for your home office (VIDEO) |publisher=Guns.com |access-date=30 October 2013|date=23 May 2013 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-55">{{cite web |url=http://www.popehat.com/2011/10/06/the-third-wave-cnc-stereolithography-and-the-end-of-gun-control/ |title=The Third Wave, CNC, Stereolithography, and the end of gun control |publisher=Popehat |access-date=30 October 2013|date=6 October 2011 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-56">{{cite news |title=Weapons made with 3-D printers could test gun-control efforts |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/weapons-made-with-3-d-printers-could-test-gun-control-efforts/2013/02/18/9ad8b45e-779b-11e2-95e4-6148e45d7adb_story.html?hpid=z1|newspaper=Washington Post |first=Michael S. |last=Rosenwald |date=25 February 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-57">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21571910-regulatory-and-legal-challenges-posed-3d-printing-gun-parts-ready-print-fire |title=Making guns at home: Ready, print, fire |work=The Economist|date=16 February 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-58">{{cite news |last=Rayner |first=Alex |title=3D-printable guns are just the start, says Cody Wilson |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2013/may/06/3d-printable-guns-cody-wilson|newspaper=The Guardian |date=6 May 2013|location=London}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-59">{{cite web |last=Manjoo |first=Farhad |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2013/05/_3_d_printed_gun_yes_it_will_be_possible_to_make_weapons_with_3_d_printers.single.html |title=3-D-printed gun: Yes, it will be possible to make weapons with 3-D printers. No, that doesn't make gun control futile |publisher=Slate.com |date=8 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoQK-4">{{Cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Joshua M.|date=14 September 2012|title=Building Research Equipment with Free, Open-Source Hardware|journal=Science|language=en|volume=337|issue=6100|pages=1303–1304|doi=10.1126/science.1228183|issn=0036-8075|pmid=22984059|bibcode=2012Sci...337.1303P|s2cid=44722829}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-68">{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059840 |pmid=23544104 |title=Open-Source 3D-Printable Optics Equipment |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=e59840 |year=2013 |last1=Zhang |first1=Chenlong |last2=Anzalone |first2=Nicholas C. |last3=Faria |first3=Rodrigo P. |last4=Pearce |first4=Joshua M. |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859840Z |pmc=3609802|doi-access=free }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Auto3D-34">{{cite journal |doi=10.1145/1064830.1064860 |id={{INIST|16817711}} |title=Rapid prototyping |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=66–73 |year=2005 |last1=Séquin |first1=Carlo H. |s2cid=2216664 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-72">{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-01-28/all-the-food-thats-fit-to-3d-print-from-chocolates-to-pizza|title=A Guide to All the Food That's Fit to 3D Print (So Far)|first=Venessa |last=Wong|publisher=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-82">{{cite web|url=http://www.patentinsightpro.com/techreports/0214/Tech%20Insight%20Report%20-%203D%20Printing.pdf |title=3D Printing Technology Insight Report, 2014, patent activity involving 3D-Printing from 1990–2013 |access-date= 10 June 2014}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="wired">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/05/3-d-printing-patent-law/|title=3-D Printing's Legal Morass|magazine=Wired|first=Clive|last=Thompson|date=30 May 2012}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="deal">{{cite web |url=http://www.publicknowledge.org/files/What%27s%20the%20Deal%20with%20Copyright_%20Final%20version2.pdf |title=What's the Deal with copyright and 3D printing?|first= Michael |last=Weinberg |date=January 2013 |publisher=Institute for Emerging Innovation |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-83">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2013/05/23/govt-memo-warns-3d-printed-guns-may-be-impossible-to-stop/ |title=Homeland Security bulletin warns 3D-printed guns may be 'impossible' to stop |publisher=Fox News |date=23 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-84">{{cite web |last=Cochrane |first=Peter |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/european-technology/peter-cochranes-blog-beyond-3d-printed-guns/1728 |title=Peter Cochrane's Blog: Beyond 3D Printed Guns |publisher=TechRepublic |date=21 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-85">{{cite web |last=Gilani |first=Nadia |url=http://metro.co.uk/2013/05/06/gun-factory-fears-as-3d-blueprints-available-online-3714514/ |title=Gun factory fears as 3D blueprints put online by Defense Distributed |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=6 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-86">{{cite web |url=http://digitaljournal.com/article/349588 |title=Liberator: First 3D-printed gun sparks gun control controversy |publisher=Digitaljournal.com |access-date=30 October 2013|date=6 May 2013 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-87">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/articles/465236/20130507/3d-printed-gun-test-fire-defense-distributed.htm |title=First 3D Printed Gun 'The Liberator' Successfully Fired |work=International Business Times UK |date=7 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029204738/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/articles/465236/20130507/3d-printed-gun-test-fire-defense-distributed.htm |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-88">{{cite web |url=http://www.neurope.eu/article/us-demands-removal-3d-printed-gun-blueprints |title=US demands removal of 3D printed gun blueprints |publisher=neurope.eu |access-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030015133/http://www.neurope.eu/article/us-demands-removal-3d-printed-gun-blueprints |archive-date=30 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-89">{{cite news |url=http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2013/05/09/agencias/1368130430_552019.html |title=España y EE.UU. lideran las descargas de los planos de la pistola de impresión casera |publisher=ElPais.com |date=9 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013|newspaper=El País |last1=Economía |first1=E. F. E. }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-90">{{cite web |url=http://quietbabylon.com/2013/controlled-by-guns/ |title=Controlled by Guns |publisher=Quiet Babylon |date=7 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-91">{{cite web |url=http://www.joncamfield.com/tags/3dprinting |title=3dprinting |publisher=Joncamfield.com |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-92">{{cite web |url=http://news.antiwar.com/2013/05/10/state-dept-censors-3d-gun-plans-citing-national-security/ |title=State Dept Censors 3D Gun Plans, Citing 'National Security' |publisher=News.antiwar.com |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-93">{{cite web |url=http://reason.com/blog/2013/05/08/wishful-thinking-is-control-freaks-last |title=Wishful Thinking Is Control Freaks' Last Defense Against 3D-Printed Guns |publisher=Reason.com |date=8 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-94">{{cite web|last=Lennard |first=Natasha |url=http://www.salon.com/2013/05/10/the_pirate_bay_steps_in_to_distribute_3d_gun_designs/ |title=The Pirate Bay steps in to distribute 3-D gun designs |work=Salon.com |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511041743/http://www.salon.com/2013/05/10/the_pirate_bay_steps_in_to_distribute_3d_gun_designs/ |archive-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-95">{{cite web |url=http://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2013/05/08/sen-leland-yee-proposes-regulations-on-3-d-printers-after-gun-test/ |title=Sen. Leland Yee Proposes Regulating Guns From 3-D Printers |publisher=CBS Sacramento |date=8 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-96">{{Cite web|url=https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/05/schumer-announces-support-for-measure-to-make-3d-printed-guns-illegal/|title=Schumer Announces Support For Measure To Make 3D Printed Guns Illegal|date=5 May 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-97">{{cite web|url=http://makezine.com/27/doctorow/ |title=Four Horsemen of the 3D Printing Apocalypse |publisher=Makezine.com |date=30 June 2011 |access-date=30 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330134555/http://makezine.com/27/doctorow/ |archive-date=30 March 2013 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-98">{{cite news |last=Ball |first=James |title=US government attempts to stifle 3D-printer gun designs will ultimately fail |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/may/10/3d-printing-gun-blueprint-state-department-ban |newspaper=The Guardian |date=10 May 2013 |location=London}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-99">{{cite web |author=Gadgets |url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/18/like-it-or-not-i-think-3d-printing-is-about-to-get-legislated/ |title=Like It Or Not, 3D Printing Will Probably Be Legislated |publisher=TechCrunch |date=18 January 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-101">{{cite news |last=Beckhusen |first=Robert |url=https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2013/02/gunpowder-regulation/ |title=3-D Printing Pioneer Wants Government to Restrict Gunpowder, Not Printable Guns |work=Wired |date=15 February 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-102">{{cite web|url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/technology/2013/05/how-defense-distributed-already-upended-world/65126/ |title=How Defense Distributed Already Upended the World |first=Philip |last=Bump |work=The Atlantic Wire |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607163113/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/technology/2013/05/how-defense-distributed-already-upended-world/65126/ |archive-date=7 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
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| <ref name="AutoSQ-103">{{cite web |url=http://www.europeanplasticsnews.com/subscriber/headlines2.html?cat=1&id=2961 |title=News |publisher=European Plastics News |access-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203847/http://www.europeanplasticsnews.com/subscriber/headlines2.html?cat=1&id=2961 |archive-date=29 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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| <ref name="Albert_2011-02_MMS_column">{{harvnb|Albert|2011}}</ref>
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| <ref name="AutoSQ-104">{{cite thesis |title=Confronting a New 'Era of Duplication'? 3D Printing, Replicating Technology and the Search for Authenticity in George O. Smith's Venus Equilateral Series |url=https://www.academia.edu/4071685 |publisher=Durham University |access-date=21 July 2013|last1=Hollow |first1=Matthew }}</ref>
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| <ref name="AutoSQ-105">{{cite journal |title=Materializing information: 3D printing and social change |journal=First Monday |volume=17 |issue=7 |doi=10.5210/fm.v17i7.3968 |year=2012 |last1=Ratto |first1=Matt |last2=Ree |first2=Robert }}</ref>
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| <ref name="AutoSQ-106">{{cite web|title=Additive Manufacturing: A supply chain wide response to economic uncertainty and environmental sustainability |url=http://www.econolyst.co.uk/resources/documents/files/Paper%20-%20Oct%202008-%20AM%20a%20supply%20chain%20wide%20response.pdf |access-date=11 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115023050/http://www.econolyst.co.uk/resources/documents/files/Paper%20-%20Oct%202008-%20AM%20a%20supply%20chain%20wide%20response.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2014 }}</ref>
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| <ref name="AutoSQ-107">{{cite journal |title=Materializing information: 3D printing and social change |journal=First Monday |volume=17 |issue=7 |url=http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3968/3273 |access-date=30 March 2014|date=27 June 2012 |last1=Ree |first1=Robert |last2=Ratto |first2=Matt }}</ref>
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| <ref name="AutoSQ-108">{{cite web |title=RepRap Options |url=http://reprap.org/wiki/RepRap_Options |access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-109">{{cite web |title=3D Printing |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/3Dprinting/ |access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-110">{{cite web |title=Thingiverse |url=http://www.thingiverse.com/ |access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>
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| <ref name="triple-c.at">{{Cite journal|last=Kostakis|first=Vasilis|date=12 January 2013|title=At the Turning Point of the Current Techno-Economic Paradigm: Commons-Based Peer Production, Desktop Manufacturing and the Role of Civil Society in the Perezian Framework|url=https://triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/view/463|journal=TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=173–190|doi=10.31269/triplec.v11i1.463|issn=1726-670X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-111">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.tele.2013.09.006 |title=Commons-based peer production and digital fabrication: The case of a Rep ''Rap''-based, Lego-built 3D printing-milling machine |journal=Telematics and Informatics |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=434–43 |year=2014 |last1=Kostakis |first1=Vasilis |last2=Papachristou |first2=Marios }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-112">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0162243913493676 |jstor=43671156 |title=Peer Production and Desktop Manufacturing |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=773–800 |year=2013 |last1=Kostakis |first1=Vasilis |last2=Fountouklis |first2=Michail |last3=Drechsler |first3=Wolfgang |s2cid=43962759 }}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-113">{{Cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/reports/could-3d-printing-change-the-world|title=Could 3D Printing Change the World?|last=Garrett|first=Thomas Campbell, Christopher Williams, Olga Ivanova, and Banning|website=Atlantic Council|language=en-gb|access-date=23 August 2019|date=17 October 2011}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-114">{{Cite journal|last1=Haufe|first1=Patrick|last2=Bowyer|first2=Adrian|last3=Bradshaw|first3=Simon|date=2010|title=The intellectual property implications of low-cost 3D printing|url=https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/publications/the-intellectual-property-implications-of-low-cost-3d-printing|journal=ScriptEd|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=5–31|issn=1744-2567}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-115">{{cite book|last=Gershenfeld|first=Neil|title=Fab: The Coming Revolution on Your Desktop—from Personal Computers to Personal Fabrication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zw0j50HDwYUC&pg=PA13|date=2008|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-2204-4|pages=13–14}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-116">{{Cite web|url=https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/33/the-inequality-puzzle/|title=The Inequality Puzzle|date=14 May 2014|website=Democracy Journal}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="AutoSQ-117">{{Cite web|url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/michael-spence-describes-an-era-in-which-developing-countries-can-no-longer-rely-on-vast-numbers-of-cheap-workers|title=Labor's Digital Displacement | by Michael Spence|first=Michael|last=Spence|date=22 May 2014|website=Project Syndicate}}</ref>
| |
| <ref name="Satyanarayana">{{cite journal | last1=Satyanarayana | first1=B. | last2=Prakash | first2=Kode Jaya | title=Component Replication Using 3D Printing Technology | journal=Procedia Materials Science | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=10 | year=2015 | issn=2211-8128 | doi=10.1016/j.mspro.2015.06.049 | pages=263–269| doi-access=free }}</ref>
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| }}
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| | |
| == Further reading ==
| |
| {{Scholia}}
| |
| * {{cite thesis |last=Tran |first=Jasper |year=2017 |title=Reconstructionism, IP and 3D Printing |ssrn=2842345}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Jasper |year=2016 |title=Press Clause and 3D Printing |journal=Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property |volume=14 |pages=75–80 |ssrn=2614606}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Jasper |year=2016 |title=3D-Printed Food |journal=Minnesota Journal of Law, Science and Technology |volume=17 |pages=855–80 |ssrn=2710071}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Jasper |year=2015 |title=To Bioprint or Not to Bioprint |journal=North Carolina Journal of Law and Technology |volume=17 |pages=123–78 |ssrn=2562952}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Jasper |year=2015 |title=Patenting Bioprinting |journal=Harvard Journal of Law and Technology Digest |ssrn=2603693}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Jasper |year=2015 |title=The Law and 3D Printing |journal=John Marshall Journal of Information Technology and Privacy Law |volume=31 |pages=505–20 |url=http://repository.jmls.edu/jitpl/vol31/iss4/2/}}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Lindenfeld |first=Eric |display-authors=etal|year=2015 |title= Strict Liability and 3D-Printed Medical Devices |journal=Yale Journal of Law and Technology |ssrn=2697245}}
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| * {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31686-4_9 |chapter=Materializing Digital Futures |title=The Decentralized and Networked Future of Value Creation |pages=163–78 |series=Progress in IS |year=2016 |last1=Dickel |first1=Sascha |last2=Schrape |first2=Jan-Felix |isbn=978-3-319-31684-0 }}
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| * {{cite web|title=Results of Make Magazine's 2015 3D Printer Shootout|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1EKsDga2PVD_H9HI2MJbPXCey6bYFEIWErOsAHKHZ3GU/edit#gid=1210667708|access-date=1 June 2015}}
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| * {{cite web|title=Evaluation Protocol for Make Magazine's 2015 3D Printer Shootout|url=http://makezine.com/2014/11/07/how-to-evaluate-the-2015-make-3dp-test-probes/|publisher=makezine.com|access-date=1 June 2015}}
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| * {{cite journal |last1=Vincent |last2=Earls |first2=Alan R. |date=February 2011 |title=Origins: A 3D Vision Spawns Stratasys, Inc. |journal=Today's Machining World |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=24–25 |url=http://www.todaysmachiningworld.com/origins-a-3d-vision-spawns-stratasys-inc/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310074452/http://www.todaysmachiningworld.com/origins-a-3d-vision-spawns-stratasys-inc/ |archive-date=10 March 2012 }}
| |
| * {{cite web|title=Heat Beds in 3D Printing – Advantages and Equipment|url=http://bootsindustries.com/portfolio-item/heat-bed-3d-printing/|website=Boots Industries|access-date=7 September 2015}}
| |
| * {{cite journal |last=Albert |first=Mark|date=17 January 2011 |title=Subtractive plus additive equals more than (– + + = >)|journal=Modern Machine Shop |volume=83 |issue=9 |page=14 |url=http://www.mmsonline.com/columns/subtractive-plus-additive-equals-more-than }}
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| * {{cite journal |last1=Stephens |first1=B. |last2=Azimi |first2=P. |last3=El Orch |first3=Z. |last4=Ramos |first4=T. |title=Ultrafine particle emissions from desktop 3D printers |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050 |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=79 |pages=334–339 |year=2013|bibcode=2013AtmEn..79..334S |doi-access=free }}
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| * {{cite journal |last=Easton |first=Thomas A. |date=November 2008|title=The 3D Trainwreck: How 3D Printing Will Shake Up Manufacturing |journal=[[Analog Science Fiction and Fact|Analog]] |volume=128 |issue=11 |pages=50–63 }}
| |
| * Wright, Paul K. (2001). ''21st Century Manufacturing''. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
| |
| * "3D printing: a new industrial revolution – Safety and health at work – EU-OSHA". ''osha.europa.eu''. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
| |
| * {{Cite book|title=Fabricated : the new world of 3D printing|last=Hod.|first=Lipson|others=Kurman, Melba.|isbn=978-1-118-35063-8|location=Indianapolis, Indiana|oclc=806199735|date=11 February 2013}}
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| == External links ==
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| {{sister project links|b=no|d=y|n=no|q=no|s=no|species=no|v=no|wikt=3D printing}}
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| * {{curlie|Science/Technology/Manufacturing/Prototyping/Rapid_Prototyping|Rapid prototyping websites}}
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| {{Prone to spam|date=May 2015}}
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