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| map_relief = yes | | map_relief = yes | ||
| coordinates = {{coord|16|31|18.82|N|79|14|34.26|E|display=inline,title}} | | coordinates = {{coord|16|31|18.82|N|79|14|34.26|E|display=inline,title}} | ||
| location = [[Macherla]] mandal, [[ | | location = [[Macherla]] mandal, [[Palnadu district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India | ||
| area = | | area = | ||
| built = | | built = | ||
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| governing_body = [[Archaeological Survey of India]] | | governing_body = [[Archaeological Survey of India]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
[[File: | [[File:MET DT5217 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Drum panel depicting a stupa with the Buddha's [[descent from Trāyastriṃśa heaven]], second half 3rd century.<ref>[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38238 MET museum page</ref>]] | ||
'''Nagarjunakonda''': Nāgārjunikoṇḍa, meaning '''Nagarjuna Hill''') is a historical town, now an island located near [[Nagarjuna Sagar]] in [[Palnadu district]] of the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="AHL_1938">{{cite web | url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/long.htm | title=The Great Stupa at Nagarjunakonda in Southern India | publisher=ntu.edu.tw | work=The Indian Antiquary | date=October 1932 | pages=186–192 | first=A. H. | last=Longhurst | access-date=13 January 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2017-02-13/Palnadu-aspires-for-separate-district-status/280287|title=Palnadu aspires for separate district status|last=Syamsundar|first=V. L.|date=2017-02-13|website=www.thehansindia.com|access-date=2019-05-28}}</ref> It is one of India's richest Buddhist sites, and now lies almost entirely under the lake created by the [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam]]. With the construction of the dam, the archaeological relics at Nagarjunakonda were submerged, and had to be excavated and transferred to higher land, which has become an island. | |||
The site was once the location of a large Buddhist monastic university complex, attracting students from as far as [[China]], [[Gandhara]], [[Bengal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. There are ruins of several [[Mahayana Buddhist]] and [[Hinduism|Hindu]] shrines.<ref name="TRB_1993">{{cite book |author=T. Richard Blurton |title=Hindu Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA53 |year=1993 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39189-5 |pages=53–54}}</ref> It is 160 km west of another important historic site, the [[Amaravati Stupa]]. The sculptures found at Nagarjunakonda are now mostly removed to various museums in India and abroad. They represent the second most important group in the distinctive "Amaravati style", sometimes called "Later Andhra".<ref>Rowland, pp. 209-214</ref> There is also a palace area, with secular reliefs, that are very rare from such an early date, and show Roman influence.<ref>Rowland, 212</ref> | |||
The modern name is after [[Nagarjuna]], a southern Indian master of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] who lived in the 2nd century, who was once believed, probably wrongly, to have been responsible for the development of the site. The original name, used when the site was most active, was "Vijayapuri". | |||
The modern name | |||
This Nāgārjunakoṇḍa (sometimes Nāgārjun'''i'''koṇḍa) site in Andhra Pradesh is not to be confused with the Nāgārjuna (or Nāgārjuni) caves near the [[Barabar Caves]] in Bihar. | |||
==History== | ==History== | ||
Coins issued by the later [[Satavahana]] kings (including [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi|Pulumavi]], and [[Yajna Sri Satakarni|Yajna Satakarni]]) have been discovered at Nagarjunakonda.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|pp=2-3}} An inscription of Gautamiputra Vijaya Satakarni, dated to his 6th regnal year, has also been discovered at the site, and proves that Buddhism had spread in the region by this time.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=3}} | Coins issued by the later [[Satavahana]] kings (including [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]], [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi|Pulumavi]], and [[Yajna Sri Satakarni|Yajna Satakarni]]) have been discovered at Nagarjunakonda.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|pp=2-3}} An inscription of Gautamiputra Vijaya Satakarni, dated to his 6th regnal year, has also been discovered at the site, and proves that Buddhism had spread in the region by this time.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=3}} | ||
[[File:Nationalmuseum Neu-Delhi 2017-12-27x.jpg|thumb|Relief with the ''Birth of Buddha'', 3rd-century.]] | |||
The site rose to prominence after the decline of the Satavahanas, in the first quarter of the 3rd century, when the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] king Vashishthiputra Chamamula established his capital Vijayapuri here. The coins and inscriptions discovered at Nagarjunakonda name four kings of the Ikshavaku dynasty: Vashishthi-putra Chamtamula, Mathari-putra Vira-purusha-datta, Vashishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, and Vashishthi-putra Rudra-purusha-datta. An inscription dated to the 30th regnal year of the [[Abhira dynasty|Abhira]] king [[Abhira dynasty#List of rulers|Vashishthi-putra Vasusena]] has also been discovered at the ruined Ashtab-huja-svamin temple.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=3}} This has led to speculation that the Abhiras, who ruled the region around [[Nashik]], invaded and occupied the Ikshavaku kingdom. However, this cannot be said with certainty.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=4}} | The site rose to prominence after the decline of the Satavahanas, in the first quarter of the 3rd century, when the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] king Vashishthiputra Chamamula established his capital Vijayapuri here. The coins and inscriptions discovered at Nagarjunakonda name four kings of the Ikshavaku dynasty: Vashishthi-putra Chamtamula, Mathari-putra Vira-purusha-datta, Vashishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, and Vashishthi-putra Rudra-purusha-datta. An inscription dated to the 30th regnal year of the [[Abhira dynasty|Abhira]] king [[Abhira dynasty#List of rulers|Vashishthi-putra Vasusena]] has also been discovered at the ruined Ashtab-huja-svamin temple.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=3}} This has led to speculation that the Abhiras, who ruled the region around [[Nashik]], invaded and occupied the Ikshavaku kingdom. However, this cannot be said with certainty.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=4}} | ||
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===Archaeological research=== | ===Archaeological research=== | ||
[[File:Division of Buddha Relics - Limestone - Circa 3rd-4th Century AD - Nagarjunakonda - Archaeological Museum - Nagarjunakonda - Andhra Pradesh - Indian Buddhist Art - Exhibition - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2355.JPG|thumb|Division of Buddha Relics, | [[File:Division of Buddha Relics - Limestone - Circa 3rd-4th Century AD - Nagarjunakonda - Archaeological Museum - Nagarjunakonda - Andhra Pradesh - Indian Buddhist Art - Exhibition - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2355.JPG|thumb|Division of Buddha's Relics, 3rd-4th century]] | ||
In 1926, a local schoolteacher, Suraparaju Venkataramaih, saw an ancient pillar at the site, and reported his discovery to the [[Madras Presidency]] government. Subsequently, Shri Sarasvati, the [[Telugu language]] Assistant to the Archaeological Superintendent for Epigraphy of Madras, visited the site, and it was recognized as a potential archaeological site.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=2}} | In 1926, a local schoolteacher, Suraparaju Venkataramaih, saw an ancient pillar at the site, and reported his discovery to the [[Madras Presidency]] government. Subsequently, Shri Sarasvati, the [[Telugu language]] Assistant to the Archaeological Superintendent for Epigraphy of Madras, visited the site, and it was recognized as a potential archaeological site.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=2}} | ||
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Archaeological inscriptions at the site show that the [[Andhra Ikshvaku]] kings Virapurusadatta, Ehuvula and family members patronized Buddhism. The inscriptions also show state-sponsorship of construction of temples and monasteries, through the funding of the Ikshvaku queens. Camtisiri in particular, is recorded as having funded the building of the main stupa for ten consecutive years. The support also spread beyond the noble classes, many non-royal names being inscribed in the relics. At its peak, there were more than thirty monasteries and it was the largest Buddhist centre in [[South India]]. Inscriptions showed that there were monasteries belonging to the [[Bahusrutiya|Bahuśrutīya]] and [[Aparamahavinaseliya]] sub-schools of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]], the [[Mahisasaka]], and the [[Mahaviharavasin]], from [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]. The architecture of the area reflects that of these traditions. There were other monasteries for Buddhist scholars originating from the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] kingdoms, [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], [[Gandhara]], [[Bengal]], [[Ceylon]] (the Culadhammagiri) and [[China]]. There is also a footprint at the site of the Mahaviharavasin monastery, which is believed to be a reproduction of that of [[Gautama Buddha]]. | Archaeological inscriptions at the site show that the [[Andhra Ikshvaku]] kings Virapurusadatta, Ehuvula and family members patronized Buddhism. The inscriptions also show state-sponsorship of construction of temples and monasteries, through the funding of the Ikshvaku queens. Camtisiri in particular, is recorded as having funded the building of the main stupa for ten consecutive years. The support also spread beyond the noble classes, many non-royal names being inscribed in the relics. At its peak, there were more than thirty monasteries and it was the largest Buddhist centre in [[South India]]. Inscriptions showed that there were monasteries belonging to the [[Bahusrutiya|Bahuśrutīya]] and [[Aparamahavinaseliya]] sub-schools of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]], the [[Mahisasaka]], and the [[Mahaviharavasin]], from [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]. The architecture of the area reflects that of these traditions. There were other monasteries for Buddhist scholars originating from the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] kingdoms, [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], [[Gandhara]], [[Bengal]], [[Ceylon]] (the Culadhammagiri) and [[China]]. There is also a footprint at the site of the Mahaviharavasin monastery, which is believed to be a reproduction of that of [[Gautama Buddha]]. | ||
The great stupa at Nagarjunakonda belongs to the class of uncased stupas, its brickwork being plastered over and the stupa decorated by a large garland-ornament.<ref name="AHL_1938"/> The original stupa was renovated by the Ikshvaku princess Chamtisiri in the 3rd century, when ayaka-pillars of stone were erected. The outer railing, if any, was of wood, its uprights erected over a brick plinth. The stupa, 32.3 m in diameter, rose to a height of 18 m with a 4 m wide circumambulatory. The medhi stood 1.5 m and the ayaka-platforms were rectangular offsets measuring 6.7 by 1.5 m.<ref>[http://www.visitlordbuddha.com/cities/nagarjunakonda.htm Visit Lord Budha | The great stupa at Nagarjunakonda belongs to the class of uncased stupas, its brickwork being plastered over and the stupa decorated by a large garland-ornament.<ref name="AHL_1938"/> The original stupa was renovated by the Ikshvaku princess Chamtisiri in the 3rd century, when ayaka-pillars of stone were erected. The outer railing, if any, was of wood, its uprights erected over a brick plinth. The stupa, 32.3 m in diameter, rose to a height of 18 m with a 4 m wide circumambulatory. The medhi stood 1.5 m and the ayaka-platforms were rectangular offsets measuring 6.7 by 1.5 m.<ref>[http://www.visitlordbuddha.com/cities/nagarjunakonda.htm Visit Lord Budha – Nagarjunakonda<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060104025215/http://www.visitlordbuddha.com/cities/nagarjunakonda.htm |date=4 January 2006 }}</ref> | ||
The style of the [[relief]]s recovered is "all but indistinguishable" from those of the final phase of the [[Amaravati Stupa]] not very far away, from the second quarter of the third century, slightly earlier than Nagarjunakonda. Though "lively and interesting", they show "a great decline since the mature phase at Amaravarti", with less complex groupings, various mannerisms in the figures, and a flatness to the surfaces.<ref>Harle, 38</ref> | The style of the [[relief]]s recovered is "all but indistinguishable" from those of the final phase of the [[Amaravati Stupa]] not very far away, from the second quarter of the third century, slightly earlier than Nagarjunakonda. Though "lively and interesting", they show "a great decline since the mature phase at Amaravarti", with less complex groupings, various mannerisms in the figures, and a flatness to the surfaces.<ref>Harle, 38</ref> | ||
==== Hindu ruins ==== | ==== Hindu ruins ==== | ||
Most of the Hindu ruins at Nagarjunakonda can be identified as [[Shaivism|Shaivite]], wherever an identification is possible. One of the temples has an inscription naming the god as "Mahadeva Pushpabhadraswami" (Shiva). Stone images of [[Kartikeya]] ( | Most of the Hindu ruins at Nagarjunakonda can be identified as [[Shaivism|Shaivite]], wherever an identification is possible. One of the temples has an inscription naming the god as "Mahadeva Pushpabhadraswami" (Shiva). Stone images of [[Kartikeya]] (Murugan) were found at two other shrines. An inscription found at another excavated shrine refers to yet another Shiva shrine. At least one temple, attested by a 278 CE inscription, can be identified as [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]], based on the image of an eight-armed god. A large sculpture of [[Shaktism|Devi]] has also been discovered at the site.<ref name="TRB_1993"/> | ||
====Greco-Roman artifacts==== | ====Greco-Roman artifacts==== | ||
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| footer="[[Indo-Scythian|Scythian]]" soldiers, Nagarjunakonda Palace site, 2nd century CE.<ref name=CS/><ref name=AR/><ref>{{cite web |title=National Portal and Digital Repository: Record Details |url=http://museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-50-23-25222 |website=museumsofindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> | | footer="[[Indo-Scythian|Scythian]]" soldiers, Nagarjunakonda Palace site, 2nd century CE.<ref name=CS/><ref name=AR/><ref>{{cite web |title=National Portal and Digital Repository: Record Details |url=http://museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-50-23-25222 |website=museumsofindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> | ||
}} | }} | ||
[[Indo- | [[Indo-Scythian]]s also appear, with reliefs of Scythian soldiers wearing caps and coats.<ref name=CS>"In Nagarjunakonda Scythian influence is noticed and the cap and coat of a soldier on a pillar may be cited as an example.", in {{cite book |last1=Sivaramamurti |first1=C. |title=Indian Sculpture |date=1961 |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HL81AAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name=AR>"A Scythian dvarapala standing wearing his typical draperies, boots and head dress. Distinct ethnic and sartorial characteristics are noteworthy.", in {{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Amita |title=Life and Art of Early Andhradesa |date=1982 |publisher=Agam |page=249 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQXqAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> According to an inscription in Nagarjunakonda, a garrison of Scythian guards employed by the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Iksvakus]] Kings may also have been stationed there.<ref>"The Iksvakus Kings employed Scythian soldiers as their palace guards, and also an inscription hints that a colony of Scythians existed at Nagarjunakonda.", in {{cite book |title=The Journal of the Institution of Surveyors (India). |date=1967 |publisher=Institution of Surveyors |page=374 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lIEAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> | ||
==Inscriptions== | ==Inscriptions== | ||
[[File:Holy relic sites map of Andhra Pradesh.jpg|thumb|250px|Holy relic sites map of Andhra Pradesh]] | |||
The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are a series of epigraphical inscriptions found in the area of Nagarjunakonda. The inscriptions are associated with the blossoming of Buddhist structures and the rule of the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]], in the period covering approximately 210-325 CE.<ref name=US>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology |date=2016 |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=9789351506478 |pages=45–55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 |language=en}}</ref> | The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are a series of epigraphical inscriptions found in the area of Nagarjunakonda. The inscriptions are associated with the blossoming of Buddhist structures and the rule of the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]], in the period covering approximately 210-325 CE.<ref name=US>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology |date=2016 |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=9789351506478 |pages=45–55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
[[File:Nagarjunakonda Ayaka pillar inscription of the time of Vira-Purushadatta.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Nagarjunakonda Ayaka pillar inscription of the time of [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] ruler Vira-Purushadatta (250-275 CE)]] | [[File:Nagarjunakonda Ayaka pillar inscription of the time of Vira-Purushadatta.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Nagarjunakonda Ayaka pillar inscription of the time of [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] ruler Vira-Purushadatta (250-275 CE)]] | ||
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The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can probably be attributed to the influence of the [[Western Satraps]] who promoted the usage of Sanskrit in epigraphy, and who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a Nagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of the time of King [[Rudrapurusadatta]] attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Iksvaku]] rulers of Nagarjunakonda".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=Ramesh Chandra |title=Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. |date=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120800267 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&pg=PA66 |language=en}}</ref> According to one of the inscriptions, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta (250-275 CE) had multiple wives,{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=5}} including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler of [[Ujjain]] (''Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika''), possibly the [[Indo-Scythian]] [[Western Kshatrapa]] king [[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]].{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=6}}<ref>"Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. Raghunadha |title=Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh |date=1993 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120714953 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wENuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=(India) |first1=Madhya Pradesh |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> | The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can probably be attributed to the influence of the [[Western Satraps]] who promoted the usage of Sanskrit in epigraphy, and who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "a Nagarjunakonda memorial pillar inscription of the time of King [[Rudrapurusadatta]] attests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Iksvaku]] rulers of Nagarjunakonda".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=93-94}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=Ramesh Chandra |title=Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. |date=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120800267 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&pg=PA66 |language=en}}</ref> According to one of the inscriptions, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta (250-275 CE) had multiple wives,{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=5}} including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler of [[Ujjain]] (''Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika''), possibly the [[Indo-Scythian]] [[Western Kshatrapa]] king [[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]].{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=6}}<ref>"Another queen of Virapurusha was Rudradhara-bhattarika. According to D.C. Sircar she might have been related to Rudrasena II (c. a.d. 254-74) the Saka ruler of Western India" in {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. Raghunadha |title=Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh |date=1993 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120714953 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wENuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=(India) |first1=Madhya Pradesh |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Ujjain |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo5hAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> | ||
== Etymology == | |||
The modern name of the site originates from its presumptive association with the Buddhist scholar [[Nagarjuna]] (''konda'' is the [[Telugu language|Telugu]] word for "hill"). However, the archaeological finds at the site do not prove that it was associated with Nagarjuna. The 3rd–4th-century inscriptions discovered there make it clear that it was known as "Vijayapuri" in the ancient period: the name "Nagarjunakonda" dates from the medieval period. The [[Andhra Ikshavaku|Ikshavaku]] inscriptions invariably associate their capital Vijayapuri with the Sriparvata hill, mentioning it as ''Siriparvate Vijayapure''.{{sfn|K. Krishna Murthy|1977|p=1}} | |||
[[Faxian|Fa-Hien]], in his travelogue ''A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms,'' mentions a five storey monastery on top of the hill, dedicated to [[Kassapa Buddha]]. He describes each storey as being in the shape of a different animal, with the uppermost being in the shape of a pigeon.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Legge|first=James|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.49546|title=Travels of Fa-Hien|date=1971}}</ref> Fa-Hien refers to the monastery as ''Po-lo-yue''; which has been interpreted to mean ''Pārāvata'', meaning "pigeon" (hence the name "Pigeon Monastery"), or ''Parvata'', meaning "hill" in [[Sanskrit]] (although the latter is considered to be the correct name).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barua|first=Dipak Kumar|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.533799|title=Viharas In Ancient India|date=1969}}</ref> | |||
When [[Hiuen-Tsang]] travelled to [[Andhradesa]] c. 640 CE,<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-11-03|title=Xuan Zang stayed in Vijayawada to study Buddhist scriptures|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Xuan-Zang-stayed-in-Vijayawada-to-study-Buddhist-scriptures/article16091816.ece|access-date=2021-05-03|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> he also visited this place. He has referred to ''Parvata'' as ''Po-lo-mo-lo-ki-li'' <ref>{{Cite book|last=Subrahmaniam|first=K.R.|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55404|title=Journal Of The Andhra Historical Research Society,vol.10,pt.1 To 4|date=1937|pages=100–101}}</ref> or "Mountain of the Black Bee" in his book ''[[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions]]''; as it was then known as Bhramaragiri<ref>{{Cite book|last=Samuel Beal|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.80415|title=Life Of Hiuen Tsiang By The Shaman Hwui Li|date=1911}}</ref> (''bhramara'' means "bee", ''giri'' means "hill" or "mountain" in Sanskrit), because it had a shrine of [[Bhramari|Bharmaramba]] (a form of goddess [[Durga]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beal|first=S.|date=1887|title=Some Remarks on the Narrative of Fâ-hien|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25208860|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=19|issue=2|pages=191–206|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00019389|jstor=25208860|s2cid=162362496 |issn=0035-869X}}</ref> However, many scholars believe that ''Po-lo-mo-lo-ki-li'' was actually Parimalagiri alias Gandhagiri ([[Gandhamardhan hills|Gandhamardan hills]]) in Odisha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Donaldson|first=Thomas E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbxE8zOuRbUC&dq=po+lo+mo+lo+ki+li&pg=PA86|title=Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa: Text|date=2001|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-406-6|language=en}}</ref> | |||
== Nagarjunasagar Dam == | == Nagarjunasagar Dam == | ||
[[File:This picture taken by me on 17th Feb 2013. Place Nagarjunakonda.jpg|thumb|right|Megalith Age Burial Area 2nd century]] | |||
{{main|Nagarjuna Sagar Dam}} | {{main|Nagarjuna Sagar Dam}} | ||
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== Tourism == | == Tourism == | ||
Located in the [[Guntur district]] and close to the border with Telangana state, the Nagarjunakonda island is not directly accessible on the State Highway. | Located in the [[Guntur district]] and close to the border with Telangana state, the Nagarjunakonda island is not directly accessible on the State Highway. | ||
The nearest train station is at [[Macherla]], 29 km away. | The nearest train station is at [[Macherla]], 29 km away. | ||
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* {{cite book |author=K. Krishna Murthy |title=Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gBSWyLTSzkC&pg=PA1 |year=1977 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |oclc=4541213 }} | * {{cite book |author=K. Krishna Murthy |title=Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gBSWyLTSzkC&pg=PA1 |year=1977 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |oclc=4541213 }} | ||
* {{cite book | last = Archaeological Survey of India | year = 1987 | title = Nagarjunakonda}} | * {{cite book | last = Archaeological Survey of India | year = 1987 | title = Nagarjunakonda}} | ||
*Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', pp. 209-214, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}} | |||
* {{Cite book | last=Salomon | first=Richard | title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages | publisher=Oxford University Press | place=Oxford | year=1998 | isbn=0-19-509984-2}} | * {{Cite book | last=Salomon | first=Richard | title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages | publisher=Oxford University Press | place=Oxford | year=1998 | isbn=0-19-509984-2}} | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
* [http://www.indiamonuments.org/Andhra%20Pradesh/Upload%20AP%2001/Andhra%20Pradesh%2001.htm Photographs of Nagarjunakonda and related sites] | * [http://www.indiamonuments.org/Andhra%20Pradesh/Upload%20AP%2001/Andhra%20Pradesh%2001.htm Photographs of Nagarjunakonda and related sites] | ||
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[[Category:Buddhist archaeological sites]] | [[Category:Buddhist archaeological sites]] | ||
[[Category:Buddhist sites in India]] | [[Category:Buddhist sites in India]] | ||
[[Category:Ancient Indian cities]] | |||
[[Category:Hindu holy cities]] | |||
[[Category:Former capital cities in India]] | |||