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| {{short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}
| | #REDIRECT [[Muslims]] |
| {{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}}
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| {{Islam|expanded=all}}
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| '''Islam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}};<ref group="upper-alpha" name=":0">There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is {{IPAc-en|z}} or {{IPAc-en|s}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} or (when the stress is on the first syllable) {{IPAc-en|ə}} (''[[Merriam Webster]]''). The most common are {{IPAc-en|ɪ|15=ˈ|26=ə|25=l|24=s|23=ɪ|22=ˈ|21=,_|20=m|19=ə|18=l|17=z|16=ɪ|14=,_|z|13=m|12=ɑː|11=l|10='|9=s|8=ɪ|7=,_|6=m|5=ɑː|4=l|ˈ|27=m}} (''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. Random House) and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}} (''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'').</ref> {{lang-ar|اَلْإِسْلَامُ|al-’Islām}}, {{IPA-ar|ɪsˈlaːm||ar-islam.ogg|}} "submission [to God]")<ref name="BC3">{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Barnard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi/page/8 |title=Islam: The Religion and The People |last2=Churchill |first2=Buntzie Ellis |publisher=[[Wharton School Publishing]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-13-223085-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi/page/8 8]}}</ref> is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[monotheistic]] religion teaching that [[Muhammad]] is a [[Muhammad in Islam|messenger]] of [[God]].<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 quick reference].) "Profession of Faith…affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref name="OEIW-allah2">Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 quick reference].) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based…on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"</ref> It is the [[Major religious groups|world's second-largest religion]] with 2 billion followers, or 25% of the world's population,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country |title=Muslim Population By Country 2021 |website=World Population Review |access-date=22 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pew2">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615053333/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/number/all/ |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> known as [[Muslims]].<ref>"[https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim Muslim]." ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''. UK: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2020.</ref> Muslims make up a majority of the population in [[Islam by country|47 countries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |url-status=live |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref><ref>[[Pew Forum|The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]]. December 2012. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010]." DC: Pew Research Center. [https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ Article].</ref> Islam teaches that [[God in Islam|God]] is [[Mercy#Islam|merciful]], [[Omnipotence|all-powerful]], and [[Tawhid|unique]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campo |first=Juan Eduardo |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-2696-8 |page=34 |chapter=Allah |chapter-url={{Google books|OZbyz_Hr-eIC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> and has guided humanity through [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets]], [[Islamic holy books|revealed scriptures]], and [[Āyah|natural signs]].<ref name="OEIW-allah2" /><ref>[[İbrahim Özdemir|Özdemir, İbrahim]]. 2014. "Environment." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam''}}, edited by [[İbrahim Kalın|I. Kalin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-981257-8}}. "When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment.… The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator."</ref> The primary scriptures of Islam are the [[Quran]], believed to be the verbatim word of God, as well as the teachings and normative examples (called the [[sunnah]], composed of accounts called ''[[hadith]]'') of Muhammad ([[wikt:circa|{{circa}}]] 570 – 632 CE).<ref>Goldman, Elizabeth. 1995. ''Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-508240-1}}. p. 63.</ref>
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| Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a [[Fitra|primordial faith]] that was revealed many times before through prophets such as [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=177}}</ref> Muslims consider the Quran, in Arabic, to be the unaltered and final revelation of God.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bennett|2010|p=101}}</ref> Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches a final judgment with the righteous rewarded in [[Jannah|paradise]] and the unrighteous punished in [[Jahannam|hell]].<ref>[[John Esposito|Esposito, John L.]], ed. 2003. "[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 Eschatology]." In ''[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]]''.</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are obligatory acts of worship, as well as following Islamic law ([[sharia]]), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from [[Islamic banking and finance|banking]] and [[Zakat|welfare]] to [[Women in Islam|women]] and the [[Islamic ethics#Environmentalism|environment]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–12, 118}}.</ref><ref name=":15">El Shamsy, Ahmed, and Noel James Coulson. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shariah Sharīʿah]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. 2020. (See also "[https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia sharia]" via ''[[Oxford Dictionaries|Lexico]]''.)</ref> The cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]] and [[Jerusalem]] are home to the three [[holiest sites in Islam]].<ref name="Trofimov2">[[Yaroslav Trofimov|Trofimov, Yaroslav]]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. [[Knopf]]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>
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| From a historical point of view, Islam originated in early 7th century CE in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], in Mecca,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=AQUZ6BGyohQC|page=5}} |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5 |language=en}}</ref> and by the 8th century, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] extended from [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] in the east. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century, during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], when much of the historically [[Muslim world]] was experiencing a [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|scientific]], [[History of Islamic economics#Classical Muslim commerce|economic]], and cultural flourishing.<ref name="Saliba2">[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: [[New York University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref><ref name="King2">{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref name="Hassan-Decline2">Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: [[Ibn Khaldun International Institute of Advanced Research|International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization]]. Archived from the [http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html original] on 2 April 2015.</ref> The expansion of the Muslim world involved various [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|caliphates and states]] such as the [[Ottoman Empire]], trade, and [[Religious conversion|conversion to Islam]] by [[Islamic missionary activity|missionary activities]] (''[[dawah]]'').<ref>[[Thomas Walker Arnold|Arnold, Thomas Walker]]. ''The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.'' pp. 125–258.</ref>
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| Most Muslims are of one of two [[Islamic schools and branches|denominations]]: [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85–90%)<ref name="Sunni-eb2">Denny, Frederick. 2010. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3&dq=Sunni+Islam#v=onepage&q=Sunni%20Islam Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide]''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."</ref> or [[Shia Islam|Shia]] (10–15%).<ref name="Shia2">"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html#401 Religions | Field Listing]" and "[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html#401 Religions | Definitions and Notes]." ''[[The World Factbook|The World Factbook Archive]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020. *"Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide."
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| * "Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population."</ref><ref>"[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni Sunni]" and "[http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a Shi'a]." ''[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]]''. Retrieved 24 May 2020. Archived "[https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070956/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a Shi'a]" (2011). • "Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims." • "Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide."</ref><ref name=":2">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. October 2009. "[https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population]." [[Pew Research Center]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020. [https://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ Overview].</ref> Sunni and Shia [[Shia–Sunni relations|differences]] arose from disagreement over the [[succession to Muhammad]] and acquired broader political significance, as well as [[Schools of Islamic theology|theological]] and [[Fiqh|juridical]] dimensions.<ref name="EMMENA">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> About 12% of Muslims live in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]], the most populous Muslim-majority country;<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "[https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050]" (projections table). [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% live in [[Islam in South Asia|South Asia]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kaubzRxh-U0C}} |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193] |language=en}}</ref> the largest percentage of Muslims in the world;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pillalamarri, Akhilesh |date=2016 |title=How South Asia Will Save Global Islam |work=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/how-south-asia-will-save-global-islam/ |access-date=7 February 2017}}</ref> {{#expr: 100 * 315/1571 round 0}}% in the [[MENA#Religion|Middle East–North Africa]], where it is the dominant religion;<ref name=":3">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. January 2011. [https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ The Future of the Global Muslim Population]." [[Pew Research Center]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx Archived] from the original on 9 February 2011.</ref> and 15% in [[Sub-Saharan Africa#Religion|sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=":3" /> Sizable Muslim communities can also be found in the [[Islam in the Americas|Americas]], [[Islam in China|China]], and [[Islam in Europe|Europe]].<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=[[Al Jazeera]] |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency|Anadolu News Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |language=en |access-date=13 January 2019}}</ref> Islam is the [[Growth of religion|fastest-growing major religion]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Daniel |date=2 April 2015 |title=The world's fastest-growing religion is... |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/ |access-date=18 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="USNewsLippman22">Lippman, Thomas W. 7 April 2008. "[https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god No God But God]." ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''. Retrieved 24 May 2020. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."</ref>
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| ==Etymology<!--linked from 'Muslim'-->==
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| {{See also|Muslims#Etymology}}
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| [[File:Kaaba Mirror like.jpg|thumb|225px|The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] is the [[Qibla|direction of prayer]] and destination of pilgrimage]]
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| In Arabic, Islam (Arabic:إسلام, "submission [to God]") is the verbal noun originating from the verb سلم (salama), from [[Semitic root|triliteral root]] س-ل-م ([[Š-L-M|S-L-M]]), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, sincerity, safeness, and peace.<ref>"[http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm Siin]." ''Lane's Lexicon'' 4. – via ''[[The Study Quran|StudyQuran]]''.</ref> Islam is the verbal noun of [[wikt:أسلم#Arabic|Form IV]] of the root and means "submission" or "total surrender". In a religious context, it means "total surrender to the will of [[God]]".<ref name="BC3" /><ref name=":1">'''''Islām''''': "submission, total surrender (to God)" Gardet, L., and J. Jomier. [1960] 2012. "[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/islam-COM_0387?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&s.q=islam Islām]." ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (2nd ed.), edited by P. Bearman, et al. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. {{Doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387}}. {{ISBN|978-90-04-16121-4}}. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref> A ''[[Muslims|Muslim]]'' (Arabic:مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the [[Participle|active participle]] of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". The word "Islam" ("submission") sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the [[Quran]]. Some verses stress the quality of Islam as an internal spiritual state: "Whoever God wills to guide, He opens their heart to Islam."<ref name="MULTIPLE-REFERENCES2" group="lower-roman">[[Q6:125]] {{Cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, [[Q61:7]] {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, [[Q39:22]] {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Other verses connect ''Islam'' and religion ([[dīn]]) together:<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q5:3]] {{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, [[Q3:19]] {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, [[Q3:83]] {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> <blockquote>"Today, I have perfected your religion for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref name=":0" /> </blockquote>Others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref name="return2" group="lower-roman">[[Q9:74]] {{Cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}; {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}</ref> In the [[Hadith of Gabriel]], Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes ''[[Iman (Islam)|imān]]'' (faith), and ''[[Ihsan|ihsān]]'' (excellence).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |title=The Oxford History of Islam |date=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/page/76 76–77]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmutćehajić |first=Rusmir |url=https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm |title=The mosque: the heart of submission |publisher=[[Fordham University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm/page/n104 84] |url-access=limited}}</ref>
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| The word ''"silm"'' (Arabic:سِلْم) in Arabic means both peace and also the religion of Islam.<ref name="CA">{{Cite web |date=20 June 2020 |title=What Does "Islam" Mean? |url=https://classicalarabic.org/2020/06/19/what-does-islam-mean/ |access-date=20 June 2020 |website=Classical Arabic |language=en}}</ref> A common linguistic phrase demonstrating its usage is "he entered into ''as-silm''" (Arabic:دَخَلَ فِي السِّلْمِ) which means "he entered into Islam," with a connotation of finding peace by submitting one's will to the [[Predestination in Islam|Will]] of God.<ref name="CA" /> The word "Islam" can be used in a linguistic sense of submission or in a technical sense of the religion of Islam, which also is called ''as-silm'' which means peace.<ref name="CA" />
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| Islam itself was historically called [[Mohammedan|''Mohammedanism'']] in the [[English-speaking world]]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be [[Religious offense|offensive]], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in [[Buddhism]].<ref>Wilson, Kenneth G. ''The Columbia Guide to Standard American English''. {{ISBN|0-231-06989-8}}. p. 291: "Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive."</ref> Some authors, however, continue to use the term ''Mohammedanism'' as a [[wikt:technical term|technical term]] for the religious system as opposed to the [[Theology|theological]] concept of Islam that exists within that system.
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| ==Articles of faith==
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| {{Main|Aqidah|Iman (Islam)|l2 = Iman}}
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| [[Faith]] (''iman'', Arabic: إيمان) in the Islamic [[creed]] (''[[aqidah]]'') is often represented as the [[Iman (concept)#The six articles of the Islamic faith|six articles of faith]], notably mentioned in the Hadith of Gabriel. Belief in these articles is necessary and obligatory upon all Muslims.
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| ===Concept of God===
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| {{Main|God in Islam}}
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| {{allah}}
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| The central concept of Islam is [[Tawhid|tawḥīd]] (Arabic:توحيد), the unity of God. Usually thought of as a <em>precise [[monotheism]]</em>, but also [[panentheism|panentheistic]] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=74–76}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Griffith|Savage|2006|p=[{{google books |plainurl=y |id=KKZEyNRJMkcC|page=248}} 248]}}</ref><ref name=":4">"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid Tawhid]". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [1998] 2020.</ref><ref name=":7" />{{Rp|22}} God is described in [[Al-Ikhlas|Chapter 112]] of the Quran: Say, “He is God—One and Indivisible; God—the Sustainer ˹needed by all˺. He has never had offspring, nor was He born. And there is none comparable to Him.” No human eyes can see God till the Day Of Judgement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Quranic Arabic Corpus - Translation |url=https://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=6&verse=103 |access-date=11 April 2021 |website=corpus.quran.com}}</ref> According to Islam, God is transcendent, therefore Muslims do not attribute human forms to God. God is described and referred to by several [[Names of God in Islam|names or attributes]], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān(الرحمان)'' meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and ''Ar-Rahīm( الرحيم)'' meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are mentioned before reciting every chapter of the Quran except chapter nine.<ref name="Ben2">{{Cite book |last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |date=1999 |publisher=[[William Carey Library]] |isbn=978-0-87808-299-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ali, Kecia. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123136939 |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=Leaman, Oliver, 1950- |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>
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| Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the [[universe]] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "[[Be, and it is]],"<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q2:117]] {{Cite quran|2|117|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":5">"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam Islām]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref> and that the [[Purpose of life|purpose of existence]] is to worship God without associating partners to Him.<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q51:56]] {{Cite quran|51|56|style=ref}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html |access-date=24 May 2020 |website=Patheos}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB2">Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> God is not a part of the [[Christian Trinity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Ma'idah - 5:73 |url=https://quran.com/5/73?translations=131 |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=quran.com}}</ref> He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q2:186]] {{Cite quran|2|186|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> There are no intermediaries, such as [[clergy]], to contact God, who states: "Your Lord has proclaimed, Call upon Me, I will respond to you."<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q40:60]] {{Cite quran|40|60|style=ref}}</ref> Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as [[Taqwa]]. ''[[Allāh]]'' is traditionally seen as the personal name of God,<ref>Görke, Andreas, and Johanna Pink Tafsir. ''Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the Boundaries of a Genre''. London: [[Oxford University Press]] and [[Institute of Ismaili Studies|The Institute of Ismaili Studies]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-870206-1}}. p. 478.</ref> a term with no [[plural]] or [[gender]] being ascribed to it. It is used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transl|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' ({{lang-ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>*{{Cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=[[PBS]]}}
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| * "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and [[Jew]]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Allah|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|author=L. Gardet}}</ref>
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| ===Angels===
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| {{Main|Angels in Islam}}
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| [[File:Mohammed_receiving_revelation_from_the_angel_Gabriel.jpg|thumb|right|Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel [[Gabriel]]. From the manuscript [[Jami' al-tawarikh|Jami' al-Tawarikh]] by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], 1307.]]
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| Belief in [[angels]] is fundamental to Islam. The Quranic word for angel (Arabic:ملك ''{{transl|ar|ALA|malak}}'') derives either from ''Malaka'', meaning "he controlled", due to their power to govern different affairs assigned to them,<ref>Ali, Syed Anwer. [1984] 2010. ''Qurʼan, the Fundamental Law of Human Life: Surat ul-Faateha to Surat-ul-Baqarah (sections 1–21).'' Syed Publications. p. 121.</ref> or from the triliteral root ''’-l-k'', ''l-’-k'' or ''m-l-k'' with the broad meaning of a "messenger", just as its counterpart in [[Hebrew]] (''malʾákh''). Unlike the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word, however, the term is used exclusively for heavenly spirits of the divine world, as opposed to human messengers. The Quran refers to both angelic and human messengers as ''rasul'' instead.<ref>Burge, Stephan R. 2011. ''"''The Angels in Sūrat al-Malāʾika: Exegeses of [[Q. 35:1]]." ''[[Journal of Qur'anic Studies]]'' 10(1):50–70.</ref>
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| The Quran is the principal source for the Islamic concept of angels.<ref name=":6">Burge, Stephen. 2015. ''Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-136-50473-0}}.</ref>{{Rp|23}} Some of them, such as [[Gabriel]] and [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], are mentioned by name in the Quran, others are only referred to by their function. In [[hadith]] literature, angels are often assigned to only one specific phenomenon.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|79}} Angels play a significant role in literature about the [[Isra and Mi'raj|Mi'raj]], where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|79}} Further angels have often been featured in [[Islamic eschatology]], [[Kalam|theology]] and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]].<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|22}} Duties assigned to angels include, for example, communicating [[revelations]]{{disambiguation needed|date=August 2021}} from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions and taking a person's [[soul]] at the time of death.
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| In Islam, just as in [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], angels are often represented in [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic forms]] combined with [[supernatural]] images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|97–9}} The Quran describes "Angels as His messengers with wings—two, three, or four."<ref group="lower-roman">[[Q35:1]] {{Cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref><ref>* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}
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| * Webb, Gisela. "Angel". ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an]]''.</ref><ref>MacDonald, D. B., and Madelung, W. 2012. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642|Malāʾika}}.” ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'' (2nd ed.), edited by: P. Bearman, et al. Retrieved 24 May 2020. {{ISBN|978-90-04-16121-4}}.</ref> Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires, such as eating and drinking.<ref>Cenap Çakmak ''Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes]'' [[ABC-CLIO]], 18 May 2017 {{ISBN|978-1-61069-217-5}} p. 140.</ref> Their lack of affinity to material desires is also expressed by their creation from light: angels of mercy are created from [[Nūr (Islam)|''nūr'']] ('light')<ref>• "[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur Nūr]." ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]''. – via ''[[Encyclopedia.com]]'';
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| • Hartner, W., and Tj Boer. 2012. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874|Nūr}}.” ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'' (2nd ed.), edited by P. Bearman, et al. {{ISBN|978-90-04-16121-4}}.
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| • Elias, Jamal J. 2003. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261|Light}}.” ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]]'' 3, edited by [[Jane Dammen McAuliffe|J. D. McAuliffe]]. DC: [[Georgetown University]]. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</ref> in opposition to the angels of punishment created from ''nār'' ('fire').<ref>• "[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar Nar]." ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World''. – via [[Encyclopedia.com]];
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| • Fahd, T. 2012. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846|Nār}}.” ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (2nd ed.), edited by P. Bearman, et al. {{ISBN|978-90-04-16121-4}}. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
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| • Toelle, Heidi. 2002. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156|Fire}}.” ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]]'' 2, edited by [[Jane Dammen McAuliffe|J. D. McAuliffe]]. DC: [[Georgetown University]]. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</ref><ref>[[Jane Dammen McAuliffe|McAuliffe, Jane Dammen]]. 2003. ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]]'' 3. DC: [[Georgetown University]]. p. 45.</ref> Muslims do not generally share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western art.
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| ===Revelations===
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| {{Main|Quran|Wahy|Islamic holy books}}
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| {{See also|History of the Quran}}
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| [[File:FirstSurahKoran_(fragment).jpg|thumb|right|The first [[Sura|chapter]] of the Quran, ''[[Al-Fatiha]]'' (''The Opening''), is seven verses]]
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| The Islamic holy books are the records that most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospel in Islam|Gospel]]), had become [[tahrif|distorted]]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted">* Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
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| * {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|pp=6, 12}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Peters|2003|p=9}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last2=Welch |first2=A.T |last1=Buhl |first1=F}}* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Tahrif|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh}}</ref> The Quran (lit. "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest [[Arabic literature|literary]] work in the classical Arabic language.<ref>Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, [[University of Minnesota Press]], Minneapolis.</ref><ref>Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.</ref>
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| Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to [[Muhammad]] by God through the [[archangel]] Gabriel (''[[Rūḥ|Jibrīl]]'') on many occasions between 610 CE until his death in 632.<ref name=":7" />{{Rp|17–18, 21}} While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions (''[[sahabah]]''), although the prime method of transmission was orally through [[Hafiz (Quran)|memorization]].<ref name="al faruqi">{{Cite journal |last1=Al Faruqi |last2=Lois Ibsen |year=1987 |title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an |journal=[[Society for Asian Music|Asian Music]] |issue=Autumn – Winter 1987 |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters ([[suras]]) which combined contain 6,236 verses (''[[ayah|āyāt]]''). The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at [[Mecca]], are concerned primarily with ethical and spiritual topics. The later [[Medina]]n suras mostly discuss social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8">Ringgren, Helmer, and Nicolai Sinai. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran Qurʾān]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. 2020.
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| "The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology and meaning|two different theories]] about this term and its formation."</ref>
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| The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legislation, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref name=":7" />{{Rp|79}} Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ('accounts'), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref name=":7" />{{Rp|79–81}}<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir Tafsīr]" (revised ed.). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [1998] 2007.</ref> The set of rules governing proper [[elocution]] of recitation is called [[tajwid]]. Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.<ref name=":8" /><ref>* {{Harvtxt|Teece|2003|pp=12–13}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Turner|2006|p=42}}</ref>
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| ===Prophets and sunnah===
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| {{Main|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}
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| {{Islamic prophets}}
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| [[File:Medieval Persian manuscript Muhammad leads Abraham Moses Jesus.jpg|thumb|A Persian miniature depicts [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] leading [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] and other prophets in prayer.]]
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| According to the Quran, God instructed the prophets (Arabic: {{lang-ar|أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ}}) to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine, though some can perform miracles to prove their claim. [[Schools of Islamic theology|Islamic theology]] says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Noah in Islam|Noah]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref name=":5" />
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| Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law-bearing prophet ("[[Seal of the prophets]]") to convey the divine message to the entire world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the [[sunnah]] (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>* ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p. 666* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hadith |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |author=J. Robson}}* {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Sunna|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. [[Hadith qudsi|Hadith Qudsi]] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called [[Hadith studies#Traditional importance of the sanad|''sanad'']], and the actual wording, called ''[[Hadith studies|matn]]''. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration as: "authentic" or "correct" ({{lang-ar|صَحِيْح|links=no|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ṣaḥīḥ|ṣaḥīḥ]]|label=none}}); "good", ''[[Hasan (hadith)|hasan]]'' ({{lang-ar|حَسَن|links=no|label=none|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ḥasan|ḥasan]]}}); or "weak" ({{lang-ar|ضَعِيْف|label=none|translit=[[Hadith terminology#Ḍaʻīf|ḍaʻīf]]}}), among others. The ''[[Kutub al-Sittah]]'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in [[Sunnism]]. Among them is ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]'', often considered by Sunnis as one of most [[Hadith terminology#Terminology relating to the authenticity of a hadith|authentic]] sources after the Quran.<ref>Brown, Jonathan. 2007. {{URL|{{google books|plainurl=y|id=nyMKDEAb4GsC}}|''The Canonization of Al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon''}}{{page needed|date=April 2016}}. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. {{ISBN|978-90-04-15839-9}}.</ref><ref name="Muqaddimah">[[Aisha Abd al-Rahman|al-Rahman, Aisha Abd]], ed. 1990. ''[[Introduction to the Science of Hadith|Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ]]''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another famous source of hadiths is known as ''[[The Four Books]]'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref name="Meri">{{Cite book |last=Meri, Josef W. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |location=USA}}</ref><ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. "[https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books The Four Books]." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>[[Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi|Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar]]. "[https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu’l-Arb’ah)]." Ch 4 in ''The Qur’an and Hadith''. Tanzania: [[Bilal Muslim Mission]]. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref>
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| Because the Quran only briefly covered the lives of biblical prophets, scholars, poets, historians, and storytellers elaborate their stories in ''[[Qisas Al-Anbiya|Tales of the Prophets]]''. Many of these scholars were also authors of commentaries on the Quran; however, unlike Quran commentaries which follow the order and structure of the Quran itself, the ''Tales of the Prophets'' told its stories of the prophets in chronological order—which makes them similar to the Jewish and Christian versions of the Bible.
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| Besides prophets, [[Saints in Islam|saints]] possess [[blessings]]{{disambiguation needed|date=August 2021}} (Arabic:بركة , "baraka") and can perform [[Islamic view of miracles|miracles]] (Arabic:امات, ''Karāmāt''). Saints rank lower than prophets and they do not intercede for people on the Day of Judgment. However, both the tombs of prophets and saints are visited frequently ''([[Ziyarat]])''. People would seek the advice of a saint in their quest for spiritual fulfillment. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are usually acknowledged informal by consensus of common people, not by scholars. Unlike prophets, women like [[Rabia of Basra]]were accepted as saints.<ref>Josef W. Meri ''The Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria'' OUP Oxford, 14.11.2002 isbn 9780191554735 pp. 60-81</ref>
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| ===Resurrection and judgment===
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| {{Main|Islamic eschatology}}
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| Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or ''[[Qiyamah|Yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' (Arabic|يوم القيامة), is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of [[Ulama|scholars]] describe the trials and [[Great Tribulation|tribulations]] preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah''. The Quran emphasizes [[Resurrection of the dead|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death.<ref>* Glassé, Cyril. 2003. "Resurrection." Pp. 382–83 in ''[[The New Encyclopedia of Islam]]''. Walnut Creek: [[AltaMira Press]].
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| * “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467|Avicenna}}.” [2003] 2012. ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (2nd ed.), edited by P. Bearman, et al. Retrieved 25 May 2020: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Qiyama |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |author=Gardet, L.}}</ref>
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| On Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم [[Day of Resurrection|القيامة]]), Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to ''[[Jannah]]'' (paradise) or ''[[Jahannam]]'' (hell). The Quran in [[Surat al-Zalzalah]] describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran [[Islamic views of sin|lists several sins]] that can condemn a person to [[hell]], such as [[Kafir|disbelief]] in God ({{lang-ar|كفر|translit=kufr|label=none}}), and dishonesty. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the [[Islamic views on sin|sins]] of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals,<ref>Masri, Basheer Ahmad. ''Animals in Islam.'' p. 27.</ref><ref>Esposito, John L. 2011. ''What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam'' (2nd ed.). Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-515713-0}}. [http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/book_wenkai.html Lay summary]. p. 130.</ref> will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>* {{Harvtxt|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p. 565
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| * "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Garden |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online |author=Asma Afsaruddin}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Paradise|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' (Arabic:يوم الدين "Day of Religion");<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|1|4|style=ref}};</ref> ''as-Sāʿah'' (Arabic:الساعة "the Last Hour";<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|6|31|style=ref}};</ref> and ''[[Al-Qaria|al-Qāriʿah]]'' (Arabic:القارعة "The Clatterer");<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|101|1|style=ref}}</ref>
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| ===Divine Destiny===
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| {{Main|Predestination in Islam}}
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| The concept of [[Divinity|divine]] decree and [[destiny]] in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر), ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God and is in line with destiny. A''l-qadar'' meaning "power"<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2011 |title=A E D |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref> derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref name=":12" /><ref>* {{Harvtxt|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."
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| * Karamustafa, Ahmet T. "Fate." ''Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online'': The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
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| * Gardet, L. [2003] 2012. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407|al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa ’l-Ḳadar}}.” ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (2nd ed.), edited by P. Bearman, et al. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
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| </ref> The Quran emphasises that nothing occurs outside of His divine decree: "Say, 'Nothing will ever befall us except what God has destined for us'."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah At-Tawbah - 9:51 |url=https://quran.com/9/51?translations=131 |access-date=13 November 2020 |website=quran.com}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase [[Inshallah|"Insha-Allah"]] meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Qadr - Muslim beliefs - Edexcel - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - Edexcel |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |website=BBC Bitesize |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Siddiqui, Abdur Rashid. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/947732907 |title=Qur'anic Keywords : a Reference Guide. |date=2015 |publisher=Kube Publishing Ltd |others=Staff, Islamic Foundation (Great Britain) |isbn=978-0-86037-676-7 |location=New York, NY |oclc=947732907}}</ref>
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| ==Acts of worship==
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| {{Main|Five Pillars of Islam}}
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| There are five core practices in Islam,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Five Pillars of Islam |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/learn/educators/curriculum-resources/art-of-the-islamic-world/unit-one/the-five-pillars-of-islam |access-date=4 July 2020 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'') or "Pillars of the Religion" (''Arkān ad-din''), which are considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith:<ref name=":9">"[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1859?_hi=32&_pos=3 Pillars of Islam]." ''[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]]''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 2020.</ref> Three of the pillars are obligatory for all Muslims, while Zakāt and Hajj are obligatory only for able Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hajj – ReligionFacts |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/hajj |access-date=21 November 2015 |website=www.religionfacts.com}}</ref> Both [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] sects agree on the essential details for performing these acts.<ref>[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1859?_hi=32&_pos=3 Pillars of Islam], Oxford Islamic Studies Online</ref> Apart from these, Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are voluntary charity ([[Sadaqah]]) and [[Quran#Recitation|recitation]] of the Quran.
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| ===Testimony===
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| [[File:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg|thumb|right|Silver coin of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]], inscribed with the ''Shahadah'']]
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| {{main|Shahada}}
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| The [[Shahada|''shahadah'']],<ref>[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr|Nasr, Hossein]]. 2003. ''The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity''. pp. 3, 39, 85, 270–272.</ref> which is the basic creed of Islam, must be recited under [[oath]] with the specific statement: "{{transl|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{lang-ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that none deserves worship except [[God in Islam|God]] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." ''[[Journal of Law and Religion]]'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Non-Muslims wishing to [[Religious conversion#Islam|convert to Islam]] are required to recite the creed.<ref>Kasim, Husain. 2004. "Islam." Pp. 195–97 in ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals'' 6, edited by F. A. Salamone. London: [[Berkshire Publishing Group|Berkshire]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020. {{JSTOR|ctt1jd94wq.14}}.</ref><ref name=":10">Farah, Caesar. 1994. ''Islam: Beliefs and Observances'' (5th ed.). [[Kaplan, Inc.|Barron's Educational Series]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8120-1853-0}}.</ref>{{Rp|135}}
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| ===Prayer===
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| {{main|Salat}}
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| {{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
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| [[File:Mosque.jpg|thumb|Muslim men [[prostration|prostrating]] in prayer, at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Damascus]].]]
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| The five daily ritual prayers are called [[salah]] or ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة|صلاة). Salat is intended to focus the mind on God and is seen as a personal communication with him expressing gratitude and [[worship]]. Salat consists of bowing and prostrating to God and praising God. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory, but flexibility in the timing specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and consist of verses from the Quran.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=18, 19}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Hedayetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Momen|1987|p=178}}</ref> The prayers are done in direction of the [[kaaba|Ka'bah]]. The act of supplicating is referred to as [[dua]].
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| Ritual purity is required for salat, this is achieved through ''[[wudu]]'' (ritual purification) or ''[[ghusl]]'' (full body ritual purification).
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| A [[mosque]] is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or [[Eid prayers]] is called ''[[Jama masjid|masjid jāmi]]'' ({{Lang-ar|مَسْجِد جَامِع|label=none|"congregational mosque"}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Budge |first=E. A. Wallis |title=Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide |date=2001 |publisher=[[Courier Dover Publications]] |isbn=978-0-486-41721-9 |pages=123–128 |author-link=E. A. Wallis Budge}}</ref> Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the [[ummah|Muslim community]] as a place to meet and study. The [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Masjid an-Nabawi]] ("Prophetic Mosque"') in Medina, [[Saudi Arabia]], was also a place of refuge for the poor.<ref>Mattson, Ingrid. 2006. "Women, Islam, and Mosques." Pp. 615–29 in ''Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America'' 2.vii, edited by R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-253-34687-2}}. [https://books.google.ca/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615 p. 615].</ref> Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century and contain a variety of architectural elements such as [[minarets]].<ref>*Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, [[John Burton-Page|J. Burton-Page]], et al. 2010. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694|Masd̲j̲id}}.” ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
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| * "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque Mosque]" (revised ed.). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [1998] 2019.</ref> The means used to signal the prayer time is a vocal call called the ''[[adhan]]''.
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| ===Charity===
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| {{main|Zakat}}
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| {{see also|Sadaqah}}
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| [[Zakat|Zakāt]] ([[Arabic]]: {{lang-ar|زكاة|lit=[[alms]]|translit=zakāh|label=none}}) is a means of [[welfare]] in a Muslim society, characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<ref name="AhmedGianci">Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." Pp. p. 479 in ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy''.</ref> of [[Financial capital|accumulated wealth]] by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in [[bonded labour|debt]], or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Cite Quran|9|60|style=nosurp|expand=yes|quote=Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or [[Debt bondage|bonded labour]]) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller—an obligation (imposed) by Allah. And Allah is Knowing and Wise}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ariff |first=Mohamed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&|page=55}} |title=The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3016-07-1 |pages=55–}}</ref> It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to [[Supererogation|supererogatory]] charity, known as Sadaqah) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat are that it amounts to 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world |agency=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/95564/analysis-a-faith-based-aid-revolution-in-the-muslim-world |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref> The first [[Caliph]], [[Abu Bakr]], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a [[guaranteed minimum income]], with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 [[dirhams]] annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|VICE]]}}</ref>
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| ''Sadaqah'' means optional charity practiced as a religious duty and out of generosity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=4bs7g0O4eLYC|page=145}} |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-77011-8 |page=145 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Both the Quran and the hadith put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |editor-last=Stefon, Matt |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/72 72] |url-access=limited}}</ref> and have urged Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}</ref><ref name=":7">[[John Esposito|Esposito, John L.]] 2004. ''[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]]''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-975726-8}}.</ref>{{Rp|90}}<ref>*"[https://www.britannica.com/topic/zakat-Islamic-tax Zakat]" (revised ed.). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [1998] 2014.
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Zakat |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online}}
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| * [[Joseph Schacht|Schacht, Joseph]]. [1913–1936] 2012. “{{Doi-inline|10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_6065|Zakāt}}.” ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (1st ed.), edited by [[Martijn Theodoor Houtsma|M. T. Houtsma]], [[Thomas Walker Arnold|T. W. Arnold]], R. Basset, and R. Hartmann. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> The Quran says: "Those who spend their wealth in charity day and night, secretly and openly—their reward is with their Lord."<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|2|274|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref> One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that [[God in Islam|God]] expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly.<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|107|1|e=7|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Holt, P.M. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |last2=Ann K.S. Lambton |last3=Bernard Lewis |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-21946-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798/page/n50 32] |author-link3=Bernard Lewis |url-access=limited}}</ref> Accumulating wealth without spending it to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |editor-last=Matt Stefon |location=New York City |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/93 93] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Another kind of charity in Islam is [[waqf]], meaning a perpetual religious endowment of property.
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| ===Fasting===
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| [[File:Iftar for Ramadhan.jpg|thumb|220px|A fast-breaking feast, known as ''[[Iftar]]'', is served traditionally with [[Date (fruits)|dates]]]]
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| {{main|Fasting during Ramadan}}
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| {{see also|Fasting in Islam}}
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| Fasting ([[Arabic]]: {{lang-ar|صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none}}) from food and drink, among other things, must be performed from dawn to after sunset during the month of [[Ramadan]]. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it, Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, develop self-control and restraint, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts must be compensated for later.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}</ref>
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| ===Pilgrimage===
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| {{main|Hajj|Umrah}}
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| [[File:A packed house - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|right|Pilgrims at the [[Great Mosque of Mecca]] during the [[Hajj]] season]]
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| The obligatory Islamic [[pilgrimage]], called the "{{transl|ar|ALA|ḥajj}}" (Arabic: حج), has to be performed during the first weeks of the twelfth [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] in the city of Mecca. Every physically and financially able Muslim must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. All Muslim men should wear simple white clothing ([[Ihram clothing|ihram]]) during Hajj and [[Umrah]]. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents on the desert plain of [[Mina, Saudi Arabia|Mina]], then a day in the desert plain of [[Mount Arafat]] praying and worshiping God, following the footsteps of [[Abraham]]; then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of [[Muzdalifah]]; then moving to [[Jamaraat Bridge|Jamarat]], symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]] recounting Abraham's actions;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davids |first=Abu Muneer Ismail |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=4xIijTTxX9UC|page=279}} |title=Getting the Best Out of Hajj By Abu Muneer Ismail Davids |year=2006 |isbn=978-9960-9803-0-0 |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C|page=19}} |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6 |page=20 |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alhuseini |first=Sayed / Farouq M. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kz41FZmUivcC|page=61}} |title=Islam and the Glorious Ka'abah: none |date=2012 |publisher=[[iUniverse]] |isbn=978-1-4697-8590-5 |pages=61–}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=July 2021}} then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship; then walking seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, [[Hagar]], while she was looking for water for her son [[Ishmael in Islam|Ishmael]] in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref name=":10" />{{Rp|145–7}}<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Goldschmidt|2005|p=48}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hajj |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, ''umrah'', is supererogatory (not morally required) and can be undertaken at any time of the year. The Quran refers to Islamic Pilgrimage in various places, often describing the rites and rulings which apply when undertaking Hajj.
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| ===Quranic recitation and memorization===
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| {{Main|Quran#Recitation}}
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| [[File:Men reading the Koran in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria.jpg|thumb|Muslim men reading the Quran]]
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| Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran with elocution (''tajwid'') has been described as an excellent act of worship.<ref name="Nigosian-70">{{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S.A. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=70}} |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |page=70}}</ref> Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.<ref name="Stefon-42">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |editor-last=Stefon|editor-first= Matt |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/42 42–43] |url-access=registration}}</ref> In Muslim societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.<ref name=Stefon-42/> One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer") who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.<ref name=Nigosian-70/> Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during their prayers.
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| {{Listen
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| |filename=112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg
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| |title=''Al-Ikhlas''
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| |pos=left
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| |description= ''[[Al-Ikhlas|Sincerity]]'' is the Quran's [[List of surahs in the Quran|112{{sup|th}}]] [[surah|chapter]] as recited by [[Imam]] [[Mishary Rashid Alafasy]]
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| |format=[[Ogg]]
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| }}
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| {{clear}}
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| ==Law==
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| {{Fiqh}}
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| {{Main|Sharia|Fiqh}}
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| {{See also|Logic in Islamic philosophy#Islamic law and theology}}
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| [[Sharia]] is the [[religious law]] forming part of the Islamic tradition.<ref name=":15" /> It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with ''[[fiqh]]'', which refers to its scholarly interpretations.<ref name=ODI/><ref name="vikor">Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 Sharīʿah]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', edited by [[Emad Shahin|E. Shahin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. Archived from the [http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 original] on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.<ref name=":15" />
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| Traditional [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|theory of Islamic jurisprudence]] recognizes four [[sources of sharia]]: the Quran, sunnah (''Hadith'' and [[prophetic biography|''Sira'']]), [[qiyas]] (analogical reasoning), and ''[[ijma]]'' (juridical consensus).<ref name="Esposito, John 2001">{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> Different [[Madhhab|legal schools]] developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ''[[ijtihad]]''.<ref name="ODI">Esposito, John L., ed. 2014. "[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 Islamic Law]." ''[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]]''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,''[[Ibadah|ʿibādāt]]'' (rituals) and ''[[Muamalat|muʿāmalāt]]'' (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.<ref name="ODI" /> Its rulings assign actions to one of [[Ahkam|five categories]]: mandatory (''[[fard]]''), recommended (''[[mustahabb]]''), permitted (''[[mubah]]''), abhorred (''[[makruh]]''), and prohibited (''[[haram]]'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.<ref name="vikor" />
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| Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists ([[mufti]]s). Their legal opinions ([[fatwa]]) were taken into account by ruler-appointed [[Qadi|judges]] who presided over [[Qadi|qāḍī]]'s courts, and by ''[[Mazalim|maẓālim]]'' courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The [[Ottoman Empire]]'s 19th-century [[Tanzimat]] reforms lead to the [[Mecelle]] civil code and represented the first attempt to [[Codification (law)|codify]] sharia.<ref>[[Ashk Dahlén|Dahlen, Ashk]]. 2004. ''Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}.</ref> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in [[Status (law)|personal status]] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 Law. Modern Legal Reform]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> The [[Islamic revival]] of the late 20th century brought along calls by [[Islamist]] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, [[freedom of thought]], and [[women's rights]].<ref name="naim96">{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref name="hajjar2004">{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=[[Law & Social Inquiry]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref><ref>Al-Suwaidi, J. 1995. ''Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, War, and Peace in the Middle East'', edited by D. Garnham and M. A. Tessler. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-253-20939-9}}. see Chapters 5 and 6.{{page needed|date=April 2016}}</ref>
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| ===Scholars===
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| [[File:Карло Боссоли. Татарская школа для детей (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|232px|[[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] Muslim students (1856)]]
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| {{Main|Ulama}}
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| Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the [[sacerdotalism|sacerdotal]] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Arabic: علماء) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of [[Islamic studies|Islamic sciences]]. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a [[mufti]] ({{lang-ar|مفتي|label=none}}) and often issues legal opinions, called [[fatwas]]. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a [[faqih]] ({{lang-ar|فقيه|label=none}}). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a ''[[muhaddith]]''. A [[qadi]] is a judge in an Islamic court. [[Honorific]] titles given to scholars include [[sheikh]], [[mullah]], and [[Mawlawi (Islamic title)|mawlawi]]. [[Imam]] ({{lang-ar|إمام|label=none}}) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services.
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| ===Schools of jurisprudence===
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| [[File:Madhhab Map3.png|thumb|right|257px|Islamic [[madh'hab|schools of law]] in the [[Muslim world]]]]
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| {{Main|Madhhab}}
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| A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a ''madhhab'' ({{lang-ar|مذهب}}). The four major Sunni schools are the [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]] madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the [[Ja'fari]], [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called ''[[Usul al-fiqh]]'' ("principles of jurisprudence"). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called ''[[taqlid]]''. The term ''[[Salafi movement|ghair muqallid]]'' literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ''ijtihad''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Weiss|2002|pp=3,161}}</ref>
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| === Economics ===
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| {{Main|Islamic economics}}
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| To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]] encourages trade,<ref>*''International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment'' By Mamarinta P. Mababaya p. 203
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| * {{Cite quran|4|29|style=ref}}</ref> discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (i.e. [[usury]]; Arabic: ''[[riba]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karim, Shafiel A. |title=The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments |publisher=[[Brown Walker Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59942-539-9 |location=Boca Raton, FL}}</ref><ref>Gray, Joanna, and Orkun Akseli. ''Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock''. p. 97.</ref> Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit-sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.<ref>*[[Ibn Majah]], ''[[Sunan ibn Majah]]'' III, hadith 2289
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| * Mababaya, Mamarinta P. ''International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment''. p. 202.
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| * Krichene, Noureddine. ''Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice''. p. 119.</ref> Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.<ref>*[[Abu Dawood]], ''[[Sunan Abu Dawood]]'', hadith 2015.
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| * [[Ibn Majah]], ''[[Sunan ibn Majah]]'' III, hadith 2154.
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| * Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref>
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| The taking of land belonging to others is prohibited. The prohibition of usury and the revival of interest-based economies has resulted in the development of [[Islamic banking]]. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state was immediately used to help the poor. Then, in AD 634, [[Umar]] formally established the welfare state [[Bayt al-mal|Bayt al-Mal]] ("House of Wealth"), which was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-Maal ran for hundreds of years under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in the 7th century, continuing through the [[Umayyad]] period, and well into the [[Abbasid]] era. Umar also introduced [[child support]] and [[pensions]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ|page=254}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0333-2 |pages=254–}}</ref><ref>Quddus, Syed Abdul. ''The Challenge of Islamic Renaissance''.</ref><ref name="Al-Buraey1985">{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=252}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref>
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| ===Jihad===
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| {{Main|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}
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| Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]". In its broadest sense, it is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of [[wikt:disapprobation|disapprobation]]". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the [[Devil]] and aspects of one's own self (like sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.<ref name=":16">Firestone, Reuven. 1999. ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-512580-1}}.</ref>{{Rp|17–8}} Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref name=":17" /><ref>*{{Harvtxt|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is understood in its military form.<ref name=":16" />{{Rp|17–8}}<ref name=":17">Afsaruddin, Asma. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad Jihad]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. 2020.</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shia and [[Sufism|Sufis]], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual [[self-improvement|self-perfection]], and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref name=":16" />{{Rp|17}}<ref name="EI2" />
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| Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants.<ref name="EI2">Tyan, E. 2012. "{{Doi-inline|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189|D̲j̲ihād}}." In ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (2nd ed.), edited by P. Bearman, T. Bianquis, [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C. E. Bosworth]], E. van Donzel, and [[Wolfhart Heinrichs|W. P. Heinrichs]]. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]].</ref><ref name="OEIP">Peters, Rudolph, and David Cook. 2014. "{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|Jihād}}." ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-973935-6}}.</ref> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.<ref name=":16" />{{Rp|17}}<ref name="EI2" /> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. [[Yale University Press]]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="EI2" /> For most [[Twelver|Twelver Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamate in Twelver doctrine|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s [[occultation (Islam)|occultation]] in 868 AD.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}</ref><ref name="Islam 2003 pp 72">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. 2003. ''The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity''. p. 72.</ref>
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| ==Mysticism==
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| {{Sufism}}
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| {{Main|Sufism}}
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| {{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
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| [[File:Mevlana Konya.jpg|thumb|right|The Whirling Dervishes, or [[Mevlevi Order]] by the tomb of Sufi-mystic [[Rumi]]]]
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| Sufism (Arabic: {{lang-ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a [[mystical]]-[[ascetic]] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct [[Divine presence|personal experience of God]]. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''Tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|p=302}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Malik|Hinnells|2006|p=3}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Turner|1998|p=145}}
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| * Trimingham (1998), p. 1
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| * {{Cite web |year=1997 |title=Afghanistan: A Country Study – Sufism |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061) |access-date=18 April 2007 |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Zarruq 2008">[[Ahmad Zarruq|Zarruq, Ahmed]], Zaineb Istrabadi, and [[Hamza Yusuf|Hamza Yusuf Hanson]]. 2008. ''The Principles of Sufism''. Amal Press.</ref> Sufis themselves claim ''Tasawwuf'' is an aspect of Islam similar to ''sharia'', inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice.<ref>Chittick (2008), pp. 3–4, 11</ref> Sufi congregations form orders (''[[tariqa]]'') centered around a teacher (''[[wali]]'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa | Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref>
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| The religiosity of early Sufi ascetics, such as [[Hasan al-Basri]], emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience, in contrast to later and more prominent Sufis, such as [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]] and [[Jalaluddin Rumi]], whose religiosity is based on love towards God. For that reason, some academic scholars refuse to refer to the former as <em>Sufis</em>.<ref>[[Erik Hornung|Hornung, Erik]], and [[Andreas Schweizer]]. 2011. "Jenseitsreisen." ''[[Eranos]]'' (2009/2010). Basel: [[Schwabe (publisher)|Schwabe]] (German)</ref> Nevertheless, Hasan al-Basri is often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis in Sufi traditions<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> and the influential theologian [[Al-Ghazali]] later developed his ideas.{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}} Traditional Sufis, such as [[Bayazid Bastami]], Jalaluddin Rumi, [[Haji Bektash Veli]], [[Junaid Baghdadi]], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<ref name="chittick">{{Cite book |last=Chittick |first=William C |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=LI0kjBlXS5UC}} |title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-78074-052-2 |access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="nasr">{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr/page/192 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr/page/192 192] |access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie. [1998] 2019. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism Sufism]" (revised ed.). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref><ref>Cook, David. 2015. "{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.93|Mysticism in Sufi Islam}}." ''Oxford Research Encyclopedias'' 1.</ref>
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| Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have faced stiff opposition from followers of [[Wahhabism]], who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in [[Sufi–Salafi relations]]. Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in Central Asia and South Asia. Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or [[Barelvi]] movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref name="journals.cambridge.org">Sanyal, Usha. 1998. "[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century]." ''[[Modern Asian Studies]]'' 32(3):635–56. {{Doi|10.1017/S0026749X98003059}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=15 May 2003 |editor-last=J. L. Esposito |title=Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101 |journal=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0 |via=Oxford Reference}}</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia, where different orders are the main religious sources,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709}}</ref> as well as in African countries like [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="Pew" /><ref>Babou, Cheikh Anta. 2007. "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal." ''[[International Journal of African Historical Studies]]'' 40(1):184–86.</ref>
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| [[Ismaili]] Shias, as well as by the [[Illuminationism|Illuminationist]] and [[School of Isfahan|Isfahan]] schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>[[Mehdi Aminrazavi|Aminrazavi, Mehdi]]. [2009] 2016. "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/ Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy]." ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', edited by [[Edward N. Zalta|E. N. Zalta]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref>
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| ==Society==
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| ===Family life===
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| {{See also|Islam and children|Women in Islam|Marriage in Islam|Polygyny in Islam}}
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| [[File:Minaret roof in constanta.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The dome of the [[Grand Mosque of Constanța|Grand Mosque]] in [[Constanța]], [[Romania]], topped by the [[Islamic crescent]]]]
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| In a Muslim family, some religious ceremonies attend the birth of a child. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan are pronounced in the right ear of the child.<ref name=":18">Campo, Juan E., ed. 2009. ''[https://books.google.ca/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC Encyclopedia of Islam]''. US: [[Infobase Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5454-1}}.</ref>{{Rp|106}} On the seventh day, the ''[[aqiqah]]'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.<ref name="Nigosian-120">{{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S.A. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |location=Indiana |page=120}}</ref> The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.<ref name="Nigosian-120" /> Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly family members undertake teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge and religious practices to the children.<ref name=":18" />{{Rp|136}} [[Marriage in Islam|Marriage]], which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract that consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>* {{Harvtxt|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}
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| * The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p. 339
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| * {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref>
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| Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb/page/141 |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications|Oneworld]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |edition=Repr. |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb/page/141 141]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 68]}}</ref> [[Polyandry]], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |access-date=27 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref> However, Muslim men are allowed to practice [[polygyny]] and can have up to four wives at the same time, per [[Surah]] 4 Verse 3. A man does not need approval of his first wife for a second marriage as there is no evidence in the Qur'an or hadith to suggest this. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds, including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world, there are many variations on Muslim weddings. Generally, in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato/page/92 |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The [[Islamic Texts Society]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato/page/92 92–93]}}</ref> Regarding inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Quran-usc|4|11|s=ns|expand=yes}}.</ref>
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| Certain religious rites are performed during and after the [[Islamic view of death|death of a Muslim]]. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the ''Shahada'' as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After death, according to [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]], members of the same gender bath the body appropriately and enshrouded it in a threefold white garment called ''kafan''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |editor-last=Matt Stefon |location=New York City |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/83 83] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' ("funeral prayer") is said over the bathed and enshrouded body. Placing it on a [[bier]], the body is first taken to a mosque where the funeral prayer is offered for the deceased, and then to the graveyard for burial.
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| ===Etiquette and diet===
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| {{Main|Adab (Islam)|Islamic dietary laws}}
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| Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu 'alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[Basmala|bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|Islamic hygienic]] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. [[Khitan (circumcision)|Circumcision of male offspring]] is practiced in Islam. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, [[carrion]], and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for them self. Food permissible for Muslims is known as [[halal]] food.<ref>* {{Cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Curtis|2005|p=164}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}
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| * Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923142412/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html|date=2013-09-23}}
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| * Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html The Dietary Laws] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502045147/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html|date=2007-05-02}}
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| * Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm Various types of the prayer] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923144205/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm|date=2013-09-23}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Slaughter |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online |author=Ersilia Francesca}}</ref>
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| ===Social responsibilities===
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| {{Quote box
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| | quote = Righteousness is not in turning your faces towards the east or the west. Rather, the righteous are those who believe in God, the Last Day, the angels, the Books, and the prophets; who give charity out of their cherished wealth to relatives, orphans, the poor, needy travelers, beggars, and for freeing captives; who establish prayer, pay alms-tax, and keep the pledges they make; and who are patient in times of suffering, adversity, and in the heat of battle. It is they who are true ˹in faith˺, and it is they who are mindful ˹of God˺.
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| | source = — Quran (2:177)
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| }}
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| {{Main|Islam and humanity}}
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| In Muslim society, members of the community perform various social service activities. As these activities are instructed by [[Muslim scriptures|Islamic canonical texts]], a Muslim's religious life is seen as incomplete if not attended by service to humanity.<ref name="Stefon92">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Britannica Educational Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |editor-last=Matt Stefon |location=New York City |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/92 92] |url-access=registration}}</ref> In fact, in Islamic tradition, the idea of social welfare has been presented as one of its principal values.<ref name="Stefon92" /> [[Quran 2:177]] is often cited to encapsulate the Islamic idea of social welfare.<ref group="lower-roman" name="Q2177"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Corrigan |first1=John |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VahYCwAAQBAJ|page=245}} |title=Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions |last2=Denny |first2=Frederick |last3=Jaffee |first3=Martin S |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-34700-2 |page=245 |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>
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| Similarly, duties to parents, neighbors, relatives, the sick, the old, and [[Minority group|minorities]] have been defined in Islam. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation.<ref name=":18" />{{Rp|136}}<ref>[[Muhammad Shafi Usmani]]. ''[[Maariful Quran]]''. English trans. By [[Muhammad Taqi Usmani]]</ref> A two-fold approach is generally prescribed regarding duty to [[Kinship|relatives]]: keeping good relations with them, and offering them financial help if necessary.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Sheha |first=Abdur Rahman |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ZRqe3iPwsTkC|page=65}} |title=Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions |location=Riyadh |pages=65}}</ref> Severing ties with them has been admonished. Regardless of a neighbor's religious identity, Islam teaches Muslims to treat [[Neighbourhood|neighboring people]] in the best possible manner and not to cause them any difficulty.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=xek6yZPAQjAC|page=238}} |title=The Individual and Society in Islam: Volume 2 of The different aspects of Islamic culture |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-92-3-102742-0 |editor-last=Bouhdiba |editor-first=Abdelwahab |page=238}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Sheha |first=Abdur Rahman |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ZRqe3iPwsTkC|page=75}} |title=Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions |location=Riyadh |pages=74–75}}</ref> The Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment of orphaned children while urging kindness and justice towards them, and rebukes those who do not honor and feed them.<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|89|17–18|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref>
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| ===Character===
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| {{Main|Morality in Islam}}
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| [[File:Salat Eid al-Fitr, Tehran (113344343).jpg|thumb|216px|Islamic [[Hijab|veils]] represent [[Morality in Islam#Modesty and humility|modesty]]]]
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| The Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and [[Moral character|good character]] come within the sphere of the moral guidelines.<ref name=":18" />{{Rp|216}} In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a [[Mumin|believer]]<ref name="Nigosian-116">{{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S.A. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=116}} |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |location=Indiana |page=116}}</ref> and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshiping.<ref name="Leaman-140">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=140}} |editor-last=Oliver Leaman |page=140 |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}</ref> One typical Islamic teaching on [[morality]] is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.<ref name="Nigosian-116" /> The Quran says: "Good and evil cannot be equal. Respond ˹to evil˺ with what is best, then the one you are in enmity with will be like a close friend."<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite quran|41|34|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref> Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only with good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices.<ref name=":18" />{{Rp|215}} The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are [[justice]], [[forgiveness]], righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.<ref name=":18" />{{Rp|216}} Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but are not limited to charitable activities, fulfillment of promise, [[modesty]] ([[Haya (Islam)|''haya'']]) and [[humility]], decency in speech, tolerance, trustworthiness, [[Sabr|patience]], truthfulness, [[anger management]], and sincerity of intention.
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| As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: "The best among you are those who have the best manners and character."<ref group="lower-roman">{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|8|73|56|usc=yes}}</ref> In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khadduri |first=Majid |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=td3XttHLGsEC|page=10}} |title=The Islamic Conception of Justice |publisher=The [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8018-6974-7 |page=10}}</ref> The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice.<ref name="Leaman-27">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=214}} |editor-last=Oliver Leaman |page=214 |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}</ref> On modesty, Muhammad is reported as saying: "Every religion has its characteristic, and the characteristic of Islam is modesty."<ref name="modesty-1">Mufti, Imam Kamil. 2006. "[http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/21/modesty-part-1/ Modesty: An Overview]." ''IslamReligion.com''. Retrieved 19 August 2016.</ref>
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| ===Government===
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| {{Main|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic state|Islam and secularism|Islam and democracy|Sultan|Khanate|Imamate|Emirate|Mansa (title)|Caliphate}}
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| Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the [[ulema|scholars]] function as both jurists and theologians. Currently, no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barazangi |first1=Nimat Hafez |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=0QtcBRWs__AC}} |title=Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice |last2=Zaman |first2=M. Raquibuz |last3=Afzal |first3=Omar |publisher=[[University Press of Florida]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8130-1382-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Amuzegar |first=Jahangir |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=sNvX7bg1Hq8C|page=121}} |title=Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar |date=1997 |isbn=978-1-86064-104-6 |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Glenn E. |url=https://archive.org/details/irancountrystudy00curt_2/page/196 |title=Iran: A Country Study |last2=Hooglund |first2=Eric |date=2008 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-8444-1187-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/irancountrystudy00curt_2/page/196 196–]}}</ref> The Sunni and Shia sectarian divide effects intergovernmental Muslim relations such as between Saudi Arabia and [[Iran]].<ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=January 5, 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=January 6, 2016}}</ref>
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| ==History==
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| {{Main|History of Islam|Spread of Islam}}
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| {{wide image|Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam}}
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| ===Muhammad's revelations (610–632)===
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| {{Muhammad}}
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| {{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}
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| {{See also|Early social changes under Islam}}
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| Islamic tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets, sent by God to the rest of mankind.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|p=12}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}
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| * F.E. Peters (2003), p. 9
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref><ref name=":04">{{Cite web |date=8 October 2019 |orig-year=2018 |title=Islam |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam |access-date=24 May 2020 |website=[[History Channel]] |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref> During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 [[Common Era|CE]], according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God, conveyed to him through the [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|archangel Gabriel]] while he was meditating in a cave.<ref name=":04" /> Muhammad's [[Sahaba|companions]] memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.<ref>*{{Cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last2=Welch |first2=A.T |last1=Buhl |first1=F}}</ref>
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| During this time, [[Muhammad in Mecca|while in Mecca, Muhammed]] preached to the people, imploring them to abandon [[polytheism]] and worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the [[Migration to Abyssinia]] of some Muslims (to the [[Aksumite Empire]]). Many early converts to Islam were the poor, foreigners, and former slaves like [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]]. The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and their slaves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DyuqdDIjaswC|page=1323}} |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323–}}</ref><ref>"Slaves and Slavery." ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]]'';
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| Rabah, Bilal B. ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'';
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| ''[[The Cambridge History of Islam]]''. 1977. p. 36.</ref>
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| After 12 years of the [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans]] and the [[Meccan boycott of the Hashemites]], Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") in AD 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (the ''[[Muhajirun]]''), [[Muhammad in Medina]] established his [[Theocracy|political and religious authority]]. The [[Constitution of Medina]] was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian, and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah.<ref>Serjeant (1978), p. 4.</ref><ref group="upper-alpha">Watt. ''Muhammad at Medina''. pp. 227–28 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date—specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact eight different treaties that can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival.
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| R.B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in ''The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World'': Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: [[Ashgate Publishing]], 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. ''Annali dell'Islam, Volume I''. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. ''Skizzen und Vorabeiten'', IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil, a skeptic of Islamic history, argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. 1974. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." ''Israel Oriental Studies'' 4. p. 45.</ref>
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| The Constitution established:<ref name="B. Serjeant 1978">Serjeant, R. B. 1978. "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib." ''[[Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies]]'' 41:1–42. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref>
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| * the security of the community
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| * religious freedoms
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| * the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
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| * the security of women
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| * stable tribal relations within Medina
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| * a tax system for supporting the community in the time of conflict
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| * parameters for exogenous political alliances
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| * a system for granting protection of individuals
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| * a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own judges.
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| All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624—a Muslim victory—and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the [[Battle of Uhud]], which ended inconclusively.
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| The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the [[Battle of the Trench]] (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single religious [[polity]].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last2=Welch |first2=A.T |last1=Buhl |first1=F}}</ref>
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| The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the [[Salaf]], with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith [[Abu Hureyrah]], recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.
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| ===Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)===
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| {{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests}}
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| {{See also|The event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}}
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| [[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun empire-slide.gif|thumb|right|[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] expansion]]
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| [[File:Dome of the Rock1.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]] built by caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]]; completed at the end of the [[Second Fitna]]]]
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| With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, Muhammad's companion and close friend, was made the first caliph.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Editors |first=History com |title=Islam |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam |access-date=2020-01-22 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> Under Abu Bakr, Muslims put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [[Ridda wars]] or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|p=57}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Hourani|2003|p=22}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Madelung|1996|p=43}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Tabatabaei|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time.
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| Abu Bakr's death in 634, about two years after he was elected, which resulted in the succession of [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] as the caliph,<ref name=":0" /> followed by [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]], [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and [[Hasan ibn Ali]]. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Rightly Guided Caliphs |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada |editor-last=John L. Esposito |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0}}</ref> Under the caliphs, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into parts of the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] territories.<ref>See
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| * {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|p=74}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Islam |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last2=Jomier |first2=J. |last1=Gardet |first1=L.}}</ref>
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| When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. This led to the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna") over who should be caliph. The [[Kharijites]] have been one of the main contenders within the war. They hold the sins of the caliphs put them outside of Islam and called for killing them as apostates.<ref name="auto3">Blankinship, K. (2008). The early creed. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge Companions to Religion, p. 37). Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> Unlike for the later Sunnis and Shia, a caliph requires piety only and does not need to be a descendant of Muhammad, his family or his tribe. The Kharijites assassinated Ali in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph Hasan ibn Ali signed a [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty|peace treaty]], abdicating to [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], beginning the [[Umayyad dynasty]], in return that he not name his own successor.<ref>{{harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=67–72}}</ref> These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to a schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the first four leaders and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia.<ref>Waines (2003) p. 46</ref> The Kharijites failed to nominate their caliph as aspirants were easily accused of sin and regarded as apostates.<ref name="auto3" /> Mu'awiyah appointed his son, [[Yazid I]], as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the "[[Second Fitna|second civil war]]" broke out, where [[Husayn ibn Ali]] was killed at the [[Battle of Karbala]], a significant event in Shia Islam. Sunni Islam and Shia Islam differ in some respects.<ref name="NYT-20160103">{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=January 3, 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=January 4, 2016}}</ref>
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| The [[Murji'ah]] were another sect in early Islam. They taught it would be best to withhold any judgment about the caliphs and defer a final judgment about people's righteousness to God alone. Living wrongdoers could best be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers.<ref>Blankinship, K. (2008). The early creed. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge Companions to Religion, p. 43). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> They adhered to unity among Muslims and advised not to participate in war with other Muslims, except for defense. Their conciliatory principles made them popular among Muslims, especially Non-Arab Muslims. Abu Hanifa, founder of the [[Hanafi]] (c. 699–767) school of Sunni jurisprudence, was often associated with the Murji'ah.<ref name="auto4">Blankinship, K. (2008). The early creed. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge Companions to Religion, p. 44). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> In his ''al-Fiqh al-Akbar I'' he lay down probably the oldest surviving work regarding early Muslim creed, advocating respect for all the companions of Muhammad, withholding judgment regarding Uthman and Ali and predeterminism. His works were fundamental to later Sunni theology, Hanbilism being an exception.<ref name="auto4" />
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| The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>Donald Puchala, ''Theory and History in International Relations'', p. 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]], often helped Muslims take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<ref>Esposito (2010), p. 38</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p. 86</ref>
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| The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the [[Tabi'un]], followed by the [[Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in]]. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the influential committee, [[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]],<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 {{ISBN|978-603-500-080-2}} Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad p. 505</ref><ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> headed by [[Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr|Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]].<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 {{ISBN|978-603-500-080-2}} Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad p. 522</ref> [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the ''[[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]]'',<ref name="bewley.virtualave.net">{{Cite web |title=Al-Muwatta' |url=http://bewley.virtualave.net/muwcont.html |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref name="Coulson">{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=d5Ks31qHlSYC}} |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Houtsma |first=M. Th. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Va6oSxzojzoC|page=207}} |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |pages=207–}}</ref><ref>[[Moshe Sharon]], ''Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon''. p. 264 [https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264&dq=Muwatta+consensus+of+the+opinions+scholars&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vqQLUaSqMKy20QXX1YHwDA&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Muwatta%20consensus%20of%20the%20opinions%20scholars&f=false]</ref>
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| The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}; {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}</ref>
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| The first Muslim states independent of a unified Islamic state emerged from the [[Berber Revolt]] (739/740-743).
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| ===Classical era (750–1258)===
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| {{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}}
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| {{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}}
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| [[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|The eye, according to [[Hunain ibn Ishaq]] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]] Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.<ref name="auto1">Lapidus (2002){{cnf|date=November 2018}}, p. 86</ref> During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|Muslim]] compiled the major [[Six major Hadith collections|Sunni hadith collections]] while scholars like [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni|Al-Kulayni]] and [[Ibn Babawayh]] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], Malik ibn Anas and [[al-Shafi'i]], while the teachings of [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] formed the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law and introduced its first methods by a synthesis between the proto-rationalism of [[Iraq]]i jurisprudence and the pragmatic approach of the [[Hejaz]] traditions, in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Weiss|2002|pp=xvii, 162}}</ref> He also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.<ref name="auto1" /> However, Islamic law would not be codified until 1869.<ref>Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law, ''Epistemology and Modernity: Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran'' Routledge 2004 {{ISBN|978-1-135-94355-4}}</ref> In the 9th century [[Al-Tabari]] completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the ''[[Tafsir al-Tabari]]''.
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| Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into ''Tasawwuf'' or Sufism.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}}{{cnf|date=November 2018}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> Hasan al Basri opposed the Umayyad governors of Iraq and the violent rebellion of the Kharijites. Connected to his political dissent was his rigorist view of sin: He denied God was the source of all human actions, emphasized responsibility and free will instead. For Hasan al Basri, although God knows the actions of people, God only created good and evil comes from the [[Iblis|devil]] and abuse of free will.<ref name="auto5">Blankinship, K. (2008). The early creed. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003}} p. 38-39</ref>{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered as one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. His view was opposed by both early Shias and Sunnis.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} [[Basran al Wasil ibn Ata]] (d. 748), an associate of Hasan al-Basri is usually considered the originator, along with [[Amr ibn Ubayd]] (699-761) of [[Muʿtazila|Mu‘tazilism]], a school of thought ultimately rooted in [[Greek philosophy]] and known for upholding the doctrine of free-will.<ref>Blankinship, K. (2008). The early creed. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003}} p. 50</ref> However, the main doctrine, the ''Five Principles'', is probably developed by Abu’l-Hudhayl al-Allaf (c. 753–841).<ref>Blankinship, K. (2008). The early creed. In T. Winter (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge Companions to Religion, pp. 33-54). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003}} p. 47-48</ref>
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| Abbasid Caliphs [[Mamun al Rashid]] and [[Al-Mu'tasim]] made the Mu'tazilite theology an official creed. Ahmad ibn Hanbal opposed most of the Mu'tazilite doctrines, for which he was imprisoned and sent to an unlit [[Baghdad]] prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |location=London |page=110}}</ref> He became a representative for [[Athari|traditionalistic Sunni theology]], trying to minimalize reason and applying to literal readings. Later Sunnis also condemned the Mutazilite idea of the creation of the Quran.<ref name="auto5" /> [[Al-Ash'ari]] and [[Maturidi]] founded the scholastic theology of Sunni Islam (kalam) [[Ash'ari]]sm and Maturidism, respectively.
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| By the end of the 9th century, [[Ismailism|Ismaili]] Shias spread in Iran, whereupon the city of [[Multan]] became a target of [[Activism|activistic]] Sunni politics.<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit“ Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> In 930, the Ismaili group known as the [[Qarmatians]] rebelled unsuccessfully against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/371782/Mecca/37835/History#ref887188 |access-date=2011-11-12}}</ref>
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| With the expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate into the [[Sasanian Empire]], Islam adapted many [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] concepts, imported by thinkers of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin.<ref>Morgen Witzel ''A History of Management Thought'' Taylor & Francis 2016 {{ISBN|978-1-317-43335-4}} p. 44</ref><ref>Shireen Hunter, Shireen T. Hunter ''The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations Or Peaceful Coexistence?'' [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] 1998 {{ISBN|978-0-275-96287-6}} p. 44</ref> Philosophers such as [[Al-Farabi]] (872 – 950/951) and [[Avicenna]] (c. 980 – June 1037) sought to incorporate [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek principles]] into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) argued against such [[syncretism]] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>*Lapidus (2002){{cnf|date=November 2018}}, p. 160
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| * Waines (2003) pp. 126–127</ref> Avicenna pioneered the science of [[Medical research|experimental medicine]],<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref> and was the first [[physician]] to conduct [[clinical trials]].<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> His two most notable works, ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', were used as standard medicinal texts in the Islamic world and later in [[Europe]]. Amongst his contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008" /> and the introducing [[clinical pharmacology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brater |first1=D. Craig |last2=Daly |first2=Walter J. |year=2000 |title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century |journal=[[Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics]] |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=447–450 [448] |doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 |pmid=10824622 |s2cid=45980791}}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the mathematician [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to the concept of the [[algorithm]], while the term [[algebra]] is derived from ''al-jabr''.<ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|Toomer, Gerald]] (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]]. {{ISBN|0-684-16962-2}}.</ref> The [[Persian literature|Persian poet]] [[Ferdowsi]] wrote his [[epic poem]] ''[[Shahnameh]]''. [[Rumi]] (1207 – 1273) wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=2007-09-30 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Legal institutions introduced include the [[Trust law|trust]] and [[charitable trust]] (Waqf).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monica M. Gaudiosi |url={{Google books|bGPwtwAACAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] |year=1988}}{{page needed|date=November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Harv|Hudson|2003|p=32}} {{citation not found}}</ref>
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| This era is sometimes called the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]".<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=80, 92, 105}}{{cnf|date=November 2018}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977b|pp=661–663}}{{cnf|date=November 2018}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{cnf|date=November 2018}}
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| * {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|p=84}}{{cnf|date=November 2018}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Islam |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last2=Jomier |first2=J. |last1=Gardet |first1=L.}}</ref> [[Public hospital]]s established during this time (called [[Bimaristan]] hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Encyclopedia of the History of Islamic Science: Technology, alchemy and life|last=Micheau|first=Françoise|pages=991–992}}, in {{Cite book |last1=Rāshid |first1=Rushdī |url={{Google books|mnAXV09Z5bIC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science: Technology, alchemy and life sciences |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-12412-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate |url=https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715091828/https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=29 January 2011 |publisher=Planetseed.com}}</ref> and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref name="Alatas">{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> The [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242 242]}}</ref> The doctorate is argued to date back to the [[Ijazah|licenses to teach]] in Islamic [[law schools]].<ref name="Makdisi">{{Cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=George |date=April–June 1989 |title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 [175–177] |doi=10.2307/604423 |jstor=604423}}</ref> Standards of experimental and [[Quantification (science)|quantification]] techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,<ref name="Ahmed">Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. {{ISBN|1-59008-040-8}} pp. 23, 42, 84.<br />"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."}}</ref> were introduced. An important pioneer in this, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (c. 965 – c. 040) is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<ref name="Haq">[[Nomanul Haq|Haq, Syed]] (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. {{ISSN|1703-7603}}. Retrieved 22 October 2014</ref><ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|G. J. Toomer]]. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/228328?pg=464 Review on JSTOR, Toomer's 1964 review of Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik''] Toomer p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method."</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili, Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |access-date=25 September 2008}}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name="Ahmed" /> It is argued that the data used by [[Copernicus]] for his [[heliocentric]] conclusions was gathered and that [[Al-Jahiz]] (776–868/869) proposed a theory of [[natural selection]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=2008-01-30 |title=It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[The Guardian]] |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=29 January 2008 |title=Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723135408/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2009 |access-date=13 December 2011}}</ref>
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| While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline following the reign of [[Al-Wathiq]] (842–847) and [[Al-Mu'tadid]] (892–902),<ref>Anthony Parel, Ronald C. Keith ''Comparative Political Philosophy: Studies Under the Upas Tree'' Lexington Books, 2003 {{ISBN|978-0-7391-0610-5}} p. 186</ref> the [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.<ref>*{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Abbasid Dynasty |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the [[Tulunid]] and the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid dynasty]]. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty established by Turkic slave-soldiers from another Islamic empire, the [[Samanid Empire]].<ref>Hamad Subani ''The Secret History of Iran'' Lulu.com 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-304-08289-3}} 74</ref> Two other Turkish tribes, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karahanids]] and the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]], converted to Islam during the 10th century. They were later subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role in the revival of Sunnism, when Shi'ism increased its influence. The Seljuk military leader [[Alp Arslan]] financially supported sciences and literature and established the [[Nezamiyeh]] university in Baghdad.<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' [[Walter de Gruyter]] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>
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| During this time, the [[Delhi Sultanate]] took over northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. Many Muslims also went to [[Islam in China|China]] to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="china">{{Cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>
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| ===Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)===
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| {{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
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| [[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ghazan Khan]], 7{{sup|th}} [[Ilkhanate]] ruler of the [[Mongol Empire]], converts to Islam]]
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| After the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol conquests]] and the final decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Mongol Empire enabled cross-cultural exchanges throughout Asia. People could practice any religion as long as it did not interfere with the interests of the ruling [[Khan (title)|Khan]]. The new social and political tolerance brought by the [[Ilkhanate]], which was ruled by the grandson of [[Genghis Khan]] and had converted to Sunni Islam, allowed science and arts to flourish even in previously forbidden aspects<ref>Mohammadali M. Shoja R. Shane Tubbs ''The history of anatomy in Persia'' 05 April 2007</ref> and extended Middle Eastern influence up to China.
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| In scholasticism, [[Ibn Taymiyya]] (1263–1328), who did not accept the Mongols' conversion to Sunnism,<ref>Paul Salem ''Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World'' [[Syracuse University Press]], 1994 isbn 9780815626299 p. 117</ref> worried about the integrity of Islam and tried to establish a theological doctrine to purify Islam from its alleged alterations.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> Unlike contemporary scholarship, which relied on traditions and historical narratives from early Islam, Ibn Taymiyya's methodology was a mixture of the selective use of hadith and a literal understanding of the Quran.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="ReferenceC">Cenap Çakmak ''Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes]'' [[ABC-CLIO]] 2017 {{ISBN|978-1-61069-217-5}} p. 665</ref> He rejected most philosophical approaches to Islam and proposed a clear, simple and dogmatic theology instead.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Another major characteristic of his theological approach emphasized the significance of a theocratic state. While prevailing opinion held that religious wisdom was necessary for a state, Ibn Taymiyya regarded [[Power (social and political)|political power]] as necessary for religious excellence.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> He rejected many hadiths circulating among Muslims during his time and relied repeatedly on only ''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'' and ''[[Sahih Muslim]]'' to refute [[Ashʿari|Asharite]] doctrine.<ref name="ReferenceC" /><ref>Jonathan Brown ''The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon'' [[Brill Publishers]] 2007 {{ISBN|978-90-474-2034-7}} p. 313</ref> Feeling threatened by the [[Crusaders]] and by the [[Mongol invasions of the Levant|Mongols]], Ibn Taymiyya stated it would be obligatory for Muslims to join a physical [[jihad]] against non-Muslims. This not only included the invaders but also the <em>heretics</em> among the Muslims, including [[Shia]]s, Asharites and "philosophers", who Ibn Taymiyya blamed for the deterioration of Islam.<ref name="ReferenceD">Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> Nevertheless, his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. He was repeatedly accused of blasphemy by anthropomorphizing God, and his disciple [[Ibn Kathir]] distanced himself from his mentor and negated that aspect of his teachings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130 |language=en}}</ref> Yet, some of Ibn Taimiyya's teaching probably influenced his methodology on exegesis in his [[Tafsir Ibn Kathir|Tafsir]], which discounted much of the exegetical tradition since then.<ref>Karen Bauer ''Gender Hierarchy in the Qur'an: Medieval Interpretations, Modern Responses'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-316-24005-2}} p. 115</ref><ref>Aysha A. Hidayatullah ''Feminist Edges of the Qur'an'' [[Oxford University Press]] 2014 {{ISBN|978-0-199-35957-8}} p. 25</ref> The writings of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Kathir became important sources for Wahhabism and 21st century [[Salafism|Salafi theology]],<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="ReferenceC" /><ref name="ReferenceD" /><ref>Oliver Leaman ''The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia'' [[Taylor & Francis]] 2006 {{ISBN|978-0-415-32639-1}} p. 632</ref>
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| The [[Timurid Renaissance]] was observed in the [[Timurid Empire]] based in [[Central Asia]]. Ruled by the [[Timurid dynasty]], it experienced a phenomenal growth in the fields of [[arts]] and [[sciences]], covering both the eastern and western world.<ref name="Journal1988">{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref> Outstanding throughout the stages of the Renaissance were the inventions of numerous devices and the constructions of Islamic learning centres, mosques, necropolises and observatories. [[Herat]], like [[Florence]] the birthplace of the [[Italian Renaissance]], was the focal point of a cultural rebirth.<ref>Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective - Page 129</ref><ref>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia - Page 465</ref> Such aspects were seen to be strongly influenced across [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic Gunpowder empires]], mainly in [[Mughal India]].<ref>Strange Parallels: Volume 2, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands: Southeast Asia in Global Context, C.800-1830 by Victor Lieberman Page 712</ref><ref>Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire by Lisa Page 4</ref><ref>Sufism and Society: Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World, 1200–1800 edited by John Curry, Erik Ohlander, Page 141</ref><ref>The Silk Road: A Very Short Introduction by James A. Millward.</ref>
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| The [[Reconquista]] launched against [[Taifa|Muslim principalities]] in Iberia succeeded in 1492. Through Muslim trade networks, the activity of Sufi orders, and the conquests of the Gunpowder Empires, Islam spread into [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], Central Asia and the [[Malay archipelago]].<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Islam |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last2=Jomier |first2=J. |last1=Gardet |first1=L.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of "assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into... local religious systems".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=[[Temple University Press]] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> Throughout this expanse, Islam blended with local cultures everywhere, as illustrated by the prophet Muhammad's appearance in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] epics and folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> Muslims in China, who were descended from earlier immigrants, began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill/page/n62 37] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Turkish Muslims incorporated elements of [[Tengrism|Turkish Shamanism]], which to this date differs from Turkish synthesis of Islam from other Muslim societies,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yomak |first=Büşra |title=shamanism in Turkey |url=https://www.academia.edu/15215747 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=www.academia.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&q=turkish+shamanism+islam&pg=PA653 |title=First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936 |date=Apr 29, 1993 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=90-04-09796-1 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dressler |first=Markus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3MRDAAAQBAJ&q=turkish+shamanism+islam&pg=PA208 |title=Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam |date=15 April 2015 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-023409-6 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and became a part of a new Islamic interpretation,<ref name="ReferenceWorldWide" /> although Shamanistic influences already occurred during the [[Battle of Talas]] (752). Strikingly, Muslim [[Heresiology|heresiographers]] never mentioned Shamans.<ref>Denise Aigle ''The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History'' [[Brill Publishers]], 28 October 2014 {{ISBN|978-9-0042-8064-9}} p. 110.</ref> One major change was in the status of women. Unlike Arabic traditions, the Turkic traditions held women in higher regard in society.<ref name="ReferenceWorldWide" /> The Turks must have also found striking similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.<ref name="ReferenceWorldWide" /> Shamanism influenced orthodox Muslims in [[Anatolia]], [[Central-Asia]] and [[Balkan]]s, who subscribed to it producing [[Alevism]].<ref name="ReferenceWorldWide">Cenap Çakmak ''Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes]'' [[ABC-CLIO]] 2017 {{ISBN|978-1-61069-217-5}} pp. 1425–1429</ref> As a result, many Shamanic traditions were perceived as Islamic,<ref name="ReferenceWorldWide" /> with beliefs such as sacred nature, trees, animals and foreign [[İye|nature spirits]] remaining today.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock ''Early Seljuq History: A New Interpretation'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-135-15369-4}} p. 123.</ref>
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| The [[Ottoman Caliphate]], under the [[Ottoman dynasty]] of the Ottoman Empire, was the last caliphate of the late [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and the early [[modern era|modern]] era. It is important to note that a [[symbiosis]] between [[list of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rulers]] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. According to Ottoman historiography, the [[legitimation]] of a ruler is attributed to [[Sheikh Edebali]] who interpreted a dream of [[Osman I|Osman Gazi]] as God's legitimation of his reign.<ref>Jens Peter Laut ''Vielfalt türkischer Religionen'' Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (German) p. 31</ref> Since [[Murad I]]'s [[Ottoman conquest of Adrianople|conquest of Edirne]] in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire.<ref name="Lambton">{{Cite book |last1=Lambton |first1=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2 |volume=2 |page=320 |author-link=Ann Lambton |author-link2=Bernard Lewis |access-date=13 March 2015}}</ref> During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as [[Selim I]] became the "[[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]]" in Mecca and Medina through the conquering and unification of Muslim lands, strengthening their claim to the caliphate in the [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf}}</ref> The [[Mevlevi Order]] and [[Bektashi Order]] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as [[heterodox]] and [[syncretic]] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |date=Jan 1, 1992 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wasserstein |first1=David J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGSTgfU7CQC&q=ottomans+sufism&pg=PA106 |title=Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter |last2=Ayalon |first2=Ami |date=Jun 17, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-136-57917-2 |access-date=Apr 29, 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> In Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims, and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of [[Sunni|orthodox]] Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.<ref name="Kapucu">{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n71 77] |access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref>
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| The Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> At that time, the majority and oldest group among the Shia, the [[Zaydis]], named after the great-grandson of Ali, the scholar [[Zayd ibn Ali]], used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<ref name="books.google.co.uk-mae">''Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice'' By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal p. 122 [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA118&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi]</ref><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917">''The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History'' edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts p. 917 [https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi]</ref><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91">''The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War'' By Frederic M. Wehrey p. 91 [https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi]</ref> The ensuing [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam]] ensured the final dominance of the [[Twelver|Twelver sect]] within Shiism over the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Ismaili]] sects.<ref>"Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica</ref> [[Nader Shah]], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism.<ref>Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, vol. 27, no. 1/4, ''Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era'' (1994), pp. 163–179, Published by: [[International Society for Iranian Studies]] [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4310891?uid=3738032&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21103813818403]</ref> However, Ja'farism failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref name="iranica">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh 1736-47 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=March 29, 2006 |author=Ernest Tucker}}</ref>
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| In the [[Indian Subcontinent]], during the rule of [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji]] in [[Bengal]], the Indian [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionaries]] achieved their greatest success in terms of ''[[dawah]]'' and the number of converts to Islam.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227-228</ref><ref>Majumdar, Dr. R.C., ''History of Mediaeval Bengal'', First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-89118-06-4}}</ref> The Delhi Sultanate, founded by [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]], emerged as India's first Islamic power, well known for being one of the few states to repel an attack by the [[Mongols]]<ref>Pradeep Barua ''The State at War in South Asia'', {{ISBN|978-0-8032-1344-9}}, p. 29-30</ref> and enthroning one of the few female rulers in [[Islamic History|Islamic history]], [[Razia Sultana]].<ref>Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, [[Princeton University Press]]</ref> The wealthy Islamic [[Bengal Sultanate]] was subsequently founded, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005. {{ISBN|978-81-8069-149-2}}. Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.</ref> [[Babur]], a direct descendant of [[Tamerlane]] and Genghis Khan, founded the [[Mughal Empire]]. It was briefly interrupted by the [[Suri Empire]] founded by [[Sher Shah Suri]], who re-initiated the [[rupee]] currency system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mughal Coinage |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021005231609/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |archive-date=5 October 2002|quote=Sher Shah issued a coin of silver which was termed the Rupiya. This weighed 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee. It remained largely unchanged till the early 20th Century}}</ref> The Mughals gained power during the reign of [[Akbar the Great]] and [[Jahangir]]. The reign of [[Shah Jahan]] observed the height of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], with notable monuments such as [[Taj Mahal]] and [[Jama Masjid, Delhi]], while the reign of his son [[Aurangzeb]] saw the compilation of the [[Fatwa Alamgiri]] (the most well organized ''fiqh'' manuscript), and victory over the [[British East India Company|English]] in the [[Anglo-Mughal War]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vaugn |first=James |date=September 2017 |title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690 |journal=[[Britain and the World]] |volume=11 |issue=1}}</ref> and witnessed the peak of the [[Islamic rule in India]]. Mughal India surpassed [[Qing China]] to become the world's largest economy, worth 25% of world GDP,<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, pages 259–261</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 |title=How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500-1850 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-474-2997-5 |page=174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ishat Pandey |title=The Sketch of The Mughal Empire |publisher=[[Lulu.com|Lulu Publishers]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-359-22120-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |title=Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-25758-9 |author-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam}}</ref> the [[Bengal Subah]] signalling the [[proto-industrialization]] and showing signs of the [[Industrial revolution]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abhay Kumar Singh |title=Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650-1800, (Volume 1) |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-7211-201-1}}</ref> After Mughal India's collapse, [[Tipu Sultan]]'s [[Kingdom of Mysore]] based in [[South India]], which witnessed partial establishment of sharia-based economic and military policies i.e. [[Fathul Mujahidin]], replaced Bengal ruled by the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] as [[South Asia]]'s foremost economic territory.<ref name="mehta">{{Cite book |last=Binita Mehta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wK1fAwgOercC&pg=PA110 |title=Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle |publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8387-5455-9 |pages=110–111}}</ref><ref name="pande">{{Cite book |last=B. N. Pande |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgbXAAAAMAAJ |title=Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-85220-38-3}}</ref> After [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], the [[Nizams of Hyderabad]] remained as the major Muslim princely state until the [[Annexation of Hyderabad]] by the modern [[Republic of India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=B. Cohen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZKHDAAAQBAJ |title=Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850-1948 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-230-60344-8 |pages=159–161}}</ref>
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| === Modern era (18th – 20th centuries) ===
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| [[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abdülmecid II]] was the last Caliph of Islam from the [[Ottoman dynasty]].]]
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| During the 18th century, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] founded a military movement opposing the [[Ottoman Sultanate]] as an illegitimate rule, advising his fellows to return to the principles of Islam based on the theology of Ahmad ibn Hanbal.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He was deeply influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]] and condemned many traditional Islamic practices, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or Saints, as sin.<ref name="ReferenceE" /> During this period he formed an alliance with the [[House of Saud|Saud family]], who founded the Wahhabi sect. This revival movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later [[bidah|innovations]]. Their ideology led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=146}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=[[Libya Herald]] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Many [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalists]], such as [[Rashid Rida]], regarded the Caliphate as an Arab right taken away by the Turks. Therefore, they rebelled against the Ottoman Sultanate until the [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire disintegrated]] after [[World War I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was abolished in 1924.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> Concurrently [[Ibn Saud]] conquered Mecca, the "heartland of Islam", to impose Wahhabism as part of Islamic culture.<ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' [[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref>
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| The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]] founded an observatory in [[Istanbul]] and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim-majority country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.<ref>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. p. 170. Print. {{ISBN|1-59008-040-8}}</ref> By the 19th century the British [[Company rule in India|East India Company]] had formally annexed the [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.<ref name="Lapidus 2002, pp.358,378–380,624">Lapidus (2002), pp. 358, 378–380, 624</ref> As a response to [[Imperialism|Western Imperialism]], many intellectuals sought to reform Islam. They aimed to unite Muslims into one international brotherhood with collective opinions and goals.<ref>Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion
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| Author(s): Ş. Tufan Buzpinar
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| Source: Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Mar., 2007), pp. 247-258
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| Published by: [[Taylor & Francis, Ltd.]]
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| Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284539
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| Accessed: 13 May 2019</ref> For many such reformers, theological and religious matters played only a marginal role. They focused on social aspects within Muslim communities instead. In the 19th century, the [[Deobandi]] and [[Barelwi]] movements were initiated.
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| The Barelwi movement, founded in India, emphasises the primacy of Islamic law over adherence to Sufi practices and personal devotion to the prophet Muhammad.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=July 23, 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |via=Cambridge Core}}</ref> It grew from the writings of [[Ahmed Raza Khan]], [[Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi]], [[Shah Ahmad Noorani]] and [[Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi]] in the backdrop of an intellectual and moral decline of Muslims in [[British Raj|British India]].<ref name="Reference2011">{{Cite book |last=Marshall Cavendish Reference |url={{Google books|8Zp_5IydPGgC|page=PA113|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World |publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7614-7929-1 |pages=113–}}</ref> The movement was a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices, and grew in response to the [[Deobandi movement]].<ref name="Canfield2002">{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url={{Google books|g3JhKNSk8tQC|page=PA131|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131–}}</ref> The movement is famous for the celebration of [[Mawlid]] and today, is spread across the globe with followers also in Pakistan, South Africa, United States, and United Kingdom among other countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Results |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/search?siteToSearch=aup&q=barelvi&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true |website=oxfordreference.com}}</ref>
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| At the end of the 19th century, Muslim reformers including [[Muhammad Abduh]], Rashid Rida and [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]] sought to reconcile Islam with the social and intellectual ideas of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] by purging Islam from alleged alterations and adhering to the basic tenets held during the [[Rashidun]] era.<ref name="ReferenceF">Henri Lauzière ''The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century'' [[Columbia University Press]] 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-231-54017-9}}</ref> Due to their adherence to the ''Salafs'', they called themselves ''Salafiyya''.<ref name="ReferenceF" /><ref name="ReferenceG">Robert Rabil ''Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism'' [[Georgetown University Press]] 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-62616-118-4}} chapter: "Doctrine"</ref> However, they differ from the Salafi movement that flourished in the second half of the 20th century, rooted in the Wahhabi movement. Instead, they are also often called [[Islamic Modernism|Islamic modernists]]. They rejected the [[Sunni schools of law]] and allowed Ijtihad.<ref name="ReferenceG" />
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| On 3 March 1924, the first [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of the Turkish Republic]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], as part of his [[Atatürk's Reforms|secular reforms]], constitutionally [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolished the institution of the caliphate]]. The Ottoman Caliphate, the world's last widely recognized caliphate, was no more and its powers within Turkey were transferred to the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]], the parliament of the newly formed Turkish Republic and the [[Directorate of Religious Affairs]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPSGDwAAQBAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate&pg=PT317 |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey |date=26 August 2002 |publisher=[[Abrams Books]]|isbn=978-1-59020-924-0 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |date=29 April 1982 |title=The Caliphate and Ataturk's Inkilab |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iViDoAEACAAJ&q=atat%C3%BCrk+caliphate |access-date=29 April 2020 |publisher=[[Turkish Historical Society|Türk Tarih Kurumu]] |via=Google Books}}</ref>
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| ===Postmodern times (20th century–present)===
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| {{Further|Islamic revival}}
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| [[Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani]]and his acolyte Muhammad Abduh have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'', [[Thomson-Gale]], 2004</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=[[Economist Magazine]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014}}</ref> Islamist groups such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often despite being banned.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> In Iran, [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] regime with an [[Islamic state]]. In [[Turkey]], the Islamist [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]] has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011}}</ref> The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013}}</ref>
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| Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, p. 271</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. ''The Earth and Its Peoples''. 3. Boston: [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]], 2005. {{ISBN|0-618-42770-8}}</ref> Muslim immigrants began arriving largely from former colonies in several Western European nations since the 1960s, many as [[guest workers]].
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| There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Nigosian|2004|pp=41}}</ref> Across the internet, marginal groups, often tied to the [[Salafi movement]], spread their teachings as purely Islamic, downplaying the authority of traditional institutions. Over time, traditional scholars tried gaining back authority by entering cyberspace. For example, Al-Azhar founded a database for several fatwas accessible online. Further, online access to many Islamic sources led to many personal interpretations of Islam, especially among younger Muslims, creating an "individualized" Islam.<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> [[Liberal Islam]] refers to movements that attempt to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref name=":7" />{{Rp|118–9, 179}}<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=823–30}}</ref>
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| Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.<ref name="Rippin 2001, p.288">{{Harvtxt|Rippin|2001|p=288}}</ref>
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| Secular powers such as the Chinese [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]] closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans,<ref>*{{Cite journal |last=Goldman |first=Merle |year=1986 |title=Religion in Post-Mao China |journal=[[Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science]] |volume=483 |issue=1 |pages=146–156 |doi=10.1177/0002716286483001013 |s2cid=146171018}}</ref> and [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Communist Albania]] became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.<ref>p. 18*{{Wikicite |ref="Elsie2000" |reference=Elsie, Robert. 2000. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture]''. [[C. Hurst & Co.]] {{ISBN|978-1-85065-570-1}}.}}</ref> About half a million Muslims were killed in [[Khmer Rouge|Cambodia]] by communists who, some argue, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshiped their own god.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=October 10, 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |journal=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=24 September 2013}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-04-29 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularsim |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011}}</ref>
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| [[Salafism]], an ultraconservative Islamic movement, appears to be deepening worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-10-18 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |access-date=2013-09-24 |publisher=[[MSNBC]]}}</ref><ref name="economist" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> In many places, the prevalence of the [[hijab]] is growing increasingly common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> and the percentage of Muslims favoring sharia has increased.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beech |first=Hannah |date=22 February 2007 |title=Why Indonesia matters |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592576-2,00.html |journal=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=24 September 2013}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims can access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.<ref name="economist">{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |work=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high [[fertility rate|fertility-rate]] of Muslims relative to other religious groups".<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050]." [[Pew Research Center]]. p.70 [https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ Article].</ref> While the [[religious conversion]] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who [[convert to Islam|become Muslims through conversion]] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith".<ref name="The Future of the Global Muslim Population">{{Cite web |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith}}</ref> Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree Islam is growing faster than any other faith in [[East Africa|East]] and West Africa.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Onishi |first=Norimitsu |date=1 November 2001 |title=Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/01/world/rising-muslim-power-in-africa-causes-unrest-in-nigeria-and-elsewhere.html |access-date=17 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa |url=http://wwrn.org/articles/14286/?&place=eastern-africa |access-date=17 November 2011 |publisher=wwrn.org}}</ref>
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| ==Denominations==
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| {{Main|Islamic schools and branches}}{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}
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| [[File:Islam branches and schools.svg|center|An overview of the major sects and ''madhahib'' of Islam.|alt=|frameless|600x600px]]
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| ===Sunni===
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| {{Main|Sunni Islam}}
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| {{Sunni Islam|collapsed=}}
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| [[File:Sahih Al-Bukhari in English.png|thumb|right|216px|The 9 volumes of [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]], one of the [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six Sunni hadith books]]]]
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| The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 85–90% of all Muslims,<ref name="Sunni-eb">*{{Cite web |date=7 October 2009 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.}}
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| * [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3&dq=Sunni+Islam#v=onepage&q=Sunni%20Islam Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide] "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history, it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
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| * {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims. |access-date=20 December 2012 |archive-date=12 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012090751/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=dead }}
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| * {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population... }}</ref> and is arguably the world's largest religious denomination.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carl Bialik |date=9 April 2008 |title=Muslims May Have Overtaken Catholics a While Ago |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/numbers/muslims-may-have-overtaken-catholics-a-while-ago-315/ |access-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".<ref name="USNewsLippman">{{Cite magazine |last=Lippman, Thomas W. |date=7 April 2008 |title=No God But God |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god |magazine=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=24 September 2013 |quote=Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Islām |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |access-date=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam Today |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html |access-date=25 August 2010 |website=[[Islam: Empire of Faith]] (2000) |publisher=[[PBS]] |quote=Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 7, 2008 |title=Understanding Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/understanding-islam |access-date=2010-08-25 |website=Susan Headden |publisher=[[U.S. News & World Report]]}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707224250/http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |archive-date=7 July 2016 |access-date=3 July 2007 |website=Adherents.com}}</ref>
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| Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Further authorities regarding Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph as long they act according to the teachings of Islam, the example of Muhammad. Alternatively, Sunnis commonly accept the companions of Muhammad as reliable for interpreting Islamic affairs.<ref>Coeli Fitzpatrick Ph.D., ''Adam Hani Walker Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' [2 volumes] [[ABC-CLIO]], 25.04.2014 {{ISBN|978-1-61069-178-9}} p. 106–107</ref>
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| The Sunnis follow the Quran and the Hadith, which are recorded in Sunni traditions known as ''[[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah]]'' (six major books). For legal matters derived from the Quran or the Hadith, many follow four sunni madhhabs: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i. All four accept the validity of the others, and a Muslim may choose any one that they find agreeable.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|pp=275,306}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Shariah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online }}</ref>
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| Sunni schools of theology encompass Asharism founded by [[Al-Ashʿarī]] (c. 874–936), Maturidi by [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] (853–944 CE) and [[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|traditionalist theology]] under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). Traditionalist theology is characterized by its adherence to a literal understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah, the belief in the Quran being uncreated and eternal, and opposition to reason (kalam) in religious and ethical matters.<ref>Hadi Enayat ''Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies'' [[Springer Publishing]], 30.06.2017 {{ISBN|978-3-319-52611-9}} p.48</ref> On the other hand, Maturidism asserts, scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that <em>good</em> and <em>evil</em> can be understood by reason alone.<ref>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio ''Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power'' [[Springer Publishing]] 2018 {{ISBN|978-3-319-97355-5}} p. 108</ref> Maturidi's doctrine, based on Hanafi law, asserted man's capacity and will alongside the supremacy of God in man's acts, providing a doctrinal framework for more flexibility, adaptability, and syncretism. Maturidism especially flourished in Central-Asia.<ref>Marlène Laruelle ''Being Muslim in Central Asia: Practices, Politics, and Identities'' [[BRILL]], 11.01.2018 {{ISBN|978-90-04-35724-2}} p. 21</ref> Nevertheless, people would rely on revelation, because reason alone could not grasp the whole truth. Asharism holds ethics can derive just from divine revelation, but not from human reason. However, Asharism accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.<ref>Ed. Esposito ''The Oxford History of Islam'' [[Oxford University Press]] 1999 {{ISBN|978-0-19-510799-9}} p. 280</ref>
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| In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Originally shaped by Hanbalism, many modern followers departed from any of the established four schools of law Hanafi, Shafi, Maliki, and Hanbali.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God[[ [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> Similarly, [[Ahl al-Hadith]] is a movement that deemphasized sources of jurisprudence outside the Quran and Hadith, such as informed opinion (''ra'y'').
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| ''[[Nur movement|Nurcu]]'' is a Sunni movement founded at the beginning of the twentieth century based on the writings of [[Said Nursi]] (1877–1960).<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' [[M.E. Sharpe]] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> His philosophy is based on Hanafi law and further incorporates elements of Sufism.<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /> He emphasized the importance of salvation in both life and the [[afterlife]] through education and freedom, the synthesis of Islam and science and democracy as the best form of governance within the rule of law.<ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' [[Indiana University Press]] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref> Through faith by inquiry instead of faith by imitation, Muslims would reject philosophies such as [[positivism]], [[materialism]] and [[atheism]] emerging from the Western world of his time.<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /> His notion of sharia is twofold. Sharia applies to the voluntary actions of human beings and denotes the set of [[Scientific law|laws of nature]]. Both ultimately derive from one source, which is God.<ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' [[Indiana University Press]] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 171</ref> His works on the Quran in the ''[[Risale-i Nur]]'' were translated into almost all languages of Central Asia.<ref>Bayram Balci ''Islam in Central Asia and the Caucasus Since the Fall of the Soviet Union'' [[Oxford University Press]] 2018 {{ISBN|978-0-19-005019-1}} p. 53</ref> From ''Nurcu'' other movements such as the [[Gülen movement]] derived.
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| ===Shia===
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| {{Main|Shia Islam}}
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| {{Shia Islam|collapsed=}}
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| {{See also|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
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| [[File:Kerbela Hussein Moschee.jpg|thumb|216px|The [[Imam Husayn Shrine|Imam Hussein Shrine]] in [[Iraq]] is a holy site for Shia Muslims]]
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| The Shia constitute 10–15% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.<ref name="Shia">See
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| * {{Cite web |date=2009-10-07 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population.}}
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| * {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |title=Shia |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |quote=Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide... |access-date=5 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070956/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |archive-date=15 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}
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| * {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |access-date=2010-08-25 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |quote=Shia Islam represents 10–20% of Muslims worldwide... }}</ref>
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| While the Sunnis believe a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could hold positions of power. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Umar ibn al-Khattab. Other points of contention include certain practices viewed as [[Bid‘ah|innovating]] the religion, such as the mourning practice of ''[[tatbir]]'', and the cursing of figures revered by Sunnis. However, [[Jafar al-Sadiq]] himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great-grandfather Abu Bakr, and Zayd ibn Ali revered Abu Bakr and Umar.<ref name="Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand 1989, p37">''The waning of the Umayyad caliphate'' by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, pp. 37–38</ref><ref name="Religion Vol 1987, p243">''The Encyclopedia of Religion'' Vol.16, [[Mircea Eliade]], [[Charles Joseph Adams|Charles J. Adams]], [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]], 1987, p. 243.</ref> More recently, [[Grand Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 June 2016 |title=Ayatollah Khamenei's fatwa: Insulting the Mother of the Faithful Aisha is prohibited |url=http://english.khamenei.ir/news/3905/Ayatollah-Khamenei-s-fatwa-Insulting-the-Mother-of-the-Faithful |access-date=21 January 2019 |website=Khamenei.ir |language=en}}</ref> and Grand Ayatollah [[Ali al-Sistani]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 July 2014 |title=Shiite leaders forbid insults against Sunnis |publisher=[[Al-Monitor]] |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/01/iran-iraq-fatwa-sunni-shiite-insults.html |url-status=dead |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105231456/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/01/iran-iraq-fatwa-sunni-shiite-insults.html |archive-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> condemned the practice.
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| Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the [[Twelvers]] (the largest branch), Zaidis and Ismailis. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as imams. After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq who is considered the sixth Imam by the Twelvers and the Ismaili's, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's followed his other son [[Musa al-Kadhim]] as the seventh Imam. The Zaydis consider Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him. Other smaller groups include the [[Mustaali|Bohra]] and the [[Alawites]] and [[Alevi]].<ref>*Kramer (1987), [https://web.archive.org/web/20051104173520/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Alawis.htm Syria's Alawis and Shi'ism pp. 237–254]
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| * [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Shia branches] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041025093409/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html |date=25 October 2004 }}</ref> Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as ''[[Ghulat]]'' (extremists).
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| === Quranism ===
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| {{Main|Quranism}}
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| The [[Quranism|Quranists]] are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the [[Criticism of hadith|religious authority, reliability or authenticity]] of the hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.<ref name="The Quranists">>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x}}</ref>
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| There were first critics of the hadith traditions as early as the time of the scholar asch-Schāfiʿī; however, their arguments found little favor among Muslims. From the 19th century onward, reformist thinkers like [[Syed Ahmad Khan|Sayyid Ahmad Khan]], Abdullah Chakralawi, and later [[Ghulam Ahmed Perwez|Ghulam Ahmad Parwez]] in India began to question the hadith and the Islamic tradition systematically.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=4 March 1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68 |language=en}}</ref> At the same time, there was a long-standing discussion on the sole authority of the Quran in Egypt, initiated by an article by Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī titled "Islam is the Quran Alone" (''al-Islām huwa l-Qurʾān waḥda-hū)'' in the magazine ''al-Manār''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/almanaralmanar |title=Magazine Al Manar |language=Arabic}}</ref> Quranism also took on a political dimension in the 20th century when [[Muammar Gaddafi|Muammar al-Gaddafi]] declared the Quran to be the constitution of Libya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hager |title=Volksmacht und Islam. |year=1985 |pages=85 |language=German}}</ref> In America, [[Rashad Khalifa]], an Egyptian-American biochemist and discoverer of the [[Quran code]] (Code 19), which is a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, founded the organization "United Submitters International".<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1989 |title=Why the name change? |url=http://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |journal=Submission Perspective |volume=57 |page=1}}</ref>
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| Sometimes the rejection of the hadith leads to differences in the way religion is practiced, for example, in the ritual prayer. While some Quranists traditionally pray five times a day, others reduce the number to three or even two daily prayers. There are also different views on the details of prayer or other pillars of Islam, like zakāt (alms giving), fasting, or the Hajj.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |title=The Qur'anists |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |journal=Religion Compass |year=2010 |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171}}</ref>
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| ===Other denominations===
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| * The [[Ibadi]] sect dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of [[Kharijite]] practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vFq_KUqqWJMC|page=15}} |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |access-date=7 January 2015}}</ref> Ibadis make up a majority of the population in [[Oman]]. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
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| * [[Alevism|Bektashi Alevism]] is a [[Syncretism|syncretic]] and [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical ([[Batin (Islam)|bāṭenī]]) teachings of Ali and [[Haji Bektash Veli]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=BEKTĀŠĪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=www.iranicaonline.org}}</ref> Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th century,<ref name="ReferenceB">Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' [[Edinburgh University Press]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> such as [[Tengrism|Shamanism]] and [[Animism]], mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~ 0.5% - ~ 1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref>[http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf ''John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution''], PDF-Datei, See also [http://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi''], consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>
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| * The [[Ahmadiyya]] movement is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Who Are the Ahmadi? |work=bbc.co.uk |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8711026.stm |access-date=6 October 2013}}</ref> that began in [[India]] in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million<ref name="ahmadi">*{{Cite book|title=Breach of Faith|quote=Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|page=8|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=yi8ONIe1fv4C|page=8}}|access-date=29 March 2014|date=June 2005}}
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| * {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=dgtgGhMUgIUC|page=72}}|title=Asian Religions in British Columbia|quote=The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world|author1=Larry DeVries |author2=Don Baker |author3=Dan Overmyer |access-date=29 March 2014|isbn=978-0-7748-1662-5|publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]]|date=1 November 2011}}
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| * {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC|page=23}}|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|quote=The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million|author=Juan Eduardo Campo|page=24|access-date=29 March 2014|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|year=2009}}
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| * {{Cite web |date=20 January 2012 |title=Ahmadiyya Muslims |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/ |access-date=6 October 2013 |publisher=pbs.org}}
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| * A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also [[Ahmadiyya by country]].</ref> Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the "Imam Mahdi" and the "Promised Messiah". However, the movement is rejected by mostMuslims as heretical since it believes in ongoing prophethood after the death of Muhammad.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA11 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |page=11 |author-link=John Esposito}}</ref> Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception in 1889.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhume |first=Sadanand |date=1 December 2017 |title=Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority |language=en-US |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/pakistan-persecutes-a-muslim-minority-1512087028 |access-date=2018-07-14 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
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| * [[Mahdavia]] is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri.
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| ===Non-denominational Muslims===
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| {{Main|Non-denominational Muslim}}
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| [[Non-denominational Muslims]] is an [[umbrella term]] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific [[Islamic denomination]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref name="Kirkham">{{Cite news |last=Kirkham |first=Bri |date=2015 |title=Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive |url=http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive |url-status=dead |access-date=21 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125113410/http://www.ballstatedaily.com/article/2015/04/nli-muslim-blood-drive |archive-date=25 November 2015 |quote=Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.}}</ref><ref name="Pollack">{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included [[Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cughtai |first=Muhammad Ikram |title=Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence |date=2005 |page=454 |quote=Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.}}</ref> and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Khaled |title=Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni? |agency=The Friday Times |url=http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml |url-status=dead |access-date=23 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117111449/http://www.thefridaytimes.com/24122010/page27.shtml |archive-date=17 November 2011}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref name="Pew">{{Cite web |date=August 9, 2012 |title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity |access-date=4 September 2013 |website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez |first=Ralph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vuNfXxnYWPIC|page=65}} |title=Truth in the Age of Bushism |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5 |page=65 |quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center]] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in [[Kazakhstan]] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.<ref name="Pew" />
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| ===Derived religions===
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| {{see also|Islam and Druze}}
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| Some movements, such as the [[Druze]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse/page/114 114] |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse/page/33 33] |quote=Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Stewart |first=Dona |title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-135-98079-5 |page=33 |quote=Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref> [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. [[Yazdânism]] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to [[Kurdistan]] by [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir]] in the 12th century. [[Bábism]] stems from Twelver Shia passed through [[Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab]] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri [[Baha'u'llah]] founded the [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late-fifteenth-century [[Punjab]], incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' [[University of Tennessee Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>
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| ==Demographics==
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| {{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}}
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| {{See also|Islam by country|Muslim population growth}}
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| [[File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg|thumb|275px|World Muslim population by percentage ([[Pew Research Center]], 2014).]]
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| A 2015 demographic study reported that 24.1% of the global population, or 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="auto2">Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "[https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ Why Muslims are the world’s fastest-growing religious group]" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. US: [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> Of those, it has been estimated that 85–90% are Sunni and 10–15% are Shia,<ref name="mgmpPRC">
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| {{Harvtxt|Miller|2009<!--reports 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% Sunni-->}}</ref> with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|p=11}}</ref> and [[Arabs]] account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] Group |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu/page/n186 172] |url-access=limited}}</ref> The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551 million in 1970,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whaling |first=Frank |title=Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day |publisher=[[T & T Clark]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-567-09452-0 |page=38}}</ref> and tripled to 1.6 billion by 2010.<ref name=pew2015/>
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| Most Muslims live in [[Asia]] and [[Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-05-06 |title=Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1087 |access-date=2010-05-16 |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com}}{{Subscription needed}}</ref> Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in [[Indonesia]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="USN&WR">{{Cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]]}} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]] (2005).</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|pp=15,17}}</ref> In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Nigeria and Egypt have the most populous Muslim communities.
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| Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=State.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 March 2008 |title=Muslim Media Network |url=http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327140607/http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922 |archive-date=27 March 2008 |access-date=14 July 2009 |publisher=Muslim Media Network}}</ref> However, data provided by the [[San Diego State University]]'s International Population Center to ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' suggests China has 65.3 million Muslims.<ref>[https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm Secrets of Islam], [[U.S. News & World Report]]. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]].</ref> Islam is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many European countries,<ref>* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=2, 43}}
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| * {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online }}
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| * {{Cite web |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |access-date=9 January 2007 |publisher=Adherents.com}}
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| * {{Cite news| title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm | work=[[BBC News]] | date=23 December 2005 | access-date=24 September 2013}}
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| * {{cite web| title=Religion in Britain | url= http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/ethnicity/focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion/2006-edition/focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion---focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion-2006---full-report.pdf | publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] | website=National Statistics | date=13 February 2003 | access-date=27 August 2006}}</ref> and is slowly catching up to that status in the [[Americas]], with between 2,454,000, according to [[Pew Forum]], and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the [[Council on American–Islamic Relations|Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR)]], in the [[United States]].<ref name="mgmpPRC"/><ref>[http://www.cair.com/Portals/0/pdf/The_Mosque_in_America_A_National_Portrait.pdf The Mosque in America: A National Portrait] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617160628/http://www.cair.com/Portals/0/pdf/The_Mosque_in_America_A_National_Portrait.pdf |date=17 June 2010 }} Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). 26 April 2001. Retrieved on 1 August 2010.</ref>
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| Religious conversion has little net impact on the Muslim population as the number of people who convert to Islam is roughly similar to those who leave it.<ref name="The Future of the Global Muslim Population" /><ref name="Pew2011Muslim">{{Cite report |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> Growth rates of [[Islam in Europe]] were due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=site |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref>
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| ==Culture==
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| {{Main|Islamic culture}}
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| The term "[[Islamic culture]]" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as [[festivals]] and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=56}}</ref> sometimes referred to as "[[wikt:Islamicate|Islamicate]]".
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| ===Architecture===
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| {{Main|Islamic architecture}}
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| Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic architecture is that of the mosque.<ref name=":5" /> Varying cultures influence mosque architecture. For example, North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] contains [[marble]] and [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=2010-08-06}}</ref> while [[mosques in Indonesia]] often have multi-tiered roofs from local [[Java]]nese styles. The Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as light and shadow.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rüstem |first=Ünver |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nz9xDwAAQBAJ&q=ottoman+mosques&pg=PA212 |title=Ottoman Baroque: The Architectural Refashioning of Eighteenth-Century Istanbul |date=2019 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-19054-9 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ersoy |first=Ahmet A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xePBCAAAQBAJ&q=ottoman+mosques&pg=PA147 |title=Architecture and the Late Ottoman Historical Imaginary: Reconfiguring the Architectural Past in a Modernizing Empire |date=2015 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]], Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4724-3139-4 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
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| <gallery widths="225" heights="225" class="center">
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| File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], in the [[west Africa]]n country of [[Mali]]
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| File:Blue_Mosque_2.jpg|Interior view of the main domes of the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Blue mosque]] in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]
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| File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in [[Po-i-Kalyan]], [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]]
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| File:Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg|[[Sixty Dome Mosque]], in [[Khalifatabad]], [[Bangladesh]]
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| </gallery>
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| ===Art===
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| {{Main|Islamic art}}
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| {{see also|Ottoman miniature|Safavid art|Mughal painting}}
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| [[Islamic art]] encompasses the [[visual arts]] produced from the 7th century onward by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ettinghausen, Richard, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 3]}}</ref> It includes fields as varied as architecture, [[calligraphy]], painting, and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]], among others.
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| While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned upon in many Islamic cultures and connected with [[Aniconism in Islam|laws against idolatry]] common to all Abrahamic religions. [[Abdullah ibn Masud|Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood]] reported Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by [[Sahih al-Bukhari|al-Bukhaari]]){{clarify|date=July 2021}}.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Cite Quran|48|10|s=ns|expand=yes}}</ref> However, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in [[Mughal painting|Mughal]], [[Persian art|Persian]], and [[Turkish art]]. [[Siyah Qalam]] (Black Pen), frequently depicts [[Dev (mythology)|demonic creatures]] (''div'') from Islamic narratives, but seem of Central Asian origin. The existence of this [[Aniconism in Islam|aversion to creating images of animate beings]] has been used to explain the prevalence of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[tessellation]], and pattern are key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref>
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| <gallery widths="225" heights="225" class="center">
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| File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|The phrase ''[[Basmala|Bismillah]]'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] region.
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| File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in [[Shiraz]], [[Iran]]
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| File:Atauriques.jpg|Detail of [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|arabesque]] decoration at the [[Alhambra]] in [[Spain]].
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| File:Islamic arts museum, KL, Malaysia.jpg|The [[Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia]], the largest museum of [[Islamic arts]] in [[Southeast Asia]]
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| </gallery>
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| ===Music===
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| {{Main|Islamic music}}
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| ===Poetry===
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| {{Main|Islamic poetry}}
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| ===Calendar===
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| {{Muslimmonths}}
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| {{Main|Islamic calendar}}
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| [[File:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007.gif|thumb|left|The phases of the [[Moon]] form the basis for the [[Islamic calendar]]]]
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| Caliph Umar reportedly chose the formal beginning of the Muslim era to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a [[lunar calendar]] with days lasting from sunset to sunset.<ref>"[http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/Sacred-Time.html Sacred Time]." ''[[Patheos]]''. 2020.</ref> Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in [[seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic|عيد الف) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic|عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage).<ref>[[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi|Ghamidi, Javed Ahmad]]. 2001. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130923142412/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]." pp. 321–33 in ''[[Mizan]]'' (1st ed.). Lahore: Daru’l-Ishraq. Archived from the [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html original] on 2013-09-23.</ref>
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| {{-}}
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| ==Criticism==
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| {{main|Criticism of Islam}}
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| [[File:John Damascus (arabic icon).gif|right|thumb|200px|[[John of Damascus]], under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the [[Bible]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus’s Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]]
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| Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian [[heresy]] or a form of [[idolatry]], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fahlbusch, Erwin |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC|page=759}} |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |volume=2 |page=759}}</ref> Later, criticism from the Muslim world itself appeared, as well as from [[Jewish]] writers and from [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical Christians]].<ref name="WarraqPoetry">{{Cite book |last=Warraq |first=Ibn |url=https://archive.org/details/leavingislamapos00warr |title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-59102-068-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/leavingislamapos00warr/page/n11 67] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Ibn Kammuna">{{Cite book |last=Kammuna |first=Ibn |title=Examination of the Three Faiths |date=1971 |publisher=Moshe Perlmann |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |pages=148–149}}</ref><ref name="Oussani">{{Cite web |last=Oussani |first=Gabriel |year=1911 |title=Mohammed and Mohammedanism |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10424a.htm |access-date=25 May 2020 |website=The Catholic Encyclopedia 10 |publisher=[[Robert Appleton Company]] |location=New York |via=New Advent}}</ref> Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran are also discussed by critics.<ref name="BibleInQuran">[[Kaufmann Kohler|Kohler, Kaufmann]], and Duncan B. McDonald. [1906] 2011. "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1032&letter=B#3068 Bible in Mohammedian Literature]." ''[[The Jewish Encyclopedia|Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref>
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| Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality were criticized by Christian writers. Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion. Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of [[Irenaeus]], the doctrines of the former [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]], [[Augustine of Hippo]], led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the [[Gospel of Matthew]].<ref>''Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions'' [[Cambridge University Press]], 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-521-50637-3}} pp. 18–20</ref>
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| Defamatory images of [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Muhammad]], derived from early 7th century depictions of the [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Byzantine period|Byzantine Church]],<ref name="ReferenceH">[[Minou Reeves|Reeves, Minou]], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. [[New York University Press|NYU Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]].<ref name="auto">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante’s Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. [[Springer Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 132.</ref> Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of [[schism]], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="auto" />
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| Since [[September 11 attacks|the events of September 11, 2001]], Islam has [[Criticism of Islam|faced criticism]] over its scriptures and teachings. Some claim they are a significant [[Islamic terrorism|source of terrorism]] and [[Islamism|terrorist ideology]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam and the Patterns in Terrorism and Violent Extremism |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/islam-and-patterns-terrorism-and-violent-extremism |access-date=2 April 2019 |website=csis.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 September 2017 |title=How Many Muslims Still Support Terrorism? |url=http://www.telospress.com/how-many-muslims-still-support-terrorism/ |access-date=2 April 2019 |website=telospress.com}}</ref>
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| Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.<ref name="women">{{Cite web |date=13 January 2012 |title=Saudi Arabia – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2005 |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2005&country=6825}}</ref><ref name="IslamInEurope">{{Cite magazine |last=Timothy Garton Ash |date=5 October 2006 |title=Islam in Europe |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371 |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref> In the wake of the recent [[multiculturalism]] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been [[criticism of multiculturalism|criticized]].<ref name="Modood">{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=April 6, 2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page=[https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo/page/n43 29] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Both in his public and personal life, others objected to the morality of Muhammad, therefore also the sunnah as a role model.<ref name="Oussani" /><ref name="WarraqQuest">{{Cite book |last=Warraq |first=Ibn |url=https://archive.org/details/questforhistoric00ibnw/page/103 |title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad |date=2000 |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-1-57392-787-1 |edition=1st |location=Amherst, MA |page=[https://archive.org/details/questforhistoric00ibnw/page/103 103]}}</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| {{Main|Outline of Islam}}
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| {{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
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| * [[Ahkam]]
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| * [[Allah]]
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| * [[Challenge of the Quran]]
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| * [[Fard]]
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| * [[Glossary of Islam]]
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| * [[Islamophobia]]
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| * [[Index of Islam-related articles]]
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| * [[Islam and other religions]]
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| * [[Islam in Asia]]
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| * [[Islamic ethics]]
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| * [[Islamic feminism]]
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| * [[Islamic literature]]
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| * [[Islamic mythology]]
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| * [[Islamic studies]]
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| * [[List of Muslim empires and dynasties]]
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| * [[List of converts to Islam]]
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| * [[Lists of Muslims]]
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| * [[Major religious groups]]
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| * [[Persecution of Muslims]]
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| * [[Prophets and messengers in Islam]]
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| * [[Religious conversion#Islam]]
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| * [[Timeline of Islamic history]]
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| * [[Wasatiyyah (Islamic term)]]
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| {{div col end}}
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| ==Notes==
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| {{notelist}}
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| {{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}
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| ==References==
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| ===Notes===
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| {{Reflist|30em|group=note}}
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| ===Citations of Qur'an and hadith===
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| {{Reflist|30em|group=lower-roman}}
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| ===Citations===
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| {{Reflist|30em}}
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| ===Books and journals===
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| {{Refbegin|30em}}
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| * {{Cite journal |last=Accad |first=Martin |year=2003 |title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) |journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=67–91 |doi=10.1080/09596410305261 |s2cid=170638096}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Akbar |url=https://archive.org/details/islamtoday00akba_0 |title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-86064-257-9 |edition=2.00}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Clinton |title=Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8264-9944-8 |page=101 |author-link=Clinton Bennett}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia |publisher=[[University of South Carolina Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57003-471-8}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |title=Oxford History of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/unholywarterrori0000espo |title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002a |isbn=978-0-19-516886-0 |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Jews of Islam |publisher=[[Routledge & Kegan Paul]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-7102-0462-2 |author-link=Bernard Lewis}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-285258-8 |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi |title=The Middle East |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern |title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East |publisher=[[Open Court Publishing Company]]|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 |edition=2nd |author-mask=1 |url-access=registration}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi |title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East |publisher=[[Harper Perennial]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 |edition=reprint |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern |title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror |publisher=[[Random House, Inc.]], New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |author-link=Wilferd Madelung}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Menski |first=Werner F. |title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-85859-5}}
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| * {{Cite book |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |date=2009 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=Tracy |format=PDF |access-date=2013-09-24}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/ourreligions00shar |title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067700-8}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon Alexander |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |title=Islam: its history, teaching, and practices |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2004 |url-access=registration}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Patton |first=Walter M. |title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân |date=1900 |journal=[[The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures]] |isbn=978-90-04-10314-6 |volume=16 |page=129 |doi=10.1086/369367 |issue=3 |s2cid=144087031}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=H. U. |title=Chronology of Islamic History, 570–1000 CE |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd |year=1999 |edition=3rd}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Rippin |first=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimstheirreli0000ripp |title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-21781-1 |edition=2nd |author-link=Andrew Rippin}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz |title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] US |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511915-2 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}}
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| * Siljander, Mark D., and John David Mann (2008). ''A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide'' (1st ed.). New York: [[HarperOne]]. {{ISBN|978-0-06-143828-8|}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jane I. |title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-515649-2}}
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| * {{Cite book |last1=Tabatabae |first1=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |title=Shi'ite Islam |last2=Nasr |first2=Seyyed Hossein |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-87395-272-9 |ref={{harvid|Tabatabaei|1979}} |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Teece |first=Geoff |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6 |title=Religion in Focus: Islam |publisher=[[Grolier|Franklin Watts Ltd]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Trimingham |first=John Spencer |title=The Sufi Orders in Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-512058-5}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin |title=Islam: the Basics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-34106-6 |location=London}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |title=Weber and Islam |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-17458-9 |location=London}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Waines |first=David |title=An Introduction to Islam |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-53906-7}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought |publisher=University Press Edinburgh |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-85224-245-2 |author-link=William Montgomery Watt}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |edition=New |author-mask=1}}
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| * {{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Bernard G. |title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill Academic publishers]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12066-2 |location=Boston |author-link=Bernard G. Weiss}}
| |
| {{Refend}}
| |
| | |
| ====Encyclopedias====
| |
| {{Refbegin|30em}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Berkshire Publishing Group]] |url=https://archive.org/details/berkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1 |editor-last=William H. McNeill |isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1 |editor2=Jerry H. Bentley |editor3=David Christian |url-access=registration}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=1910 |title=[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]] |editor-last=Gabriel Oussani}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale Group]] |editor-last=Paul Lagasse |edition=6th |isbn=978-1-59339-236-9 |editor2=Lora Goldman |editor3=Archie Hobson |editor4=Susan R. Norton}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |last=Ahmad |first=Imad-ad-Dean |author-link=Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=256–258 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |chapter-url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Islam}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Eerdmans Publishing Company]], and [[Brill Publishers]] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2 |editor-last=Erwin Fahlbusch |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-8028-2414-1 |editor2=William Geoffrey Bromiley |url-access=registration}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor-last=John Bowden |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-19-522393-4}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |publisher=[[Macmillan Reference Books]] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse |editor-last=Richard C. Martin |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8 |editor2=Said Amir Arjomand |editor3=Marcia Hermansen |editor4=Abdulkader Tayob |editor5=Rochelle Davis |editor6=John Obert Voll}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |editor-last=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala |editor-last=Salamone Frank |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-415-94180-8}}
| |
| * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas |editor-last=Glasse Cyril |edition=Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |url-access=registration}}
| |
| {{Refend}}
| |
| | |
| ==Further reading==
| |
| {{Refbegin}}
| |
| * [https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/encyclopedia-of-sahih-al-bukhari-arabic-virtual-translation-center/1134457685?ean=2940160787701 Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari] by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, [[Barnes & Noble]] {{ISBN|978-0-359-67265-3}}). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
| |
| * Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: [[Bethany House Publishers]]. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo |title=Islam Without Extremes |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-393-07086-6 |edition=1st |author-link=Mustafa Akyol}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Arberry |first=A.J. |url=https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar |title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation |publisher=Touchstone |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-82507-6 |edition=1st |author-link=A. J. Arberry}}
| |
| * Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, CA: [[Wadsworth Publishing Company]] 1975. xiii, 145 p. {{ISBN|0-8221-0139-4}}.
| |
| * Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. {{ISBN|0-521-42120-9}}; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
| |
| * {{Cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Muhsin |title=Noble Quran |last2=Al-Hilali Khan |last3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-9960-740-79-9 |edition=1st |author-link=Muhammad Muhsin Khan}}
| |
| * A. Khanbaghi (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. [[I. B. Tauris]].
| |
| * Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. {{ISBN|0-915677-55-5}}.
| |
| * {{Cite book |title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-965-224-040-8 |editor-last=Kramer |editor-first=Martin |editor-link=Martin Kramer}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Dogan |title=Muslim Religious Architecture |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0 |title=Islam and the West |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-509061-1}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi |title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-510283-3 |url-access=registration}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Mubarkpuri |first=Saifur-Rahman |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Najeebabadi |first=Akbar Shah |title=History of Islam |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=S.A. |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |edition=New |url-access=registration}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 |title=Islam |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0 |edition=2nd |author-link=Fazlur Rahman}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |title=Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1982-3 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Tausch |first=Arno |title=What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University |publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers]], New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60692-731-1 |edition=1st |author-link=Arno Tausch}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Tausch |first=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui |publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers]], New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |edition=1st |author-link=Arno Tausch}}
| |
| * {{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith |publisher=[[Peter Owen Publishers]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3 |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author)}}
| |
| {{Refend}}
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| {{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}}
| |
| '''Academic resources'''
| |
| * [http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam.html Patheos Library – Islam]
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| * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140729180433/http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/home/ University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts]
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| * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041010144541/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/ Divisions in Islam]
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| '''Online resources'''
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| * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam "Islam"] article at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
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| * {{Curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}}
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| '''Directories'''
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| * [http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_%28Bookshelf%29 Islam (Bookshelf)] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
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| * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090326092524/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/islamus.htm Islam] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
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| {{Islam topics}}
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| {{Religion topics}}
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| {{Portal bar|Islam|Religions}}
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| {{Authority control}}
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| [[Category:Islam| ]]
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| [[Category:610 establishments]]
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| [[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
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| [[Category:Religious organizations established in the 7th century]]
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| [[Category:WikiProject Islam articles]]
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