Mamluk dynasty (Delhi): Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Dynasty that ruled northern India (c. 1206–1290)}}

 

{{for|the Mamluk sultanate of Egypt|Mamluk Sultanate}}

|conventional_long_name = Mamluk dynasty<br>(Delhi Sultanate) <br/> سلطنت مملوک

|p1                    = Chahamanas of Shakambhari

|flag_p1               = Map_of_the_Cahamanas.png

|flag_p2                = Haryana_in_India_(claims_hatched).svg

|flag_p3                = Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png

|flag_p4                = Map_of_the_Senas.png

|flag_s1                = Delhi_Sultanate_under_Khalji_dynasty_-_based_on_A_Historical_Atlas_of_South_Asia.svg

|image_map              = Map of the Mamluk Dynasty.png

|image_map_caption      = Territory of the Delhi Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (h)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref>

|common_languages      = [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] <small>(main)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |pages=48-49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP37 |language=en}}</ref>

</small><br>[[Persian language|Persian]] <small>(administration)</small><ref name="asi.nic.in">{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_epigraphical_arabicpersian.asp |title=Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies - Archaeological Survey of India |publisher=Asi.nic.in |access-date=2010-11-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929105219/http://asi.nic.in/asi_epigraphical_arabicpersian.asp |archive-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="RE31"/>

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=270|caption_align=center

| footer=The [[Qutb Minar]], started by [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]] in 1199 and completed by his son-in-law [[Iltutmish]] in 1220, an example of the Mamluk dynasty's works. It is somewhat similar to the earlier [[Minaret of Jam]] in [[Afghanistan]].

}}

The '''Mamluk dynasty''' ({{lang-fa|سلطنت مملوک|Salṭanat Mamlūk}}) was a dynasty which ruled [[Delhi Sultanate]] from 1206 to 1290. It was the first of five largely unrelated dynasties to rule the Delhi Sultanate until 1526.<ref name=JE_Walsh_68-70>Walsh, pp. 68-70</ref><ref name=C_Anzalone_100>Anzalone, p. 100</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=72–80}}</ref> Before the establishment of the Mamluk dynasty, Qutb al-Din Aibak's tenure as a [[Ghurid dynasty]] administrator lasted from 1192 to 1206, a period during which he led forays into the [[Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plain]] and established control over some of the new areas.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=123-126}}<ref name="RE39">{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |pages=39–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP31 |language=en}}</ref>

Mamluk dynasty was founded by [[Qutb al-Din Aibak|Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Mamluk]] slave-general of the [[Ghurid Empire]] from [[Central Asia]]. [[Mamluks]] were soldiers of slave origins who had converted to [[Islam]]. The phenomenon started in the 9th century and gradually the Mamluks became a powerful military class in various Muslim societies. Mamluks held political and military power most notably in [[Egypt]], but also in the [[Levant]], [[Iraq]], and [[India]].

 

 

Aibak rose to power when his Ghurid overlord Muhammad of Ghor was assassinated.<ref name=JE_Walsh_70>Walsh, p. 70</ref> However, his reign as the [[Sultan of Delhi]] was short-lived as he died in 1210 and his successor [[Aram Shah]] rose to the throne, only to be assassinated by [[Iltutmish]] in 1211.

The Sultanate under Iltutmish established cordial diplomatic contact with the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] between 1228–29 and had managed to keep India unaffected by the invasions of [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Mongol invasion of India|his successors]].<ref name=C_Anzalone_100/> Following the death of Iltutmish in 1236 a series of weak rulers remained in power and a number of the noblemen gained autonomy over the provinces of the Sultanate. Power shifted hands from [[Rukn ud din Firuz]] to [[Razia Sultana]] until [[Ghiyas ud din Balban]] rose to the throne and successfully repelled both external threats to the Sultanate from the [[Chagatai Khanate]] invasions and internal threats from the rebellious sultanate nobles.<ref name=C_Anzalone_100/><ref name=JE_Walsh_70/>

At least until the end of the 13th century when they ruled the Mamluk Sultanate in India, the Ghurid Turks maintained their ethnical characteristics, continuing to use Turkish as their main language, rather than Persian, and persisting in their rude and bellicose ways as "men of the sword", in opposition to the Persian "men of the pen".<ref name="RE31">{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |pages=48–49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP31 |language=en|quote="The ethnicity of Turkish slaves, the earliest generation of whom dated to the Ghurid invasions of India, survived well into the thirteenth century. For a time, even Persian-speaking secretaries had to master Turkish in order to function. There persisted, more-over, deep cultural tensions between native  Persian-speakers – whether from Iran, Khurasan or Central  Asia – and ethnic Turks. Nizam al-Din  Auliya  (d.  1325),  Delhi’s  renowned  Sufi  shaikh,  characterized Turks as rude, bellicose and vain, reflecting a view, prevalent among many  native  Persians  of  the day, that  Turks  were  uncultured  boors  who had illegitimately monopolized power and privilege. Such animosities were amplified by the asymmetrical power relations between ethnic Turks and Persians, often depicted in the literature as ‘men of the sword’ and ‘men of the pen’ respectively."}}</ref>

The [[Khalji dynasty]] came into being when [[Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji]] overthrew the last of the Slave dynasty rulers, [[Muiz ud din Qaiqabad]], the grandson of Balban, and assumed the throne at Delhi.<ref name=C_Anzalone_101>Anzalone, p. 101</ref>

The first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty was [[Qutb al-Din Aibak|Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], who had the titular name of [[Sultan]] and reigned from 1206 to 1210. He temporarily quelled the rebellions of [[Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha]] of [[Multan]] and [[Tajuddin Yildoz]] of [[Ghazni]].<ref name="RE48">{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |pages=45–57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP35}}</ref> Making [[Lahore]] his capital, he consolidated his control over North India through an administrative hold over [[Delhi]]. He also initiated the construction of Delhi's earliest Muslim monuments, the [[Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque]] and the [[Qutb Minar]].<ref name="RE48"/> In 1210, he died due to injuries received from an accident while playing a game of [[polo]] in Lahore; his horse fell and he was impaled on the pommel of his saddle. He was buried near the [[Anarkali Bazaar]] in Lahore.<ref name="RE48"/>

 

 

The third Sultan was Shams-ud-din [[Iltutmish]], who had the titular name of ''Nasir Amir-ul-Mu'minin'' and reigned from 1211 to 1236. He shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi and trebled the exchequer.<ref name="RE48"/> He defeated Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha of Multan and Tajuddin Yildoz of Ghazni, who had declared themselves contenders of Delhi.<ref name="RE48"/> The [[Mongols]] encroached into India in pursuit of the last [[Khwarazmshah]] [[Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni]], who was defeated at the [[Battle of the Indus]] by [[Genghis Khan]] in 1221. After Genghis Khan's death, Iltutmish consolidated his hold on northern India by retaking many of the lost territories. [[Bengal]], which had been held by the Turkic general [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji|Bakhtiyar Khilji]] and his successors of the [[Khalji dynasty of Bengal]], was finally incorporated into the Delhi Sultanate in 1227.<ref name="Islam at War: A History"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Satish Chandra |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |date=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=43–44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA43 |language=en}}</ref> In 1230, Iltutmish built the [[Hauz-i-Shamsi]] reservoir in [[Mehrauli]], and in 1231 he built [[Sultan Ghari]], which was the first Islamic mausoleum in [[Delhi]].<ref name="RE48"/>

 

[[File:Tomb_of_Altamash.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of [[Iltutmish]] (r. 1211–1236) in the [[Qutub Minar]] complex.]]

The fourth Sultan was [[Rukn ud din Firuz|Rukn-ud-din Feroze]], who had the titular name of ''Sultan'' and reigned from April 1236 to November 1236. He ruled for only seven months and his mother, [[Shah Turkan]], for all practical purposes was running the government. He abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal pleasure and debauchery, to the considerable outrage of the citizenry. On 9 November 1236, both Rukn-ud-din Feroze and his mother Shah Turkan were assassinated by the Chihalgani.

The fifth Sultana was [[Razia Sultana|Razia al-Din]], who had the titular name of ''Jalâlat-ud-dîn Raziyâ Sultana'' and reigned from 1236 to 1240. As the first female Muslim ruler in India, she initially managed to impress the nobles and administratively handled the Sultanate well. However, she began associating with the African [[Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut]], provoking racial antagonism amongst the nobles and clergy, who were primarily Central Asian Turkic and already resented the rule of a female monarch. She was defeated by the powerful nobleman [[Malik Altunia]] whom she agreed to marry. Her half-brother [[Muiz ud din Bahram|Muiz-ud-din Bahram]], however, usurped the throne with the help of the Chihalgani and defeated the combined forces of the Sultana and her husband. The couple fled and reached [[Kaithal]], where their remaining forces abandoned them. They both fell into the hands of [[Jat people|Jats]] and were robbed and killed on 14 October 1240.<ref name="RE48"/>

The sixth Sultan was [[Muiz ud din Bahram|Muiz-ud-din Bahram]], who had the titular name of ''Sultan'' and reigned from 1240 to 15 May 1242. During his reign, the Chihalgani became disorderly and constantly bickered among each other. It was during this period of unrest that the Mongols invaded the Punjab and sacked Lahore. Muiz-ud-din Bahram was too weak to take any action against them, and the Chihalgani besieged him in the White Fort of Delhi and put him to death in 1242.<ref name="RE48"/>

The seventh Sultan was [[Ala ud din Masud|Ala-ud-din Masud]], who had the titular name of ''Sultan'' and reigned from 1242 to 1246. He was effectively a puppet for the Chihalgani and did not actually have much power or influence in the government. Instead, he became infamous for his fondness of entertainment and wine. By 1246, the chiefs had become upset with Ala-ud-din Masud's increasing hunger for more power and replaced him with his cousin [[Nasiruddin Mahmud (grandson of Iltutmish)|Nasiruddin Mahmud]], who was another grandson of Iltutmish.<ref name="RE48"/>

The eighth Sultan was Nasiruddin Mahmud, who had the titular name of ''Nasir-ud-din Feroze Shah'' and reigned from 1246 to 1266. As a ruler, Mahmud was known to be very religious, spending most of his time in prayer and was renowned for aiding the poor and the distressed. It was his Deputy Sultan, [[Ghiyas ud din Balban|Ghiyath-ud-din Balban]], who primarily dealt with state affairs.<ref name="RE48"/>

The ninth Sultan was [[Ghiyas ud din Balban|Ghiyath-ud-din Balban]], who had the titular name of ''Sultan'' and reigned from 1266 to 1287. Balban ruled with an iron fist and broke up the Chihalgani group of noblemen. He tried to establish peace and order in India and built many outposts with garrisons of soldiers in areas where there had been disorder. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown, so he established an efficient espionage system. He also fought against the Mongols and repelled many invasions by them. He lost his favourite son Prince Muhammad in the [[Battle of Beas River]] against the Mongols.<ref name="RE48"/>

The tenth and final Sultan was [[Muiz ud din Qaiqabad|Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad]], who had the titular name of ''Sultan'' and reigned from 1287 to 1290. Being still young at the time, he ignored all state affairs. After four years, he suffered a paralytic stroke and was later murdered in 1290 by a [[Khalji dynasty|Khalji]] chief. His three-year-old son Kayumars nominally succeeded him, but the Slave dynasty had ended with the rise of the Khaljis.<ref name="RE48"/>

The architectural legacy of the dynasty includes:<ref name="RE48"/>

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center

| image1  = Gandhak ki Baoli, Mehrauli.jpg

| image2  = Gandhak-ki-baoli 004.jpg

| caption2 = Filled with water

| footer=The [[Baolis of Mehrauli|Gandhak Ki Baoli stepwell]], built by [[Iltutmish]] (r. 1211–1236).<ref name="The Delhi that No-one Knows" />

===Qutb ud-Din Aibak (1150–1210)===

* The [[Qutb Minar]], built by [[Qutb al-Din Aibak|Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], founder of the dynasty, in 1192 AD in the [[Qutb complex]] in [[Mehrauli]], [[Delhi]]

* The [[Qutb Minar complex#Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque|Quwwat-ul-Islam]] ("Might of Islam") mosque, at the [[Qutb complex]] in Delhi, started in 1193 CE by [[Qutb-ud-din-Aibak]] to mark his victory over the Rajputs

* The tomb of Qutb ud-Din Aybak, in [[Anarkali Bazaar]] in [[Lahore]]

* The [[Hauz-i-Shamsi]] reservoir to the south of Qutb Minar, and the [[madrasa]] (school) around it, built by Iltutmish.

* The ''[[Baolis of Mehrauli#Gandhak ki Baoli|Gandhak ki Baoli]]'', a [[stepwell]] for the Sufi saint, [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki]].<ref name="The Delhi that No-one Knows">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Ronald Vivian |title=The Delhi that No-one Knows |date=2005 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-8028-020-7 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cN7-8ZwviRgC&pg=PA12 |language=en}}</ref>

* The tomb of [[Iltutmish]], second [[Sultan of Delhi]] (r. 1211–1236 AD), built 1235 CE, and part of the [[Qutb Minar]] Complex in Mehrauli, New Delhi.

* The Mausoleum of Prince [[Nasiruddin Mahmud (eldest son of Iltutmish)|Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud]], eldest son of [[Iltumish]], known as ''[[Sultan Ghari]]'' near [[Vasant Kunj]], built in 1231

* [[Balban's tomb]], in the [[Mehrauli Archaeological Park]].

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">

File:Quwwat-al-Islam Mosque, Delhi.jpg|The [[Qutb Minar complex#Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque|Quwwat-ul-Islam]] ("Might of Islam") mosque, at the [[Qutb complex]] in Delhi, started in 1193 CE by [[Qutb-ud-din-Aibak]] to mark his victory over the Rajputs

File:Intricate stone carvings in the cloister of Quwwat ul-Islam mosque, near Qutub Minar.jpg|Intricate stone carvings on the [[cloister]] columns at Quwwat ul-Islam Mosque, Qutb complex, Delhi. These are recycled Hindu temple pillars displaying Hindu iconography.

File:Adhai Din-ka-Jhonpra Screen wall (6133975257).jpg|The [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] mosque in [[Ajmer]] was started in 1192 and completed in 1199 by Qutb al-Din Aibak.

File:Inside the Marble Mehrab at Sultan Ghari.jpg|Decoration inside the Marble Mehrab at ''[[Sultan Ghari]]''

==References==

==Sources==

   | title = The History of India, 1000–1707 A.D.