Hindu temple architecture: Difference between revisions

[[File:Architecture of a Vishnu temple, Nagara style with Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, Garbha Griya, Sikhara, Amalaka, Kalasa marked.jpg|thumb|upright=1.33|Architecture of a Hindu temple (Nagara style). These core elements are evidenced in the oldest surviving 5th–6th century CE temples.]]

[[Image:An aerial view of Madurai city from atop of Meenakshi Amman temple.jpg|thumb|upright=1.33|[[Meenakshi temple|The Meenakshi temple]] complex of [[Madurai]], mostly built between 1623 and 1655 CE, a large complex in the [[Dravidian architecture]] of [[South India]], dominated by [[gopuram]] gatehouse towers. The two main shrines are much smaller, with gold tops.]]

'''Hindu temple architecture''' as the main form of [[Hindu architecture]] has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the [[Hindu temple]] remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the ''[[Garbhagriha|garbha griha]]'' or womb-chamber, where the primary ''[[Murti]]'' or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. This chamber often has an open area designed for movement in clockwise rotation for rituals and prayers. Around this chamber there are often other structures and buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like ''[[shikhara]]'', also called the ''[[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]]'' in the south.  The shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for [[circumambulation|parikrama]], a [[mandapa]] congregation hall, and sometimes an [[antarala]] antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. There may further mandapas or other buildings, connected or detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the compound.<ref>These are the usual terms, but there are many variants or different ones in the many Indian languages, ancient and modern.</ref>

Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of [[dharma]], beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for ''[[Tirtha and Kshetra|Tirtha]]''—pilgrimage.<ref name=stellakvolume1/> All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from [[kama]] to [[artha]], from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture.<ref name=stellakvolume1>[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}</ref> The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls [[moksha]].{{sfn|George Michell|1988|pp=60-61}}

[[File:HinduTempleArchitecture.jpg|thumb|Examples of Hindu Temples across India]][[File:Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg|thumb|[[Kailasa temple, Ellora]], the largest [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] [[Hindu]] temple.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243/|title=Ellora Caves|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-02-28}}</ref>]]

There are hardly any remains of Hindu temples before the [[Gupta dynasty]] in the 4th century CE; no doubt there were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] [[Udayagiri Caves]] are among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture.<ref>Harle (1994), 87-100; Michell (1988), 18</ref> The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at [[Sanchi]].<ref name=meister254>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1988–1989 |title=Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=49 |issue=3–4 |pages=254–256 |doi=10.2307/3250039 |jstor=3250039}}</ref> By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived.<ref name=meister254/><ref name=meister370/>

No pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have survived. Examples of early major South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include the diverse styles [[Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|at Mahabalipuram]], from the 7th and 8th centuries. However, according to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. Other examples are found in [[Aihole]] and [[Pattadakal]].<ref name=meister280/><ref>Michael W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (1983), ''South India: Lower Dravidadesa'', Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. I, Part I, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691784021}}, pages 30-53</ref>

By about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.<ref name=michellharle335/> From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|Muslim invasions]] from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones.<ref name=michellharle335/>  The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north.{{sfn|George Michell|1995|pp=9-10, Quote: "The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India: the invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin, Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the indigenous ruling houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the assault or outlive the conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu and Tamil zones succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur; forts were destroyed, palaces dismantled and temple sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage, Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part of the Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai thereupon became the capital of the Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi empire]]."}} In late 14th century, the Hindu [[Vijayanagara Empire]] came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall [[gopuram]] gatehouse, (actually a late development, from the 12th century or later), was typically added to older large temples.<ref name=michellharle335>Michell (1988), 18, 50-54, 89, 149-155; Harle (1994), 335</ref>

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Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BC from the [[Óc Eo|Oc Eo]] culture of [[Mekong Delta]] from southern Vietnam. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu.  The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sen|first=Võ Văn|last2=Thắng|first2=Đặng Văn|date=2017-10-06|title=Recognition of Oc Eo Culture Relic in Thoai Son District an Giang Province, Vienam|url=http://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/3393|journal=American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS)|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=271–293|issn=2313-4402}}</ref>

The cultural sphere often called [[Greater India]] extended into [[South-East Asia]]. The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is [[Võ Cạnh inscription]] dated to 2nd or 3rd century AD in Vietnam or in Cambodia between  4th and 5th-century CE.<ref name="Ooi2004p587">{{cite book|author=Keat Gin Ooi|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA587|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|pages=587–588}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Richard Salomon dates the earliest Cambodian Sanskrit inscriptions to the 5th century.<ref name="Salomon1998p155">{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC |year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3|pages=155–157}}</ref>}} Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often mixed [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.<ref>Michell (1988), 18-19, 54, 159-182</ref><ref name="Bakker1990p160">{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon| editor= Hans Bakker|title=The History of Sacred Places in India As Reflected in Traditional Literature: Papers on Pilgrimage in South Asia|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=McwUAAAAIAAJ| chapter= Indian Tirthas in Southeast Asia| year= 1990|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn= 978-90-04-09318-8|pages=160–176}}, Quote: "In the Indianized regions of ancient southeast Asia, comprising the modern nations of Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Indonesia (...)"</ref>

[[File:64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.svg|thumb|360px|The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=mmgeometry/><ref name="stellakvolume1"/>]]

The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.<ref name="stellakvolume1"/> The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’.<ref name=mmgeometry/><ref>In addition to square (4) sided layout, Brhat Samhita also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle (3), hexagon (6), octagon (8) and hexadecagon (16) sided layouts, according to [[Stella Kramrisch]]. The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’.</ref> The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the [[gnomon]]. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.<ref name="stellakvolume1"/>

Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as ''garbha-griya'' (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence.<ref name=sl6869/> In or near this space is typically a [[murti]]. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge,{{sfn|Stella Kramrisch|1976|p=8}} or vision<ref name=sl6869/>).

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Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on ''silpa sastras'' theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools, and if so how.<ref name="Hardy2009p41"/>{{sfn| Vinayak Bharne| Krupali Krusche|2014|pp=66-72}} According to [[Adam Hardy]] – an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture, the truth "must lie somewhere in between".<ref name="Hardy2009p41">{{cite journal | last=Hardy | first=Adam | title=Drāvida Temples in the Samarānganasūtradhāra | journal=South Asian Studies | volume=25 | issue=1 | year=2009 | doi=10.1080/02666030.2009.9628698 | pages=41–62| url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/13911/1/Dravida%20Temples%20in%20the%20Samarangana.pdf }}</ref> According to George Michell – an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, the theory and the creative field practice likely co-evolved, and the construction workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to.<ref name=michell57/>

[[File:Architecture of the Khajuraho temples.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Architecture of the Khajuraho temples]]

 

The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as ''Brihatsamhita'' and others, states Michell, classify temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, ellipse and rectangle. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. Their horizontal plan regulates the vertical form. Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own vocabulary, with terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in another style and may apply to a different part of the temple.{{sfn|George Michell|1988|p=88}} Chronologically, the early Hindu temples are often called classical (up to 7th or 8th century), while those after the classical period through 12th or 13th century are sometimes referred to as [[Medieval India|medieval]]. However, states Michell, this is inappropriate for Hindu architecture given India's artistic tradition to conserve its heritage and architectural framework, while evolving ideas.{{sfn|George Michell|1988|p=88-89}}

The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology, spiritual ideas, and the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw materials and the local climate.{{sfn|George Michell|1988|p=88-89}} Some materials of construction were imported from distant regions, but much of the temple was built from readily available materials. In some regions, such as in south Karnataka, the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks.{{sfn|George Michell|1988|p=88-89}} In other places, artists cut granite or other stones to build temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave temples or a region's rocky terrain encouraged monolithic rock-cut temple architecture. In regions where stones were unavailable, innovations in brick temples flourished. Hindu temple architecture has historically been affected by the building material available in each region, its "tonal value, texture and structural possibilities" states Michell.{{sfn|George Michell|1988|p=88-89}}

! [[Dravidian architecture]]<ref>Hardy (1995), 5-8</ref><ref name="Dhaky1977p14">{{cite book|author=Madhusudan A. Dhaky|title=The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇāṭa Inscriptions and Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VyW32NwcMr4C |year=1977|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-065-5|pages=14–19}}</ref>

| Vimana that may be multistorey (talas), the top of which is called the sikhara

| No

| Straight-edged pyramidal, sometimes curvilinear centred over the sanctum{{refn|group=note|In rare cases, such as the Brihadishvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, the centre is outside the temple.}}

| Typically single (Vimana may be multi-storey)

| same, plus ''Prana Vikara''

| Characteristic, but not essential; after 10th century often higher than the vimana.  May be several, on all sides of the compound, serving as landmarks for pilgrims

| sacred pools, many pillared mandapas in temple grounds (used for rites of passage ceremonies, [[choultry]], temple rituals), prakara walls became common after 14th century, single or multiple entrances into temple

| Tamil (upper and lower Dravidadesa), Karnata, Andhra

| southern parts of the Indian subcontinent, southeast Asia

| Late Gupta era: rudimentary; 6th-10th century: zenith

  |<ref name=carthage>http://personal.carthage.edu/jlochtefeld/picturepages/Khajuraho/architecture.html</ref>

* {{Cite journal|last=Hegewald|first=Julia A. B.|title=The International Jaina Style? Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.005?view=text;rgn=main|journal=Ars Orientalis|volume=45|doi=10.3998/ars.13441566.0045.005|issn=2328-1286|year=2011|doi-access=free}}

[[Category:Religious architecture]]