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==== Chandragupta II ====
==== Chandragupta II ====
[[File:ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|thumb|alt=Gold coin with Chandragupta II on a horse|Chandragupta II on a coin]]
[[File:ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|thumb|alt=Gold coin with Chandragupta II on a horse|Chandragupta II on a coin]]
Some scholars, including [[D. R. Bhandarkar]], [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V. V. Mirashi]] and [[D. C. Sircar]], believe that Vikramaditya is probably based on the Gupta king [[Chandragupta II]].<ref name="VVM_1969"/><ref name="KCJ_1972"/> Based on coins and the [[Supiya|Supia]] pillar inscription, it is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya.<ref name="VVM_1969"/>{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=130}} The Khambat and Sangli plates of the [[Rashtrakuta]] king [[Govinda IV]] use the epithet "Sahasanka", which has also been applied to Vikramaditya, for Chandragupta II.<ref name="KCJ_1972"/> According to [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], Chandragupta's victory against the Shakas was transposed to a fictional character who is credited with establishing the Vikrama Samvat era.<ref name="AH_2009">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFdosx0PokC&pg=PA263 |title=Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics |author=Alf Hiltebeitel |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780226340555 |pages=254–275 }}</ref>
Some scholars, including [[D. R. Bhandarkar]], [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V. V. Mirashi]] and [[D. C. Sircar]], believe that Vikramaditya is probably based on the Gupta king [[Chandragupta II]].<ref name="KCJ_1972"/><ref name="VVM_1969"/> Based on coins and the [[Supiya|Supia]] pillar inscription, it is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya.<ref name="VVM_1969"/>{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=130}} The Khambat and Sangli plates of the [[Rashtrakuta]] king [[Govinda IV]] use the epithet "Sahasanka", which has also been applied to Vikramaditya, for Chandragupta II.<ref name="KCJ_1972"/> According to [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], Chandragupta's victory against the Shakas was transposed to a fictional character who is credited with establishing the Vikrama Samvat era.<ref name="AH_2009">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFdosx0PokC&pg=PA263 |title=Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics |author=Alf Hiltebeitel |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780226340555 |pages=254–275 }}</ref>


In most of the legends Vikramaditya had his capital at Ujjain, although some mention him as king of Pataliputra (the Gupta capital). According to D. C. Sircar, Chandragupta II may have defeated the Shaka invaders of Ujjain and made his son, [[Govindagupta]], a viceroy there. Ujjain may have become a second Gupta capital, and legends about him (as Vikramaditya) may have developed.<ref name="KCJ_1972"/>{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=130-131}} The Guttas of Guttavalal, a minor dynasty based in present-day Karnataka, claimed descent from the Gupta Empire. Their [[Chaudayyadanapura|Chaudadanapura]] inscription alludes to Vikramaditya ruling from Ujjain, and several Gutta kings were named Vikramaditya. According to Vasundhara Filliozat, the Guttas confused Vikramaditya with Chandragupta II;<ref>{{cite book |author1=Vasundhara Filliozat |title=The Temple of Muktēśvara at Cauḍadānapura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HaQWof50aY4C&pg=PA7 |year=1995 |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts / Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-327-4 |page=7 }}</ref> however, D. C. Sircar sees this as further proof that Vikramaditya was based on Chandragupta II.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=136}}
In most of the legends Vikramaditya had his capital at Ujjain, although some mention him as king of Pataliputra (the Gupta capital). According to D. C. Sircar, Chandragupta II may have defeated the Shaka invaders of Ujjain and made his son, [[Govindagupta]], a viceroy there. Ujjain may have become a second Gupta capital, and legends about him (as Vikramaditya) may have developed.<ref name="KCJ_1972"/>{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=130-131}} The Guttas of Guttavalal, a minor dynasty based in present-day Karnataka, claimed descent from the Gupta Empire. Their [[Chaudayyadanapura|Chaudadanapura]] inscription alludes to Vikramaditya ruling from Ujjain, and several Gutta kings were named Vikramaditya. According to Vasundhara Filliozat, the Guttas confused Vikramaditya with Chandragupta II;<ref>{{cite book |author1=Vasundhara Filliozat |title=The Temple of Muktēśvara at Cauḍadānapura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HaQWof50aY4C&pg=PA7 |year=1995 |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts / Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-327-4 |page=7 }}</ref> however, D. C. Sircar sees this as further proof that Vikramaditya was based on Chandragupta II.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=136}}
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Many legends, particularly [[Jain literature|Jain]] legends, associate Vikramaditya with [[Shalivahana]] of [[Pratishthana]] (another legendary king). In some he is defeated by Shalivahana, who begins the [[Shalivahana era]]; in others, he is an ancestor of Shalivahana. A few legends call the king of Pratishthana "Vikramaditya". Political rivalry between the kings is sometimes extended to language, with Vikramaditya supporting [[Sanskrit]] and Shalivahana supporting [[Prakrit]].{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=109}}
Many legends, particularly [[Jain literature|Jain]] legends, associate Vikramaditya with [[Shalivahana]] of [[Pratishthana]] (another legendary king). In some he is defeated by Shalivahana, who begins the [[Shalivahana era]]; in others, he is an ancestor of Shalivahana. A few legends call the king of Pratishthana "Vikramaditya". Political rivalry between the kings is sometimes extended to language, with Vikramaditya supporting [[Sanskrit]] and Shalivahana supporting [[Prakrit]].{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=109}}


In the ''Kalakacharya-Kathanaka'', Vikramaditya's father [[Gardabhilla]] abducted the sister of Kalaka (a Jain [[acharya]]). At Kalaka's insistence, the Shakas invaded Ujjain and made Gardabhilla their prisoner. Vikramaditya later arrived from Pratishthana, defeated the Shakas, and began the Vikrama Samvat era to commemorate his victory.<ref name="VVM_1969">{{cite book |author1=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |author-link=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |author2=Narayan Raghunath Navlekar |title=Kalidasa: Date, Life And Works |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sueiThBrP4gC&pg=PA8 |publisher=Popular |year=1969 |isbn=978-81-7154-468-4 |pages=8–29 }}</ref><ref name="RP_2004">{{cite book |author=Raj Pruthi |title=Jainism and Indian Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlqOvvJJnugC&pg=PA73 |year=2004 |publisher=Discovery |isbn=978-81-7141-796-4 |pages=72–74 }}</ref> According to [[Alain Daniélou]], the Vikramaditya in this legend refers to a [[Satavahana]] king.<ref>{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani |url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani/page/135 135]–136 }}</ref>
In the ''Kalakacharya-Kathanaka'', Vikramaditya's father [[Gardabhilla]] abducted the sister of Kalaka (a Jain [[acharya]]). At Kalaka's insistence, the Shakas invaded Ujjain and made Gardabhilla their prisoner. Vikramaditya later arrived from Pratishthana, defeated the Shakas, and began the Vikrama Samvat era to commemorate his victory.<ref name="RP_2004">{{cite book |author=Raj Pruthi |title=Jainism and Indian Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlqOvvJJnugC&pg=PA73 |year=2004 |publisher=Discovery |isbn=978-81-7141-796-4 |pages=72–74 }}</ref><ref name="VVM_1969">{{cite book |author1=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |author-link=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi |author2=Narayan Raghunath Navlekar |title=Kalidasa: Date, Life And Works |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sueiThBrP4gC&pg=PA8 |publisher=Popular |year=1969 |isbn=978-81-7154-468-4 |pages=8–29 }}</ref> According to [[Alain Daniélou]], the Vikramaditya in this legend refers to a [[Satavahana]] king.<ref>{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani |url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani/page/135 135]–136 }}</ref>


Other Jain texts contain variations of a legend about Vikramaditya's defeat at the hands of the king of Pratishthana, known as Satavahana or [[Salivanhana|Shalivahana]]. This theme is found in Jina-Prabhasuri's ''Kalpa-Pradipa'', Rajashekhara's ''Prabandha-Kosha'' and ''Salivahana-Charitra'', a [[Marathi language|Marathi]] work. According to the legend, Satavahana was the child of the [[Nāga]] (serpent) chief [[Shesha]] and a [[Brahmin]] widow who lived in the home of a potter. His name, Satavahana, was derived from ''satani'' (give) and ''vahana'' (a means of transport) because he sculpted elephants, horses and other means of transport with clay and gave them to other children. Vikramaditya perceived omens that his killer had been born. He sent his [[vetala]] to find the child; the vetala traced Satavahana in Pratishthana, and Vikramaditya led an army there. With Nāga magic, Satavahana converted his clay figures of horses, elephants and soldiers into a real army. He defeated Vikramaditya (who fled to Ujjain), began his own era, and became a Jain.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=117-118}}<ref name="VNM_1875">{{cite journal |title=Salivahana and the Salivahana Saptasati |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay |issue=XXIX |volume=X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOqyrxaeqgYC&pg=PA131 |year=1875 |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bombay |author=Rao Saheb Vishvanath Narayan Mandlik |pages=127–132}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Richard H. Davis |title=Images, Miracles, and Authority in Asian Religious Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8AoAAAAYAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3463-9 |page=78 }}</ref> There are several variations of this legend: Vikramaditya is killed by Satavahana's arrow in battle; he marries Satavahana's daughter and they have a son (known as Vikramasena or Vikrama-charitra), or Satavahana is the son of Manorama, wife of a bodyguard of the king of Pratishthana.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=117-118}}
Other Jain texts contain variations of a legend about Vikramaditya's defeat at the hands of the king of Pratishthana, known as Satavahana or [[Salivanhana|Shalivahana]]. This theme is found in Jina-Prabhasuri's ''Kalpa-Pradipa'', Rajashekhara's ''Prabandha-Kosha'' and ''Salivahana-Charitra'', a [[Marathi language|Marathi]] work. According to the legend, Satavahana was the child of the [[Nāga]] (serpent) chief [[Shesha]] and a [[Brahmin]] widow who lived in the home of a potter. His name, Satavahana, was derived from ''satani'' (give) and ''vahana'' (a means of transport) because he sculpted elephants, horses and other means of transport with clay and gave them to other children. Vikramaditya perceived omens that his killer had been born. He sent his [[vetala]] to find the child; the vetala traced Satavahana in Pratishthana, and Vikramaditya led an army there. With Nāga magic, Satavahana converted his clay figures of horses, elephants and soldiers into a real army. He defeated Vikramaditya (who fled to Ujjain), began his own era, and became a Jain.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=117-118}}<ref name="VNM_1875">{{cite journal |title=Salivahana and the Salivahana Saptasati |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay |issue=XXIX |volume=X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOqyrxaeqgYC&pg=PA131 |year=1875 |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bombay |author=Rao Saheb Vishvanath Narayan Mandlik |pages=127–132}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Richard H. Davis |title=Images, Miracles, and Authority in Asian Religious Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8AoAAAAYAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3463-9 |page=78 }}</ref> There are several variations of this legend: Vikramaditya is killed by Satavahana's arrow in battle; he marries Satavahana's daughter and they have a son (known as Vikramasena or Vikrama-charitra), or Satavahana is the son of Manorama, wife of a bodyguard of the king of Pratishthana.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=117-118}}
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However, many scholars consider ''Jyotirvidabharana'' a [[literary forgery]] written after Kalidasa's death.<ref name="MS_1974"/> According to [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V. V. Mirashi]], who dates the work to the 12th century, it could not have been composed by Kalidasa because it contains grammatical errors.<ref name="VVM_1969"/> There is no mention of such Navaratnas in earlier literature, and D. C. Sircar calls ''Jyotirvidabharana'' "absolutely worthless for historical purposes".{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=120-121}}
However, many scholars consider ''Jyotirvidabharana'' a [[literary forgery]] written after Kalidasa's death.<ref name="MS_1974"/> According to [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V. V. Mirashi]], who dates the work to the 12th century, it could not have been composed by Kalidasa because it contains grammatical errors.<ref name="VVM_1969"/> There is no mention of such Navaratnas in earlier literature, and D. C. Sircar calls ''Jyotirvidabharana'' "absolutely worthless for historical purposes".{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=120-121}}


There is no historical evidence indicating that the nine scholars were contemporary figures or proteges of the same king.<ref name="VVM_1969"/><ref name="KCJ_1972"/> Vararuchi is believed to have lived around the third or fourth century CE. Although Kalidasa's lifetime is debated, most historians place him around the fifth century; Varahamihira is known to have lived in the sixth century. Dhanavantari was the author of a medical glossary (a [[nighantu]]), but his lifetime is uncertain. Amarasimha cannot be dated with certainty either, but his lexicon uses works by Dhanavantari and Kalidasa; therefore, he cannot be dated to the first century BCE (Vikramaditya is said to have established an era in 57 BCE). Little is known about Shanku, Vetalabhatta, Kshapanaka and Ghatakarpara. Some Jain writers identify [[Siddhasena Divakara]] as Kshapanaka, but this is not accepted by historians.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=121-123}}
There is no historical evidence indicating that the nine scholars were contemporary figures or proteges of the same king.<ref name="KCJ_1972"/><ref name="VVM_1969"/> Vararuchi is believed to have lived around the third or fourth century CE. Although Kalidasa's lifetime is debated, most historians place him around the fifth century; Varahamihira is known to have lived in the sixth century. Dhanavantari was the author of a medical glossary (a [[nighantu]]), but his lifetime is uncertain. Amarasimha cannot be dated with certainty either, but his lexicon uses works by Dhanavantari and Kalidasa; therefore, he cannot be dated to the first century BCE (Vikramaditya is said to have established an era in 57 BCE). Little is known about Shanku, Vetalabhatta, Kshapanaka and Ghatakarpara. Some Jain writers identify [[Siddhasena Divakara]] as Kshapanaka, but this is not accepted by historians.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|pp=121-123}}


Kalidasa is the only figure whose association with Vikramaditya is mentioned in works earlier than ''Jyotirvidabharana''. According to [[Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet)|Rajasekhara]]'s ''Kāvyamimāṃsa'' (10th century), Bhoja's ''Sringara Prakasa'' and [[Kshemendra]]'s ''Auchitya-Vichara-Charcha'' (both 11th century), Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa as his ambassador to the Kuntala country (present-day [[Uttara Kannada]]). However, the historicity of these reports is doubtful.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=123}}
Kalidasa is the only figure whose association with Vikramaditya is mentioned in works earlier than ''Jyotirvidabharana''. According to [[Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet)|Rajasekhara]]'s ''Kāvyamimāṃsa'' (10th century), Bhoja's ''Sringara Prakasa'' and [[Kshemendra]]'s ''Auchitya-Vichara-Charcha'' (both 11th century), Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa as his ambassador to the Kuntala country (present-day [[Uttara Kannada]]). However, the historicity of these reports is doubtful.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=123}}
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== Legacy ==
== Legacy ==
{{see also|Baital Pachisi#Other media|Vetala#In popular culture}}
{{see also|Baital Pachisi#Other media|Vetala#In popular culture}}
Several Vikramaditya stories appear in the ''[[Amar Chitra Katha]]'' comic-book series.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sharada Nāyak |author2=Mala Singh |title=Children's Books on India: An Annotated Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UcKAQAAIAAJ |year=1973 |publisher=Educational Resources Center |page=78 }}</ref> Indian films on king Vikramaditya include G. V. Sane's ''Vikram Satvapariksha'' (1921), Nanubhai B. Desai's ''Vikram Charitra'' (1924), Harshadrai Sakerlal Mehta's ''Vikram Charitra'' (1933), ''Vikram Shashikala'' (1949), [[Vijay Bhatt]]'s ''[[Vikramaditya (film)|Vikramaditya]]'' (1945), [[Kemparaj Urs]]' ''[[Raja Vikrama]]'' (1950), Dhirubhai Desai's ''Raja Vikram'' (1957), Chandrasekhara Rao Jampana's ''[[Bhatti Vikramarka]]'' (1960), [[T. R. Raghunath]]'s ''[[Vikramaadhithan]]'' (1962), ''Chakravarty Vikramaditya'' (1964), [[S. N. Tripathi]]'s ''Maharaja Vikram'' (1965), G. Suryam's ''[[Vikramarka Vijayam]]'' (1971), [[Shantilal Soni]]'s ''[[Vikram Vetal]]'' (1986), [[Krishna (Telugu actor)|Krishna]]'s [[Simhasanam]] and [[Singhasan]] (1986), [[Ravi Raja Pinisetty]]'s ''[[Raja Vikramarka]]'' (1990), [[Rajiv Chilaka|Rajiv Chilakalapudi]]'s ''Vikram Betal'' (2004).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7UEAQAAIAAJ|title=Screen World Publication's 75 Glorious Years of Indian Cinema: Complete Filmography of All Films (silent & Hindi) Produced Between 1913-1988|publisher=Screen World Publication|year=1988}}</ref>
Several Vikramaditya stories appear in the ''[[Amar Chitra Katha]]'' comic-book series.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sharada Nāyak |author2=Mala Singh |title=Children's Books on India: An Annotated Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UcKAQAAIAAJ |year=1973 |publisher=Educational Resources Center |page=78 }}</ref> Indian films on king Vikramaditya include G. V. Sane's ''Vikram Satvapariksha'' (1921), Nanubhai B. Desai's ''Vikram Charitra'' (1924), Harshadrai Sakerlal Mehta's ''Vikram Charitra'' (1933), ''Vikram Shashikala'' (1949), [[Vijay Bhatt]]'s ''[[Vikramaditya (film)|Vikramaditya]]'' (1945), [[Kemparaj Urs]]' ''[[Raja Vikrama]]'' (1950), Dhirubhai Desai's ''Raja Vikram'' (1957), Chandrasekhara Rao Jampana's ''[[Bhatti Vikramarka]]'' (1960), [[T. R. Raghunath]]'s ''[[Vikramaadhithan]]'' (1962), ''Chakravarty Vikramaditya'' (1964), [[S. N. Tripathi]]'s ''Maharaja Vikram'' (1965), G. Suryam's ''[[Vikramarka Vijayam]]'' (1971), [[Shantilal Soni]]'s ''[[Vikram Vetal]]'' (1986), [[Krishna (Telugu actor)|Krishna]]'s [[Simhasanam]] and [[Singhasan]] (1986), [[Ravi Raja Pinisetty]]'s ''[[Raja Vikramarka]]'' (1990), [[Rajiv Chilaka]]lapudi's ''Vikram Betal'' (2004).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7UEAQAAIAAJ|title=Screen World Publication's 75 Glorious Years of Indian Cinema: Complete Filmography of All Films (silent & Hindi) Produced Between 1913-1988|publisher=Screen World Publication|year=1988}}</ref>


''[[Vikram Aur Betaal]]'', which appeared on [[Doordarshan]] in the 1980s, was based on ''Baital Pachisi''. ''Kahaniya Vikram aur Betaal Ki'', a remake of the Doordarshan television show, aired on [[Colors TV]] in 2009. An adaptation of ''Singhasan Battisi'' was aired on [[Doordarshan]] during the late 1980s. In 2014, [[Sinhasan Battisi (TV series)|another adaptation]] was aired on [[Sony Pal]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/fantasy-world/ |title=Fantasy World |newspaper=Indian Express |author=Priyanka Bhadani |date=12 September 2014 }}</ref> Currently a series [[Vikram Betaal Ki Rahasya Gatha]] is running on [[&TV]] where popular actor [[Aham Sharma]] is playing the role of Vikramaditya.
''[[Vikram Aur Betaal]]'', which appeared on [[Doordarshan]] in the 1980s, was based on ''Baital Pachisi''. ''Kahaniya Vikram aur Betaal Ki'', a remake of the Doordarshan television show, aired on [[Colors TV]] in 2009. An adaptation of ''Singhasan Battisi'' was aired on [[Doordarshan]] during the late 1980s. In 2014, [[Sinhasan Battisi (TV series)|another adaptation]] was aired on [[Sony Pal]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/fantasy-world/ |title=Fantasy World |newspaper=Indian Express |author=Priyanka Bhadani |date=12 September 2014 }}</ref> Currently a series [[Vikram Betaal Ki Rahasya Gatha]] is running on [[&TV]] where popular actor [[Aham Sharma]] is playing the role of Vikramaditya.
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Since there was a difference of over 130 years between the Vikramaditya era and the Shaka era, Al-Biruni concluded that their founders were two kings with the same name. The Vikramaditya era named after the first, and the Shaka era was associated with the defeat of the Shaka ruler by the second Vikramaditya.<ref name="ECS_2013"/>
Since there was a difference of over 130 years between the Vikramaditya era and the Shaka era, Al-Biruni concluded that their founders were two kings with the same name. The Vikramaditya era named after the first, and the Shaka era was associated with the defeat of the Shaka ruler by the second Vikramaditya.<ref name="ECS_2013"/>


According to several later legends—particularly Jain legends—Vikramaditya established the 57&nbsp;BCE era after he defeated the Shakas and was defeated in turn by [[Shalivahana]], who established the 78 CE era. Both legends are historically inaccurate. There is a difference of 135 years between the beginning of the two eras, and Vikramaditya and Shalivahana could not have lived simultaneously. The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the ninth century. Earlier sources call this era by several names, including "Kṛṭa", "the era of the [[Malavas|Malava tribe]]", or "Samvat" ("Era").<ref name="AA_1989">{{cite book |author=Ashvini Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA174 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 |pages=174–175 }}</ref><ref name="MS_1974"/> Scholars such as [[D. C. Sircar]] and [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] believe that the name of the era changed to Vikrama Samvat during the reign of [[Chandragupta II]], who had adopted the title of "Vikramaditya" ([[#Chandragupta II|see below]]). Alternative theories also exist, and [[Rudolf Hoernlé]] believed that it was [[Yashodharman]] who renamed the era Vikrama Samvat.<ref name="MS_1974"/> The earliest mention of the Shaka era as the Shalivahana era occurs in the 13th century, and may have been an attempt to remove the era's foreign association.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=112}}
According to several later legends—particularly Jain legends—Vikramaditya established the 57&nbsp;BCE era after he defeated the Shakas and was defeated in turn by [[Shalivahana]], who established the 78 CE era. Both legends are historically inaccurate. There is a difference of 135 years between the beginning of the two eras, and Vikramaditya and Shalivahana could not have lived simultaneously. The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the ninth century. Earlier sources call this era by several names, including "Kṛṭa", "the era of the [[Malavas|Malava tribe]]", or "Samvat" ("Era").<ref name="MS_1974"/><ref name="AA_1989">{{cite book |author=Ashvini Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA174 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 |pages=174–175 }}</ref> Scholars such as [[D. C. Sircar]] and [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] believe that the name of the era changed to Vikrama Samvat during the reign of [[Chandragupta II]], who had adopted the title of "Vikramaditya" ([[#Chandragupta II|see below]]). Alternative theories also exist, and [[Rudolf Hoernlé]] believed that it was [[Yashodharman]] who renamed the era Vikrama Samvat.<ref name="MS_1974"/> The earliest mention of the Shaka era as the Shalivahana era occurs in the 13th century, and may have been an attempt to remove the era's foreign association.{{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1969|p=112}}


== References ==
== References ==
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