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{{ | {{Short description|India's first successful nuclear weapons test (1974)}} | ||
{{for|the religious figure known as the Laughing Buddha|Budai}} | {{for|the religious figure known as the Laughing Buddha|Budai}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=January | {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}} | ||
{{use Indian English|date=May | {{use Indian English|date=May 2022}} | ||
{{Infobox nuclear weapons test | {{Infobox nuclear weapons test | ||
|name =Pokhran-I<br /><small>Smiling Buddha</small> | |name =Pokhran-I<br /><small>Smiling Buddha</small> | ||
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|test_type =[[Underground nuclear weapons testing|Underground shaft]] | |test_type =[[Underground nuclear weapons testing|Underground shaft]] | ||
|device_type =[[Nuclear weapon#Fission weapons|Fission]] | |device_type =[[Nuclear weapon#Fission weapons|Fission]] | ||
|max_yield ={{convert| | |max_yield ={{convert|8-10|ktonTNT|lk=in}} | ||
|next_test =[[Pokhran-II]] | |next_test =[[Pokhran-II]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{Indira Gandhi series}} | {{Indira Gandhi series}} | ||
'''Operation Smiling Buddha'''<ref group = "lower-alpha">This test has many code names. Civilian scientists called it "Operation Smiling Buddha" and the [[Indian Army]] referred to it as ''Operation Happy Krishna''. According to [[Military Intelligence Corps (United States Army)|United States Military Intelligence]], ''Operation Happy Krishna'' was the code name for the [[Indian Army]]'s construction of the underground site in which the tests were conducted. The [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]] designated the test as ''Pokhran-I''.</ref> ([[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]] designation: '''Pokhran-I''') was the assigned code name of [[India]]'s first successful [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]] [[Nuclear weapons testing|test]] on 18 May 1974.<ref name="Nuclear files archives">{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_page.php?year=1974|title=1974 Nuclear files|last=FIles|work=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation|publisher=Nuclear files archives|access-date=14 January | '''Operation Smiling Buddha'''<ref group = "lower-alpha">This test has many code names. Civilian scientists called it "Operation Smiling Buddha" and the [[Indian Army]] referred to it as ''Operation Happy Krishna''. According to [[Military Intelligence Corps (United States Army)|United States Military Intelligence]], ''Operation Happy Krishna'' was the code name for the [[Indian Army]]'s construction of the underground site in which the tests were conducted. The [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]] designated the test as ''Pokhran-I''.</ref> ([[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]] designation: '''Pokhran-I''') was the assigned code name of [[India]]'s first successful [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]] [[Nuclear weapons testing|test]] on 18 May 1974.<ref name="Nuclear files archives">{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_page.php?year=1974|title=1974 Nuclear files|last=FIles|work=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation|publisher=Nuclear files archives|access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref> The bomb was detonated on the [[:Category:Indian Army bases|army base]] [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]] (PTR), in [[Rajasthan]], by the [[Indian Army]] under the supervision of several key [[:Category:Indian generals|Indian generals]].<ref name= "Smiling Buddha">{{cite web| url= http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html| work = India's Nuclear Weapons Program | title = Smiling Buddha, 1974|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive}}</ref> | ||
''Pokhran-I'' was also the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref name="Nuclear Suppliers Group">{{cite web|last=NSG|title=History of the NSG|url=http://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/Leng/01-history.htm|work=Nuclear Suppliers Group|publisher=Nuclear Suppliers Group|access-date=14 January | ''Pokhran-I'' was also the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref name="Nuclear Suppliers Group">{{cite web|last=NSG|title=History of the NSG|url=http://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/Leng/01-history.htm|work=Nuclear Suppliers Group|publisher=Nuclear Suppliers Group|access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref> Officially, the Indian [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]] (MEA) characterised this test as a "[[peaceful nuclear explosion]]". [[Indira Gandhi]], then the [[Prime Minister of India]], saw a massive rise in popularity following this test. After this, a series of nuclear tests were carried out in 1998 under the name [[Pokhran-II]]. | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
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===Early origins, 1944–1960s=== | ===Early origins, 1944–1960s=== | ||
India started its own nuclear programme in 1944 when [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha]] founded the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]].<ref name= "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Physicist [[Raja Ramanna]] played an essential role in nuclear weapons technology research; he expanded and supervised scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the [[nuclear testing|test]].<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">{{cite web|last= Sublette|first= Carey|title= Origins of Indian nuclear program | url = http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html| work = Nuclear weapon Archive | access-date = 13 November | India started its own nuclear programme in 1944 when [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha]] founded the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]].<ref name= "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Physicist [[Raja Ramanna]] played an essential role in nuclear weapons technology research; he expanded and supervised scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the [[nuclear testing|test]].<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">{{cite web|last= Sublette|first= Carey|title= Origins of Indian nuclear program | url = http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html| work = Nuclear weapon Archive | access-date = 13 November 2022}}</ref> | ||
After [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]] from the [[British Empire]], [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] authorised the development of a [[India and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear programme]] headed by [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]]. The ''Atomic Energy Act'' of 1948 focused on peaceful development.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> India was heavily involved in the development of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], but ultimately opted not to sign it.<ref name=prolifimpact>{{cite book|last=Perkovich|first=George|title=India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation|year=2002|publisher=University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-23210-5}}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2021}} | After [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]] from the [[British Empire]], [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] authorised the development of a [[India and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear programme]] headed by [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]]. The ''Atomic Energy Act'' of 1948 focused on peaceful development.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> India was heavily involved in the development of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], but ultimately opted not to sign it.<ref name=prolifimpact>{{cite book|last=Perkovich|first=George|title=India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation|year=2002|publisher=University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-23210-5}}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2021}} | ||
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The nuclear programme continued to mature, and by 1960, Nehru made the critical decision to move the programme into production.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> At about the same time, Nehru held discussions with the American firm [[Westinghouse Electric]] to construct India's first [[Tarapur Atomic Power Station|nuclear power plant]] in [[Tarapur, Maharashtra]].<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> [[Kenneth Nichols]], a [[United States Army|US Army]] engineer, recalls from a meeting with Nehru, "it was that time when Nehru turned to Bhabha and asked Bhabha for the timeline of the development of a nuclear weapon".{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Bhabha estimated he would need about a year to accomplish the task.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> | The nuclear programme continued to mature, and by 1960, Nehru made the critical decision to move the programme into production.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> At about the same time, Nehru held discussions with the American firm [[Westinghouse Electric]] to construct India's first [[Tarapur Atomic Power Station|nuclear power plant]] in [[Tarapur, Maharashtra]].<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> [[Kenneth Nichols]], a [[United States Army|US Army]] engineer, recalls from a meeting with Nehru, "it was that time when Nehru turned to Bhabha and asked Bhabha for the timeline of the development of a nuclear weapon".{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Bhabha estimated he would need about a year to accomplish the task.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> | ||
By 1962, the nuclear programme was still developing, but things had slowed down. Nehru was distracted by the [[Sino-Indian War]], during which India lost territory to China.<ref name= "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> Nehru turned to the Soviet Union for help, but the Soviet Union was preoccupied with the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]].<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> The [[Soviet Politburo]] turned down Nehru's request for arms and continued backing the Chinese.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> India concluded that the Soviet Union was an unreliable ally, and this conclusion strengthened India's determination to create a nuclear deterrent.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Design work began in 1965 under Bhabha and proceeded under [[Raja Ramanna]] who took over the programme after | By 1962, the nuclear programme was still developing, but things had slowed down. Nehru was distracted by the [[Sino-Indian War]], during which India lost territory to China.<ref name= "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> Nehru turned to the Soviet Union for help, but the Soviet Union was preoccupied with the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]].<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> The [[Soviet Politburo]] turned down Nehru's request for arms and continued backing the Chinese.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> India concluded that the Soviet Union was an unreliable ally, and this conclusion strengthened India's determination to create a nuclear deterrent.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org" /> Design work began in 1965 under Bhabha and proceeded under [[Raja Ramanna]] who took over the programme after Bhabha's death.<ref name = "http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> | ||
===Weapons development, 1960–1972=== | ===Weapons development, 1960–1972=== | ||
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Bhabha was now aggressively lobbying for nuclear weapons and made several speeches on Indian radio.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program">{{cite web|title=On to Weapons Development, 1960–67|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaWDevelop.html|work=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|publisher=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|access-date=14 January 2013|date=30 March 2001}}</ref> In 1964, Bhabha told the Indian public via radio that "such nuclear weapons are remarkably cheap" and supported his arguments by referring to the economic cost of the American nuclear testing programme ''[[Project Plowshare]]''.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> Bhabha stated to the politicians that a 10 kt device would cost around $350,000, and $600,000 for a 2 mt.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> From this, he estimated that "a stockpile" of around 50 atomic bombs would cost under $21 million and a stockpile of 50 two-megaton hydrogen bombs would cost around $31.5 million."<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> Bhabha did not realise, however, that the U.S. ''Plowshare'' cost-figures were produced by a vast industrial complex costing tens of billions of dollars, which had already manufactured nuclear weapons numbering in the tens of thousands.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> The delivery systems for nuclear weapons typically cost several times as much as the weapons themselves.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> | Bhabha was now aggressively lobbying for nuclear weapons and made several speeches on Indian radio.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program">{{cite web|title=On to Weapons Development, 1960–67|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaWDevelop.html|work=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|publisher=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|access-date=14 January 2013|date=30 March 2001}}</ref> In 1964, Bhabha told the Indian public via radio that "such nuclear weapons are remarkably cheap" and supported his arguments by referring to the economic cost of the American nuclear testing programme ''[[Project Plowshare]]''.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> Bhabha stated to the politicians that a 10 kt device would cost around $350,000, and $600,000 for a 2 mt.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> From this, he estimated that "a stockpile" of around 50 atomic bombs would cost under $21 million and a stockpile of 50 two-megaton hydrogen bombs would cost around $31.5 million."<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> Bhabha did not realise, however, that the U.S. ''Plowshare'' cost-figures were produced by a vast industrial complex costing tens of billions of dollars, which had already manufactured nuclear weapons numbering in the tens of thousands.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> The delivery systems for nuclear weapons typically cost several times as much as the weapons themselves.<ref name="India's Nuclear Weapons Program"/> | ||
The nuclear programme was partially slowed when [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] became the prime minister.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi"/> Shastri faced the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]. He appointed physicist [[Vikram Sarabhai]] as the head of the nuclear programme but, because of his non-violent [[Gandhian]] beliefs, Sarabhai directed it toward peaceful purposes rather than military development.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi">{{cite web|last=Kanavi|first=Shivanand|title=How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm|publisher=Shivanand Kanavi|access-date=13 November | The nuclear programme was partially slowed when [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] became the prime minister.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi"/> Shastri faced the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]. He appointed physicist [[Vikram Sarabhai]] as the head of the nuclear programme but, because of his non-violent [[Gandhian]] beliefs, Sarabhai directed it toward peaceful purposes rather than military development.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi">{{cite web|last=Kanavi|first=Shivanand|title=How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm|publisher=Shivanand Kanavi|access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref> | ||
In 1967, [[Indira Gandhi]] became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed with renewed vigour.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> [[Homi Sethna]], a chemical engineer, played a significant role in the development of weapon-grade plutonium, while Ramanna designed and manufactured the entire nuclear device.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi"/> India's first nuclear bomb project did not employ more than 75 scientists because of its sensitivity.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi"/> The weapons programme was now directed towards the production of plutonium rather than uranium.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974">{{cite web|title=India's First Bomb, 1967–74|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaFirstBomb.html|publisher=India's First Bomb, 1967–74|access-date=14 January | In 1967, [[Indira Gandhi]] became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed with renewed vigour.<ref name="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org"/> [[Homi Sethna]], a chemical engineer, played a significant role in the development of weapon-grade plutonium, while Ramanna designed and manufactured the entire nuclear device.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi"/> India's first nuclear bomb project did not employ more than 75 scientists because of its sensitivity.<ref name="Shivanand Kanavi"/> The weapons programme was now directed towards the production of plutonium rather than uranium.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974">{{cite web|title=India's First Bomb, 1967–74|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaFirstBomb.html|publisher=India's First Bomb, 1967–74|access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref> | ||
In 1968–69, [[P. K. Iyengar]] visited the [[Soviet Union]] with three colleagues and toured the nuclear research facilities at [[Dubna]], Russia.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> During his visit, Iyengar was impressed by the plutonium-fueled pulsed fast reactor.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> Upon his return to India, Iyengar set about developing plutonium reactors approved by the Indian political leadership in January 1969.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> The secret plutonium plant was known as ''Purnima'',<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.nti.org/facilities/861/|title = NTI.org and [1] Andrew Koch, "Selected Indian Nuclear Facilities," Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS), 1999; http://cns.miis.edu; [2] Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), www.barc.ernet.in; [3] George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: the impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 149–150; [4] 2000 World Nuclear Industry Handbook (Wilmington, UK: Nuclear Engineering International, 2000), p. 198.|date = 1 Sep 2003|access-date = 8 Sep 2014|website = NTI Building a Safer World|publisher = NTI|last = N/A|first = N/A}}</ref> and construction began in March 1969. The plant's leadership included [[P. K. Iyengar|Iyengar]], [[Raja Ramanna|Ramanna]], [[Homi Sethna]], and [[Vikram Sarabhai|Sarabhai]]. Sarabhai's presence indicates that, with or without formal approval, the work on nuclear weapons at Trombay had already commenced.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> | In 1968–69, [[P. K. Iyengar]] visited the [[Soviet Union]] with three colleagues and toured the nuclear research facilities at [[Dubna]], Russia.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> During his visit, Iyengar was impressed by the plutonium-fueled pulsed fast reactor.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> Upon his return to India, Iyengar set about developing plutonium reactors approved by the Indian political leadership in January 1969.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> The secret plutonium plant was known as ''Purnima'',<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.nti.org/facilities/861/|title = NTI.org and [1] Andrew Koch, "Selected Indian Nuclear Facilities," Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS), 1999; http://cns.miis.edu; [2] Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), www.barc.ernet.in; [3] George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: the impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 149–150; [4] 2000 World Nuclear Industry Handbook (Wilmington, UK: Nuclear Engineering International, 2000), p. 198.|date = 1 Sep 2003|access-date = 8 Sep 2014|website = NTI Building a Safer World|publisher = NTI|last = N/A|first = N/A}}</ref> and construction began in March 1969. The plant's leadership included [[P. K. Iyengar|Iyengar]], [[Raja Ramanna|Ramanna]], [[Homi Sethna]], and [[Vikram Sarabhai|Sarabhai]]. Sarabhai's presence indicates that, with or without formal approval, the work on nuclear weapons at Trombay had already commenced.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> | ||
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===Secrecy and test preparations, 1972–1974=== | ===Secrecy and test preparations, 1972–1974=== | ||
In December 1971, during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistani War]], the U.S. government sent a [[carrier battle group]] led by the {{ship|USS|Enterprise|CVN-65}} into the [[Bay of Bengal]] in an attempt to intimidate India. The Soviet Union responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force. The Soviet response demonstrated the [[Deterrence theory|deterrent value]] and significance of nuclear weapons and [[ballistic missile]] submarines to Indira Gandhi.<ref name=idr-arihant>{{cite news|url=http://www.indiandefencereview.com/2010/02/arihant-the-annihilator.html|title=Arihant: the annihilator|publisher=Indian Defence Review|date=25 October 2010|access-date=8 January | In December 1971, during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistani War]], the U.S. government sent a [[carrier battle group]] led by the {{ship|USS|Enterprise|CVN-65}} into the [[Bay of Bengal]] in an attempt to intimidate India. The Soviet Union responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force. The Soviet response demonstrated the [[Deterrence theory|deterrent value]] and significance of nuclear weapons and [[ballistic missile]] submarines to Indira Gandhi.<ref name=idr-arihant>{{cite news|url=http://www.indiandefencereview.com/2010/02/arihant-the-annihilator.html|title=Arihant: the annihilator|publisher=Indian Defence Review|date=25 October 2010|access-date=8 January 2022}}</ref> India gained the military and political initiative over Pakistan after acceding to the [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|treaty]] that [[Bangladesh Liberation War|divided Pakistan and led to the creation of Bangladesh]].<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> | ||
On 7 September 1972, near the peak of her post-war popularity, Indira Gandhi authorised the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] (BARC) to manufacture a nuclear device and prepare it for a test.<ref name=prolifimpact />{{page needed|date=May 2021}} Although the [[Indian Army]] was not fully involved in the nuclear testing, the army's highest command was kept fully informed of the test preparations.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> The preparations were carried out under the watchful eyes of the Indian political leadership, with civilian scientists assisting the Indian Army.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/> | On 7 September 1972, near the peak of her post-war popularity, Indira Gandhi authorised the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] (BARC) to manufacture a nuclear device and prepare it for a test.<ref name=prolifimpact />{{page needed|date=May 2021}} Although the [[Indian Army]] was not fully involved in the nuclear testing, the army's highest command was kept fully informed of the test preparations.<ref name="India's First Bomb, 1967-1974"/> The preparations were carried out under the watchful eyes of the Indian political leadership, with civilian scientists assisting the Indian Army.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/> | ||
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===Domestic reaction=== | ===Domestic reaction=== | ||
Indian [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] Indira Gandhi had already gained much popularity after her successful [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|military campaign]] against Pakistan in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]].<ref name="Reaction and Long Pause">{{cite web|title=Reaction and Long Pause|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaPause.html|publisher=Reaction and Long Pause|access-date=15 January | Indian [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] Indira Gandhi had already gained much popularity after her successful [[Instrument of Surrender (1971)|military campaign]] against Pakistan in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]].<ref name="Reaction and Long Pause">{{cite web|title=Reaction and Long Pause|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaPause.html|publisher=Reaction and Long Pause|access-date=15 January 2022}}</ref> The test caused an immediate revival of Indira Gandhi's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its heights after the 1971 war. The overall popularity and image of the [[Indian Congress party|Congress Party]] was enhanced and the Congress Party was well received in the [[Indian Parliament]].<ref name="Reaction and Long Pause"/> In 1975, [[Homi Sethna]], a chemical engineer and the chairman of the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India|Indian Atomic Energy Commission]] (AECI), [[Raja Ramanna]] of BARC, and [[Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri|Basanti Nagchaudhuri]] of DRDO, all were honoured with the ''[[Padma Vibhushan]]'', India's second highest civilian award.<ref name="Reaction and Long Pause"/> Five other project members received the ''[[Padma Shri]]'', India's fourth highest civilian award.<ref name="Reaction and Long Pause"/> India consistently maintained that this was a peaceful nuclear bomb test and that it had no intentions of militarising its nuclear programme. However, according to independent monitors, this test was part of an accelerated [[Indian nuclear programme]].<ref name="Nuclear files archives"/> | ||
In 1997 Raja Ramanna, speaking to the ''[[Press Trust of India]]'', maintained: | In 1997 Raja Ramanna, speaking to the ''[[Press Trust of India]]'', maintained: | ||
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{{Main|Nuclear Suppliers Group}} | {{Main|Nuclear Suppliers Group}} | ||
While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. The [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/Leng/01-history.htm |title = History |publisher=Nuclear Suppliers Group |access-date= 4 December | While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. The [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/Leng/01-history.htm |title = History |publisher=Nuclear Suppliers Group |access-date= 4 December 2022}}</ref> The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] safeguards for any new nuclear export deals,<ref>{{cite web | title = Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) | url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf | publisher = Nuclear Threat Initiative | access-date = 4 December 2011 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030503120417/http://nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf | archive-date = 3 May 2003 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India, but in 2008 it waived this restriction on nuclear trade with India as part of the [[Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement]].<ref>{{cite news | title=Nuclear Deal: A chronology of key developments|url= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/nuclear-deal-a-chronology-of-key-developmen/368607/ |access-date = 5 September 2011| newspaper = The Indian Express | date = 2 October 2022}}</ref> | ||
====Pakistan==== | ====Pakistan==== | ||
Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", and cancelled talks scheduled for 10 June on normalisation of relations.<ref name = prolifimpact />{{page needed|date=May 2021}} Pakistan's [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] vowed in June 1974 that he would never succumb to "nuclear blackmail" or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]]".<ref>{{Citation | publisher = Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Television (PTV) | title = Prime minister Secretariat Press Release | quote = India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan... | first = Zulfikar Ali | last = Bhutto | date = 18 May 1974 | url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110918040826/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html | archive-date = 18 September 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The chairman of the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]], [[Munir Ahmed Khan]], said that the test would force Pakistan to test [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|its own nuclear bomb]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} Pakistan's leading [[Nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]], [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], stated in 2011 that he believed the test "pushed [Pakistan] further into the nuclear arena".<ref>{{Cite web | last = Hoodbhoy | first =Pervez Amerali, PhD (Nuclear Physics) | author-link =Pervaiz Hoodbhoy | title =Pakistan's nuclear bayonet | publisher = [[The Herald (Pakistan)|The Herald]] | date =23 January 2011 | url = http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html | access-date =9 September | Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", and cancelled talks scheduled for 10 June on normalisation of relations.<ref name = prolifimpact />{{page needed|date=May 2021}} Pakistan's [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] vowed in June 1974 that he would never succumb to "nuclear blackmail" or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]]".<ref>{{Citation | publisher = Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Television (PTV) | title = Prime minister Secretariat Press Release | quote = India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan... | first = Zulfikar Ali | last = Bhutto | date = 18 May 1974 | url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110918040826/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html | archive-date = 18 September 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The chairman of the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]], [[Munir Ahmed Khan]], said that the test would force Pakistan to test [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|its own nuclear bomb]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} Pakistan's leading [[Nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]], [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], stated in 2011 that he believed the test "pushed [Pakistan] further into the nuclear arena".<ref>{{Cite web | last = Hoodbhoy | first =Pervez Amerali, PhD (Nuclear Physics) | author-link =Pervaiz Hoodbhoy | title =Pakistan's nuclear bayonet | publisher = [[The Herald (Pakistan)|The Herald]] | date =23 January 2011 | url = http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html | access-date =9 September 2022}}</ref> | ||
====Canada and United States==== | ====Canada and United States==== | ||