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|[[Aitareya Brahmana]]|Rig Veda, 6.5.27<ref>Mary-Ann Milford-Lutzker, Intersections: Urban and Village Art in India, Art Journal, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 22-30</ref><ref>Martin Haug (1922), Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Allahabad, University of Toronto Archives, Sixth Book, Chapter 5, pages 288-300</ref>}} | |[[Aitareya Brahmana]]|Rig Veda, 6.5.27<ref>Mary-Ann Milford-Lutzker, Intersections: Urban and Village Art in India, Art Journal, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 22-30</ref><ref>Martin Haug (1922), Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Allahabad, University of Toronto Archives, Sixth Book, Chapter 5, pages 288-300</ref>}} | ||
The meaning of Shilpa, according to Stella Kramrisch, is complex. She writes that it consists of "art, skill, craft, labor, ingenuity, rite and ritual, form and creation."<ref name=sk/><ref name=skramrisch1958>Stella Kramrisch (1958), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/538558 Traditions of the Indian Craftsman], The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230</ref> The range of crafts encompassed by the term Shilpa extends to every aspect of culture, includes sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, the musician, the arts of love, and others. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the arts is unlimited, they deploy sixty four ''kala'' (कला, techniques)<ref>Vatsyayana, Kamasutra I.3, Jayamangala</ref> and thirty two | The meaning of Shilpa, according to Stella Kramrisch, is complex. She writes that it consists of "art, skill, craft, labor, ingenuity, rite and ritual, form and creation."<ref name=sk/><ref name=skramrisch1958>Stella Kramrisch (1958), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/538558 Traditions of the Indian Craftsman], The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230</ref> The range of crafts encompassed by the term Shilpa extends to every aspect of culture, includes sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, the musician, the arts of love, and others. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the arts is unlimited, they deploy sixty four ''kala'' (कला, techniques)<ref>Vatsyayana, Kamasutra I.3, Jayamangala</ref> and thirty two {{transl|hi|vidyas}} (विद्या, fields of knowledge).<ref name=sk/><ref>Vatsyayana, Kamasutra, Book I, Chapter 3</ref> Shilpa is discussed in Agamas, Puranas and Vastu Shastra where it is linked to the mythology of [[Vishvakarman|Vishvakarma]]. | ||
==In painting== | ==In painting== | ||
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==In carpentry== | ==In carpentry== | ||
The first chapter of Shilpa Shastra Manasara discusses the measurement principles for carpentry.<ref>[[Ram Raz]], Henry Harkness (1834), {{Google books|0ahCAAAAcAAJ|Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus}}, pages 3-6, (footnote on page 4)</ref> The 9th-century version of Mayamata text of Tamil Nadu and 16th | The first chapter of Shilpa Shastra Manasara discusses the measurement principles for carpentry.<ref>[[Ram Raz]], Henry Harkness (1834), {{Google books|0ahCAAAAcAAJ|Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus}}, pages 3-6, (footnote on page 4)</ref> The 9th-century version of Mayamata text of Tamil Nadu and 16th century version of Shilparatna of Odisha describe {{transl|hi|takshaka}} and {{transl|hi|vardhaki}} as wood Shilpins; takshaka possesses the knowledge of wood types and practices the art of cutting wood, while {{transl|hi|vardhaki}} possesses the knowledge of wood forms and practices the art of carpentry.<ref>Naoki Ideno (2007), The Artisans' Duty and Ability in Shilpa-Shastras, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 55(2), pages 788-784</ref> One of the earliest mentions of carpentry arts is in Book 9, Chapter 112 of Rig Veda.<ref>R Vyas (1992), Nature of Indian Culture, South Asia Books, {{ISBN|978-8170223887}}, pages 20-21</ref> Carpentry was also an essential Shilpa Shastra during the construction of a [[Hindu temple]].<ref>C. Purdon Clarke (1883), Some notes upon the Domestic Architecture of India, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41334942 The Journal of the Society of Arts], Vol. 31, No. 1594 (JUNE 8), pages 731-756</ref> | ||
==In metallurgy== | ==In metallurgy== | ||
[[File:Delhi Iron pillar.JPG|thumb|The 4th-century CE 99.7% pure Iron pillar in Delhi reflecting the metal-related shilpa in ancient India.<ref name=rbpillar/> The pillar was moved and reinstalled near Qutb complex about 1000 years later. The upper part of the pillar remains without any rust damage; the lower, reinstalled in-ground part shows signs of rust.]] | [[File:Delhi Iron pillar.JPG|thumb|The 4th-century CE 99.7% pure Iron pillar in Delhi reflecting the metal-related shilpa in ancient India.<ref name=rbpillar/> The pillar was moved and reinstalled near Qutb complex about 1000 years later. The upper part of the pillar remains without any rust damage; the lower, reinstalled in-ground part shows signs of rust.]] | ||
The Vedas, in particular Atharva veda and Sthapatya veda, describe many kinds of arts and crafts in their discussion of Shilpa Shastra and Yantra Sarvasva. The Rig veda, states Ravi,<ref name=bravi>B. Ravi (2003), Investment casting development - Ancient and Modern Approaches, National Conference on Investment Casting Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, IIT Bombay</ref> mentions equipment used in casting, such as dhamatri ([[Reverberatory furnace|cupola]]), gharma aranmaya ([[crucible]]) and bhastri ([[Bellows|blower]]). These discussions are in the context of making idols, and describe rules to achieve best talmana (proportions), mudra (stance) and bhava (expression).<ref name=bravi/><ref name="isabellanardi"/> | The Vedas, in particular Atharva veda and Sthapatya veda, describe many kinds of arts and crafts in their discussion of Shilpa Shastra and Yantra Sarvasva. The Rig veda, states Ravi,<ref name=bravi>B. Ravi (2003), Investment casting development - Ancient and Modern Approaches, National Conference on Investment Casting Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, IIT Bombay</ref> mentions equipment used in casting, such as dhamatri ([[Reverberatory furnace|cupola]]), {{transl|hi|gharma aranmaya}} ([[crucible]]) and {{transl|hi|bhastri}} ([[Bellows|blower]]). These discussions are in the context of making idols, and describe rules to achieve best {{transl|hi|talmana}} (proportions), {{transl|hi|mudra}} (stance) and {{transl|hi|bhava}} (expression).<ref name=bravi/><ref name="isabellanardi"/> | ||
Sanskrit texts such as Shilparatna<ref>Hans Losch, Sources of Sri Kumara's Shilparatna, Anal. Bhandarkar Orient. Res., Vol. 31, pages 152-164</ref> and Manasara<ref>While Manasara, sometimes spelled Manava sara, has extensive discussions on architecture, guidelines for ancient village and town planning, it has section on metal art works as well; See: Koenigsberger (1952), New towns in India, Town Planning Review, 23(2): 95-99; Acharya (1933), Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture, Mansara Series 1-4, Oxford University Press - A version was reprinted in 1995 as {{ISBN|978-8186142721}}</ref> describe in detail the process and principles for art work with metals, particularly for alloys such as [[panchadhatu]] (five metals – zinc, tin, copper, silver and gold) and [[ashtadhatu]] (eight metal alloys – which adds iron, lead and mercury to panchadhatu).<ref name=bravi/> Madhuchista Vidhana (cire perdue or lost wax) casting process is the most discussed process in these ancient shilpa shastras with metals.<ref name=bravi/><ref>Pupul Jayakar(1984), Metal Casting from Kerala, India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 4, DESIGN: TRADITION AND CHANGE (December 1984), pp. 63-68</ref> Kirk suggests that these Shastras diffused from India to other ancient cultures in Asia.<ref>Kirk, W. (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1796941 The role of India in the diffusion of early cultures], Geographical Journal, Vol. 141, No. 1, 19-34</ref> | Sanskrit texts such as Shilparatna<ref>Hans Losch, Sources of Sri Kumara's Shilparatna, Anal. Bhandarkar Orient. Res., Vol. 31, pages 152-164</ref> and Manasara<ref>While Manasara, sometimes spelled Manava sara, has extensive discussions on architecture, guidelines for ancient village and town planning, it has section on metal art works as well; See: Koenigsberger (1952), New towns in India, Town Planning Review, 23(2): 95-99; Acharya (1933), Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture, Mansara Series 1-4, Oxford University Press - A version was reprinted in 1995 as {{ISBN|978-8186142721}}</ref> describe in detail the process and principles for art work with metals, particularly for alloys such as [[panchadhatu]] (five metals – zinc, tin, copper, silver and gold) and [[ashtadhatu]] (eight metal alloys – which adds iron, lead and mercury to panchadhatu).<ref name=bravi/> Madhuchista Vidhana (cire perdue or lost wax) casting process is the most discussed process in these ancient shilpa shastras with metals.<ref name=bravi/><ref>Pupul Jayakar(1984), Metal Casting from Kerala, India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 4, DESIGN: TRADITION AND CHANGE (December 1984), pp. 63-68</ref> Kirk suggests that these Shastras diffused from India to other ancient cultures in Asia.<ref>Kirk, W. (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1796941 The role of India in the diffusion of early cultures], Geographical Journal, Vol. 141, No. 1, 19-34</ref> | ||
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==Shilpa Shastra education in ancient India== | ==Shilpa Shastra education in ancient India== | ||
;Birth was no barrier | ;Birth was no barrier | ||
All arts were the domain of all classes, castes and both genders in ancient India.<ref>Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}</ref> The ancient texts of [[Parashara]] states that all crafts were practised by anyone irrespective of family's occupation.<ref name=sk/> The Buddhist ''Jatakas'' mention Brahmin carpenters, the 4th century text ''Baudhayana'' describes<ref>Baudhayana, XXV.13.22</ref> chariot builders, carpenters, brick-workers, potters and metal workers from people of people classified as Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. ''Suttavibhanga'' describes builders and wheelwrights born to Shudra father and Brahmin mother, who by later texts would be described as untouchables.<ref name=sk/> The goldsmiths of Maharashtra included children born in cattle herding families. There is no particular caste or community in Assam Valley that is exclusive to traditional crafts such as bamboo and cane. It is done by particularly the peasants irrespective of caste, community or creed.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20210829061649/http://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-assam/</ref> | All arts were the domain of all classes, castes and both genders in ancient India.<ref>Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}</ref> The ancient texts of [[Parashara]] states that all crafts were practised by anyone irrespective of family's occupation.<ref name=sk/> The Buddhist ''Jatakas'' mention Brahmin carpenters, the 4th century text ''Baudhayana'' describes<ref>Baudhayana, XXV.13.22</ref> chariot builders, carpenters, brick-workers, potters and metal workers from people of people classified as Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. ''Suttavibhanga'' describes builders and wheelwrights born to Shudra father and Brahmin mother, who by later texts would be described as untouchables.<ref name=sk/> The goldsmiths of Maharashtra included children born in cattle herding families. There is no particular caste or community in Assam Valley that is exclusive to traditional crafts such as bamboo and cane. It is done by particularly the peasants irrespective of caste, community or creed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-assam/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829061649/http://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/janapada-sampada/northeastern-regional-centre/bamboo-and-cane-culture-of-assam/|archive-date=2021-08-29|title=Bamboo and Cane Culture of Assam | IGNCA}}</ref> | ||
;Apprenticeship | ;Apprenticeship | ||