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Recent discoveries of the two seals of [[Toramana|Toramāṇa]] from Kaushambhi states that he reached at least up to Kaushambhi. S.R. Goyal agrees with this conjecture and is given a factual reasons for it, from the ancient periods of [[India]]n history the invaders from north-west were always swept down up to [[Ganga]] valley and considering that Toramāṇa could not march up to [[Malwa]] without consolidating Kaushambhi was not possible. As a result, it is feasible that most of the upper Ganga valley had been conquered by Toramāṇa before he advanced as far as [[Eran]].{{sfn|Goyal|1967|pages=336-341}} | Recent discoveries of the two seals of [[Toramana|Toramāṇa]] from Kaushambhi states that he reached at least up to Kaushambhi. S.R. Goyal agrees with this conjecture and is given a factual reasons for it, from the ancient periods of [[India]]n history the invaders from north-west were always swept down up to [[Ganga]] valley and considering that Toramāṇa could not march up to [[Malwa]] without consolidating Kaushambhi was not possible. As a result, it is feasible that most of the upper Ganga valley had been conquered by Toramāṇa before he advanced as far as [[Eran]].{{sfn|Goyal|1967|pages=336-341}} | ||
== First Hunnic War == | |||
=== Huna conquest of Malwa === | |||
The [[Huna people|Huna]] conquest of the [[Gupta Empire]] was facilitated by the administrative structure of the empire, particularly its feudal system, which enabled the [[Huna people|Huna]] king to gain the support of local chiefs. Notably, inscriptions found in [[Eran]] provide insight into this dynamic. One inscription, dating to [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] era 165 (484 AD), documents constructions undertaken by Maharaja Matrivshnu and his brother Dhanyavishnu during the reign of [[Budhagupta]]. Another inscription, following Matrivshnu's death, details the temple construction by Dhanyavishnu during the rule of [[Toramana]] Sahi Jauvla, indicating his allegiance shift to the [[Huna people|Huna]] invader. This transition likely occurred after 484 AD, within a generation of that date.{{sfn|Goyal|1967|p=341}} | |||
Additionally, an inscription from [[Eran]], dated [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] era 191 (510 AD), recounts a battle where King [[Bhanugupta]] fought against the [[Hunas]], resulting in the death of his general Goparaja. This engagement possibly aimed to halt [[Huna people|Huna]] incursions into eastern [[Malwa]] or expel them from the region. If the former, [[Toramana]]'s conquest of eastern [[Malwa]] could be dated to 510 AD, and if the latter, sometime prior to that year. While the exact date of [[Huna people|Huna]] occupation in the region remains uncertain, it is plausible that [[Toramana]] established his rule in [[Malwa]] around 510 AD, considering the [[Huna people|Huna]] incursions into [[India]] began after 500 AD, following their confinement to [[Gandhara]].{{sfn|Goyal|1967|pages=341-342}} | |||
=== Bhanugupta and Toramana === | |||
[[File:Male head, northern India, Kushan or Gupta period, 5th-6th century CE, terracotta, HAA.JPG|thumb|Male head, northern [[India]], 5th-6th century CE.]] | |||
[[Bhanugupta]] is known from a stone pillar inscription in [[Eran]], [[Malwa]]. The inscription was translated by [[John Faithfull Fleet]] in 1888, and then a second time in 1981, leading to different interpretations. | |||
==== Initial translation (J.F Fleet 1888) ==== | |||
According to the initial translation of the [[Eran]] inscription (by [[John Faithfull Fleet|John Faithful Fleet]] in 1888), Bhanugupta participated to a non-specific battle in 510 CE (Line 5).<ref>{{harvp|Fleet|1888|p=93}}</ref> | |||
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| header=Eran pillar inscription of Goparaja | |||
| image1 = Eran pillar of Goparaja (detail).jpg | |||
| caption1 = Eran pillar of Goparaja | |||
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| caption2 = [[Eran]] stone pillar inscription of Bhanugupta. | |||
| image3 = Bhanugupta Eran stone pillar inscription.jpg | |||
| caption3 = Rubbing of the inscription. | |||
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* (Line 1) Ôm! In a century of years, increased by ninety-one; on the seventh lunar day of the dark fortnight of (the month) Srâvana; (or in figures) the year 100 (and) 90 (and) 1; (the month) Srâvana; the dark fortnight; the day 7: — | |||
* (Line 2)—(There was) a king, renowned under the name of .... râja, sprung from the ... laksha (?) lineage; and his son (was) that very valorous king (who was known) by the name (of) Mâdhava. | |||
* (Line 3)— His son was the illustrious Gôparâja, renowned for manliness; the daughter's son of the Sarabha king; who is (even) now (?) the ornament of (his) lineage. | |||
* (Line 5) — (There is) the glorious Bhanugupta, the bravest man on the earth, a mighty king, equal to Pârtha, exceedingly heroic; and, along with him, Gôparâja followed .......... (his) friends (and came) here. [And] having fought a very famous battle, he, [who was but little short of being equal to] the celestial [king (Indra)], (died and) went to heaven; and (his) devoted, attached, beloved, and beauteous wife, in close companionship, accompanied (him) onto the funeral pyre.|source=[[Eran]] inscription of Bhanugupta, 510 CE.{{sfn|Fleet|1888|p=93}}}} | |||
This translation was the basis for various conjectures about a possible encounter with [[Toramana]], the [[Alchon Huns]] ruler. It has been suggested that Bhanugupta was involved in an important battle of his time, and suffered important losses, possibly against the Hun invader [[Toramana]], whom he may or may not have defeated in 510.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.220</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates by S. B. Bhattacherje p.A15</ref> Mookerji actually considers, in view of the inscription, that Bhanugupta was vanquished by Toramana at this 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province of [[Malwa]] fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point.{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]120}} Toramana would then have made his [[Eran]] boar inscription, claiming control of the region.{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]120}} | |||
==== New translation (1981) ==== | |||
A new revised translation was published in 1981.<ref name="CII" /> Verses 3-4 are markedly differently translated, in that ruler Bhanugupta and his chieftain or noble Goparaja are said to have participated in a battle against the "Maittras" in 510 CE, thought to be the [[Maitraka]]s (the reading being without full certainty, but "as good as certain" according to the authors).<ref name="CII" /> This would eliminate the suggestion that Bhanugupta alluded to a battle with [[Toramana]] in his inscription. | |||
{{quote| | |||
[[File:South Asia historical AD590 EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.36|The [[Maitraka]]s ruled in the areas of [[Gujarat]] and Western India. According to the 1981 translation, they may have been the adversaries of Gupta ruler Bhanugupta.<ref name="CII" />]] | |||
*(Lines 1-2) Ōm ! When a century of years, increased by ninety-one, (had elapsed) on the seventh lunar day of the dark fortnight of (the month) [[Śrāvaṇa]], (or in figures) the year 100 (and) 90 (and) 1 (the month) Śrāvaṇa the dark fortnight; the (lunar) day 7;- | |||
*(Verse 1) (there was) a ruler, renowned as .... [[rāja]] sprung from the Śulakkha lineage; and his son (was) valorous by the name (of) Mādhava. | |||
*(Verse 2) His son was the illustrious Goparaja, renowned for manliness; the daughter’s son of the Sarabha king;1 who became the ornament of (his) family. | |||
*(Verses 3-4) (There is) the glorious Bhanugupta, a distinguished hero on earth, a mighty ruler, brave being equal to [[Pârtha]]. And along with him Goparaja, following (him) without fear, <u>having overtaken the [[Maitraka|Maittras]] and having fought a very big and famous battle</u>, went to heaven, becoming equal to [[Indra]], the best of the gods; and (his) devoted, attached, beloved, and beauteous wife, clinging (to him), entered into the mass of fire (funeral pyre). | |||
|[[Eran]] inscription of Bhanugupta, 510 CE.<ref name="CII">Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.3 (inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395 Main text p.352sq]</ref>}} | |||
Bhanugupta in the inscription is only mentioned as a "Raja" and not a "Maharaja" or a "Maharajadhiraja" as would be customary for a Gupta Empire ruler. Therefore, he may only have been a Governor for the region of [[Malwa]], under Gupta Emperor [[Narasimhagupta]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]120}} | |||
=== Battle of Eran 510 CE, Sack of Kausambhi 497–500 CE and the Battle of Malwa 510 CE === | |||
A decisive battle occurred in [[Malwa]], where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, named [[Bhanugupta]] was in charge. In the ''[[Bhanugupta]] [[Eran]]'' inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE at [[Eran]], where it suffered severe casualties.{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]120}} Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province of [[Malwa]] fell into the hands of the Hunas.{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]120}} | |||
[[File:Toramana portrait from coin.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.79|Portrait of [[Toramana]]. He sacked [[Kausambi]] and occupied [[Malwa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=ALRAM |first1=MICHAEL |title=Three Hunnic Bullae from Northwest India |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |date=2003 |volume=17 |page=180, Figure 11 |jstor=24049314 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24049314.pdf |issn=0890-4464}}</ref>]] | |||
According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, the ''[[Manjusri-mula-kalpa]]'', Bhanugupta lost Malwa to the "[[Shudra]]" [[Toramana]], who continued his conquest to [[Magadha]], forcing [[Narasimhagupta]] Baladitya to make a retreat to [[Bengal]]. Toramana "possessed of great prowess and armies" then conquered the city of [[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]] in the [[Gauda Kingdom|Gauda]] country (modern [[Bengal]]).{{sfn|Thakur|1967|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=drQ9AAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y]122}}<ref group="Note">"After the successful conclusion of the [[Eran]] episode, the conquering [[Hunas]] ultimately burst out of Eastern [[Malwa]] and swooped down upon the very heart of the Gupta empire. The eastern countries were overrun and the city of the Gaudas was occupied. The Manjusrimulakalpa gives a scintillating account of this phase of Toramana's conquest. It says that after [[Bhanugupta]]'s defeat and discomfiture, Toramana led the Hunas against Magadha and obliged Baladitya (Narasimha-gupta Baladitya, the reigning Gupta monarch) to retire to [[Bengal]]. This great monarch (Toramana), Sudra by caste and possessed of great prowess and armies took hold of that position (bank of the Ganges) and commanded the country round about. That powerful king then invested the town called Tirtha in the [[Gauda Kingdom|Gauda]] country." in {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drQ9AAAAMAAJ|title=The Hūṇas in India|author=Upendra Thakur|publisher=Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office|year=1967|volume=58|location=Varanasi|page=122|oclc=551489665}}</ref> Toramana is said to have crowned a new king in [[Benares]], named Prakataditya, who is also presented as a son of Narasimha Gupta.<ref name="Mookerji">{{cite book |author=Radhakumud Mookerji |title=The Gupta Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120 |edition=5th |year=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0440-1 |page=120}}</ref> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
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| image1 = Eran Boar.jpg | |||
| caption1 = The [[Eran]] "[[Varaha]]" boar, under the neck of which can be found the [[Eran boar inscription of Toramana|Eran boar inscription]] mentioning the rule of Toramana.<ref name="pro.geo.univie.ac.at">{{Cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase9?language=en |title=Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101061621/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase9?language=en |url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
| image2=Maharajadhiraja Sri Toramana on Eran boar inscription.jpg | |||
| caption2={{center|[[File:Gupta allahabad m.svg|12px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka haa.jpg|16px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad raa.jpg|10px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad j.svg|13px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad dhi.jpg|11px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad raa.jpg|10px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad j.svg|14px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad shrii.jpg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad to.jpg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad r.svg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad maa2.jpg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad nn.svg|14px]]<br />''Mahārājadhirāja Shrī Toramāṇa''<br />"Great King of Kings, Lord Toramana"<br /> in the [[Eran boar inscription of Toramana]] in the [[Gupta script]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors |date=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254/page/n4 158]–161 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254}}</ref>}} | |||
| image3 = Toramana gold coin circa 490-515.jpg | |||
| caption3 = A rare gold coin of [[Toramana]] in the style of the Guptas. The obverse legend reads: "The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven".<ref name="CNG Coins">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=301345 |title=CNG: Feature Auction Triton XIX. HUNNIC TRIBES, Alchon Huns. Toramana. Circa 490-515. AV Dinar (18 mm, 9.53 g, 12h). |website=www.cngcoins.com |accessdate=2 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="coinindia.com">{{Cite web |url=http://coinindia.com/Prakasaditya.pdf |title=The Identity of Prakasaditya by Pankaj Tandon, Boston University |accessdate=2 April 2023}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription in [[Eran]], confirming his rule on the region.<ref name="Mookerji" /> The ''[[Eran boar inscription of Toramana]]'' (in [[Eran]], Malwa, 540 km south of [[New Delhi]], state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]) of his first regnal year indicates that eastern [[Malwa]] was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines of [[Sanskrit]] in the [[Brahmi script]]. The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced as ''Mahararajadhidaja'' (The Great King of Kings),<ref name="Sinha1977" />{{rp|79}} reads: | |||
{{blockquote|In year one of the reign of the King of Kings Sri-[[Toramana]], who rules the world with splendor and radiance...|[[Eran boar inscription of Toramana]]<ref name="pro.geo.univie.ac.at" />}} | |||
On his gold coins minted in India in the style of the Gupta Emperors, Toramana presented himself confidently as: | |||
{{blockquote|''Avanipati Torama(no) vijitya vasudham divam jayati'' | |||
The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven | |||
|Toramana gold coin legend.<ref name="CNG Coins" /><ref name="coinindia.com" />}} | |||
The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.<ref>"This makes it quite clear that the Alchon Huns in India must have had a substantial and rich empire, with the capacity to issue a relatively large volume of gold coins." in {{cite journal |last1=TANDON |first1=PANKAJ |s2cid=43869990 |title=The Identity of Prakāśāditya |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=7 July 2015 |volume=25 |issue=4 |page=668 |doi=10.1017/S1356186315000346 |hdl=2144/37851 |hdl-access=free}} [http://coinindia.com/Prakasaditya.pdf Full article]</ref> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
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| title=Kausambi | |||
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| image1 = Ghoshitaram monastery in Kosambi.jpg | |||
| caption1 =The monastery of Ghoshitarama in [[Kausambi]] was probably destroyed by the Alchon Huns under Toramana.{{sfn|Gupta|1989|pp=174–175}} | |||
| image2=Kosambi Huna Raja seal impression.jpg | |||
| caption2="''Hūna Rāja''" Toramana seal impression, Kausambi<ref>{{cite book |page=18 |title=Indian Archaeology 1954–55 A review |url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201954-55%20%20A%20Review.pdf}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
In the First Hunnic War (496–515),{{sfn|Bakker|2020|pp=484-534}} the Alchon reached their maximum territorial extent, with King [[Toramana]] pushing deep into Indian territory, reaching [[Gujarat]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] in [[Central India]], and ultimately contributing to the downfall of the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref name="Neelis" />{{rp|162}} To the south, the [[Sanjeli inscriptions]] indicate that Toramana penetrated at least as far as northern [[Gujarat]], and possibly to the port of [[Bharukaccha]].{{sfn|Bakker|2014|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=6p2XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]34}} To the east, far into [[Central India]], the city of [[Kausambi]], where seals with Toramana's name were found, was probably sacked by the Alkhons in 497–500, before they moved to occupy [[Malwa]].{{sfn|Bakker|2020|pp=484-534}}{{sfn|Agnihotri|2010|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=PA81&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]81}}<ref name="Sinha1977">{{cite book |author=Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha |title=Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450-1200 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA70 |year=1977 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |location=New Delhi |id=GGKEY:KR1EJ2EGCTJ}}</ref>{{rp|70}}{{sfn|Gupta|1989|p=175}} In particular, it is thought that the monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was destroyed by Toramana, as several of his seals were found there, one of them bearing the name ''Toramana'' impressed over the official seal of the monastery, and the other bearing the title ''Hūnarāja'' ("King of the Huns"), together with debris and arrowheads.{{sfn|Gupta|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=LzHpZ5N5MhcC&pg=PA175&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]174–175}} Another seal, this time by Mihirakula, is reported from Kausambi.{{sfn|Gupta|1989|p=[https://books.google.mu/books?id=LzHpZ5N5MhcC&pg=PA175&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]174–175}} These territories may have been taken from Gupta Emperor [[Budhagupta]].<ref name="Sinha1977" />{{rp|79}} Alternatively, they may have been captured during the rule of his successor [[Narasimhagupta]].<ref name="Mookerji" /> | |||
=== Toramana and Prakasaditya === | |||
The success of [[Bhanugupta]]'s campaign against the [[Hunas]] remains unspecified in the posthumous inscription of Goparaja. However, the absence of explicit mention of a great victory suggests a different outcome. Subsequent events, as chronicled in the ''[[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|Arya Manjulsri Mula Kalp]]'', reinforce this notion. The narrative portrays Prakāśāditya, identified as the son of [[Bhanugupta]], imprisoned by King Goparaja, possibly on the orders of his own father. Prakāśāditya's release by Hakarakhya ([[Toramana]]), who extended his dominion along the banks of the [[Ganga]], signifies the inability of [[Bhanugupta]] to thwart [[Toramana]]'s advance, with the latter eventually occupying much of the [[Ganga]] valley.{{sfn|Goyal|1967|pages=342-343}} | |||
This narration underscores [[Toramana|Toramana's]] prowess as a conqueror and adept diplomat. His swift conquests effectively reduced the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] emperor to a vassal status. Numismatic evidence reveals [[Toramana|Toramana's]] rule over regions including [[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]], [[Rajputana]], [[Punjab]], and [[Kashmir]], while textual sources suggest his victorious campaigns extended as far as [[Gauda Kingdom|Gauda]]. [[Toramana]]'s strategic approach involved leveraging internal discord within the [[Gupta empire]], thereby facilitating the consolidation of his power in central provinces. Notably, he preserved existing administrative structures and enlisted the support of ancient [[Gupta empire|Gupta]] official families, exemplified by the case of Dhanyavishnu. [[Toramana]]'s reign marked a significant period of political upheaval and realignment in [[ancient India]], reshaping the dynamics of power in the region.{{sfn|Goyal|1967|pages=343-344}} | |||
=== Battle of Daśapura (515 CE) === | |||
Toramana was finally defeated by the local [[India]]n rulers. The local ruler [[Bhanugupta]] is sometimes credited with vanquishing Toramana, as his 510 CE inscription in [[Eran]], recording his participation in "a great battle", is vague enough to allow for such an interpretation. The "great battle" in which Bhanagupta participated is not detailed, and it is impossible to know what it was, or which way it ended, and interpretations vary.{{sfn|Sharma|Misra|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA7]7}}<ref name="Bhattacherje2009">{{cite book |author=S. B. Bhattacherje |title=Encyclopaedia | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||