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{{short description|Practice of authority figures awarding positions to friends as a reward}}
{{short description|Government favoritism}}
{{Political corruption sidebar}}
{{Political corruption sidebar}}
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'''Cronyism''' is the practice of [[Impartiality|partiality]] in awarding jobs and other advantages to friends or trusted colleagues, especially in [[politics]] and between politicians and supportive organizations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/cronyism|title=cronyism American English definition and synonyms - Macmillan Dictionary}}</ref> For instance, this includes appointing "cronies" to positions of authority, regardless of their qualifications;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cronyism?s=t|title=the definition of cronyism}}</ref> this is in contrast to ''[[meritocracy]]'', in which appointments are made purely on qualification.
Cronyism exists when the appointer and the beneficiary (such as an appointee) are in social or business contact. Often, the appointer needs support in their own proposal, job or position of authority, and for this reason the appointer appoints individuals who will not try to weaken their proposals, vote against issues, or express views contrary to those of the appointer.
'''Cronyism''' is awarding positions, jobs, contracts, loans, privileges, or advantages to friends or colleagues. It is used especially in politics, when referring to partiality between politicians and businesses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/cronyism|title=cronyism American English definition and synonyms - Macmillan Dictionary}}</ref> A person who supports or partakes in cronyism is referred to as a ''crony'', ''cronie'', or ''cronyist''.
Politically, "cronyism" is derogatorily used to imply buying and selling favors, such as: votes in legislative bodies, as doing favors to organizations, giving desirable ambassadorships to exotic places, etc.<ref name="Daniel Garza">{{cite news|title=Government Cronyism is Back|url=https://au.linkedin.com/pub/steven-jenkins/a2/ba6/7a3 |author=Daniel Garza|date=March 12, 2012|access-date=3 March 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150308175159/https://au.linkedin.com/pub/steven-jenkins/a2/ba6/7a3|archive-date=8 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Whereas cronyism refers to partiality to a partner or friend, [[nepotism]] is the granting of favour to relatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/government_ethics/introduction/cronyism.html|title=Favoritism, Cronyism, and Nepotism|author=Judy Nadler and Miriam Schulman|publisher=Santa Clara University|access-date=20 June 2013}}</ref>
Cronyism occurs when appointing "cronies" to positions of authority regardless of their qualifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cronyism?s=t|title=the definition of cronyism|publisher=dictionary.reference.com}}</ref> This is in contrast to a ''[[meritocracy]]'', in which appointments are made based on merit. Politically, "cronyism" is derogatorily used to imply buying and selling favors, such as votes in legislative bodies, doing favors to organizations, or giving desirable ambassadorships to exotic places.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/government_ethics/introduction/cronyism.html|title=Favoritism, Cronyism, and Nepotism|first1=Judy|last1=Nadler|first2=Miriam|last2=Schulman|publisher=Santa Clara University|access-date=20 June 2013}}</ref>
== Etymology ==
== Etymology ==
The word "crony" first appeared in 17th-century [[London]], according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' and is believed to be derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''chronios'' (χρόνιος), meaning "long term".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/crony?view=uk|title=Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar|access-date=2 July 2015}}</ref>
The word ''crony'' first appeared in 17th-century London, according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''; it is believed to be derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word {{lang|grc|χρόνιος}} ({{transliteration|grc|chronios}}), meaning {{gloss|long term}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/crony?view=uk|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120718210536/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/crony?view=uk|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 July 2012|title=Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar|access-date=2 July 2015}}</ref>
A less likely but oft-quoted source is the supposed [[Irish language|Irish]] term ''Comh-Roghna'', which translates as "close pals", or mutual friends.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}
== Concept ==
== Concept ==
{{more citations needed|date=February 2016}}
{{see also | Clientelism | Nepotism | Political corruption }}
{{see also | Clientelism | Nepotism | Political corruption }}
Government officials are particularly susceptible to accusations of cronyism, as they spend [[tax]]payers' money. Many democratic governments are encouraged to practice administrative [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] in [[accounting]] and contracting, but there often is no clear delineation of when an appointment to government office is "cronyism".<ref name= ced>{{cite web| url= https://www.ced.org/cronycapitalism | website= CED.com| publisher= Committee for Economic Development | title= Crony Capitalism: Unhealthy Relations Between Business and Government| date= | accessdate=}}</ref>
Government officials are particularly susceptible to accusations of cronyism, as they spend [[tax]]payers' money. Many democratic governments are encouraged to practice administrative [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] in [[accounting]] and contracting, however, there often is no clear delineation of when an appointment to government office is "cronyism".<ref>https://www.ced.org/cronycapitalism CED.com, official website of The Committee for Economic Development (CED), "Crony Capitalism: Unhealthy Relations Between Business and Government"</ref>
In the private sector, cronyism exists in organizations, often termed "[[Old boy network|the old boys' club]]" or "the golden circle"; again, the boundary between cronyism and "networking" is difficult to delineate.<ref name="Staff 2010">{{cite web| url=https://thefreemarketeers.wordpress.com/2010/03/02/do-old-boys-clubs-make-the-market-more-efficient/|title=Do Old Boys' Clubs Make The Market More Efficient?|author=Staff|year=2010|publisher=The Free Marketeers|access-date=26 April 2012}}</ref>
In the private sector, cronyism exists in organizations, often termed "[[Old boy network|the old boys' club]]" or "the golden circle"; again, the boundary between cronyism and "networking" is difficult to delineate.<ref name="Staff 2010">{{cite web|url=http://thefreemarketeers.wordpress.com/2010/03/02/do-old-boys-clubs-make-the-market-more-efficient/|title=Do Old Boys' Clubs Make The Market More Efficient?|author=Staff|year=2010|publisher=The Free Marketeers|access-date=26 April 2012}}</ref>
It is not unusual for a politician to surround him- or herself with highly qualified subordinates, and to develop social, business, or political friendships leading to the appointment to office of friends, likewise in granting government contracts. In fact, the counsel of such friends is why the officeholder successfully obtained their powerful position; therefore, cronyism usually is easier to perceive than to demonstrate and prove.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}{{original research inline|date=September 2019}}{{Inconsistent|date=June 2021}} Politicians with representatives of business, other special interests, as unions and professional organizations get "crony-business" done in political agreements, especially by "reasonable" and lucrative honorariums to the politician for making speeches, or by legal donations to ones election campaign or to ones political party, etc.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}{{original research inline|date=July 2018}}
Cronyism describes relationships existing among mutual acquaintances in private organizations where business, business information, and social interaction are exchanged among influential personnel. This is termed [[crony capitalism]], and is an ethical breach of the principles of the [[market economy]]; in advanced economies, crony capitalism is a breach of market regulations.
Given crony capitalism's nature, these dishonest business practices are frequently (yet not exclusively) found in societies with ineffective legal systems. Consequently, there is an impetus upon the legislative branch of a government to ensure enforcement of the legal code capable of addressing and redressing private party manipulation of the economy by the involved businessmen and their government cronies.
The economic and social costs of cronyism are paid by society. Those costs are in the form of reduced business opportunity for the majority of the population, reduced competition in the market place, inflated consumer goods prices, decreased economic performance, inefficient business investment cycles, reduced motivation in affected organizations, and the diminution of economically productive activity.<ref name="Staff 2010"/> A practical cost of cronyism manifests in the poor workmanship of public and private community projects.
Cronyism is self-perpetuating; cronyism then begets a culture of cronyism. This can only be apprehended by a comprehensive, effective, and enforced legal code, with empowered government agencies which can effect prosecutions in the courts.
Some instances{{Example needed|s|date=May 2021}} of cronyism are readily transparent. With others,{{Example needed|s|date=May 2021}} it is only in hindsight that the qualifications of the alleged "crony" must be evaluated. All appointments that are suspected of being cronyism are controversial. The appointed party may choose to either suppress disquiet or ignore it, depending upon the society's level of freedom of expression and individual personal liberty.
==Examples==
{{See also|Corruption in Russia|Corruption in Ukraine}}
{{See also|Kleptocracy#Examples}}
A recent{{sup|[<nowiki />[[MOS:DATED|{{tooltip|dotted=n|''presentist language''|Usage of the word 'recent' is discouraged per the manual of style. (May 2021)}}]]<nowiki />]}} example can be found in political activity in [[South Carolina]], particularly in relation to [[Governor of South Carolina|Governor]] [[Henry McMaster]], who initially gained his position after becoming the first high-level state official to endorse President [[Donald Trump]] and subsequently rose from lieutenant governor to governor of the state when President Trump appointed [[Nikki Haley]] to be the United States ambassador to the United Nations in November 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/01/27/trump-picks-up-endorsement-from-s-c-lt-gov-henry-mcmaster|title=Trump picks up endorsement from S.C. Lt. Gov. Henry McMaster|last=Delreal|first=Jose|date=January 7, 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38076114|title=Trump names Nikki Haley as UN ambassador|date=November 23, 2016|website=BBC|access-date=July 9, 2016}}</ref> On July 9, 2019, Governor McMaster would then go on to attempt to force a vote for the President of the [[University of South Carolina]] ahead of schedule and for the benefit of his favorite candidate, [[Robert L. Caslen|Robert Caslen Jr.]], former superintendent of [[United States Military Academy|West Point Academy]] who was favored by President Trump and previously interviewed by the Trump administration for the position of National Security Advisor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2017/02/18/trump-interviewing-mcmaster-west-point-superintendent-caslen-and-others-for-security-job/|title=Trump interviewing McMaster, West Point superintendent Caslen and others for security job|last=Lucy|first=Catherine|date=February 18, 2017|website=Military Times|access-date=July 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestate.com/news/local/education/article232415817.html|title=McMaster forces vote on controversial USC presidential finalist while students are away |last=Daprile|first=Lucas|date=July 9, 2019|website=The State|access-date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Less than two weeks later, in spite of protestation from a majority of the student body, alumni, and major donors, the vote was cast in favor of Caslen on July 19, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wltx.com/article/news/local/street-squad/usc/robert-caslen-picked-as-new-university-of-south-carolina-president/101-6241000a-5085-4b5d-8aaf-398e15645639|title=Robert Caslen picked as new University of South Carolina president|date=19 July 2019|website=WLTX19|access-date=July 19, 2019}}</ref>
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The [[Russia]]n president [[Vladimir Putin]] is alleged to be the "head of the clan",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/01/wikileaks-cables-russia-mafia-kleptocracy|title=WikiLeaks cables condemn Russia as 'mafia state'|author=Luke Harding|work=The Guardian|date=December 2010}}</ref> whose assets are estimated at $200 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Europe/article814724.ece|title=Putin's judo cronies put lock on billions in riches - The Sunday Times|work=thesundaytimes.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Putin's Kleptocracy: Who Owns Russia?|last=Dawisha|first=Karen|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2014|isbn=9781476795195}}</ref> A list of Russian and Ukrainian politicians associated with "kleptocratic style" has been published by the Kleptocracy Archives project.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kleptocracyarchive.org/individuals/|title=Individuals – Kleptocracy Archive|website=kleptocracyarchive.org|access-date=2016-05-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518205555/http://kleptocracyarchive.org/individuals/|archive-date=2016-05-18}}</ref>
U.S. President Donald Trump assigned at least five members of his private golf clubs to choice government jobs such as ambassadorships. This is the first time in modern history that a president has rewarded people with jobs that paid money to his own companies.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/11/02/trump-nominates-some-club-members-plum-government-jobs/823231001/ Schouten, Frank, et al]</ref>
The nominations of [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Boris Johnson]] for the [[House of Lords]] were selected based on their support for his version of [[Brexit]], rather than ability or service to the public as is customary (for instance, the previous [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House of Commons]] [[John Bercow]] did not receive a nomination due to Johnson's perception that he worked against him for getting key Brexit votes through).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/aug/03/cronyism-at-work-as-johnson-packs-the-lords|title = Cronyism at work as Johnson packs the Lords | Letters|website = [[TheGuardian.com]]|date = 3 August 2020}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom|process for procurement of government contracts]] in light of{{Colloquialism|date=May 2021}} the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom]] has been criticised by some as a "chumocracy" (cronyism).<ref name="PogCal">{{cite news |last1=Pogrund |first1=Gabriel |last2=Calver |first2=Tom |title=Chumocracy first in line as ministers splash Covid cash |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/news/chumocracy-first-in-line-as-ministers-splash-covid-cash-7wb5b8q0w |access-date=15 November 2020 |work=[[The Sunday Times]] |date=15 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="GuardChums">{{cite news |last1=Conn |first1=David |last2=Pegg |first2=David |last3=Evans |first3=Rob |last4=Garside |first4=Juliette |last5=Lawrence |first5=Felicity |title='Chumocracy': how Covid revealed the new shape of the Tory establishment |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/15/chumocracy-covid-revealed-shape-tory-establishment |access-date=15 November 2020 |work=[[The Observer]] |date=15 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Boris Johnson's profligacy problem |url=https://www.economist.com/britain/2020/11/14/boris-johnsons-profligacy-problem |access-date=14 November 2020 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=14 November 2020}}</ref>
===India: High command culture===
Cronyism describes relationships existing among mutual acquaintances in private organizations where business, business information, and social interaction are exchanged among influential personnel. This is termed [[crony capitalism]],<ref name= ced /> and is an ethical breach of the principles of the [[market economy]]; in advanced economies, crony capitalism is a breach of market regulations.
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Rahul Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi having a chat.jpg
| caption1 = [[Sonia Gandhi|Sonia]] (right) and [[Rahul Gandhi]] (left), a mother-son duo, generally believed to be the high commands of the [[Indian National Congress]]
| image2 = Narendra Modi and Amit Shah having a chat.jpg
| caption2 = [[Amit Shah]] (left) and [[Narendra Modi]] (right) deemed high commands of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}In India, it has been seen that the chiefs of national political parties directly appoint their close aides as the regional subordinates rather than through the party's internal elections—thus underminging the autonomy of the state units.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Ambar Kumar|title=The growing high command culture: A challenge for inner-party democracy in India|url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-growing-high-command-culture/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=ORF|language=en-US}}</ref> The culture was first seen under the [[premiership of Indira Gandhi]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Ambar Kumar|title=The growing high command culture: A challenge for inner-party democracy in India|url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-growing-high-command-culture/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=ORF|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-07|title=How high command culture has undermined federalism|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/how-high-command-culture-has-undermined-federalism-156228|access-date=2021-11-05|website=The News Minute|language=en}}</ref> then under her successor [[Sonia Gandhi]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The 'High Command' Culture Destroying Congress, Can Sonia Gandhi Really Become A Success Story? {{!}} Outlook India Magazine|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/india-news-the-high-command-culture-destroying-congress-can-sonia-gandhi-really-become-a-success-story/302292/?next|access-date=2021-11-05|website=www.outlookindia.com/|language=en}}</ref> and now under the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]'s [[Modi government]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-19|title=BJP must refrain from being a 'High Command' led Party|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/beyond-the-fact/bjp-must-refrain-from-being-a-high-command-led-party/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Times of India Blog|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Venkataramakrishnan|first=Rohan|title=The Political Fix: Is Modi's High Command culture turning some BJP CMs into glorified bureaucrats?|url=https://scroll.in/article/1005226/the-political-fix-is-modis-high-command-culture-turning-some-bjp-cms-into-glorified-bureaucrats|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref> Over the years, several chief ministers of wide range of parties have been appointed likewise.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-08|title=The high command: Triggering new lows for decades|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/sunday-spotlight/the-high-command-triggering-new-lows-for-decades-1017371.html|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Frequent change of CMs in BJP-ruled states signs of growing high command culture|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/sep/11/frequent-change-of-cms-in-bjp-ruled-states-signs-of-growing-high-command-culture-2357361.html|access-date=2021-11-05|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-18|title=Congress high command will decide on CM face for Karnataka, says Siddaramaiah|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/congress-high-command-will-decide-on-cm-face-for-karnataka-says-siddaramaiah-101634498243770.html|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> Before the [[independence of India]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]] could override most decisions of the [[Indian National Congress]], regardless of his on-paper status in the party.
The economic and social costs of cronyism are paid by society. Those costs are in the form of reduced business opportunity for the majority of the population, reduced competition in the marketplace, inflated consumer goods prices, decreased economic performance, inefficient business investment cycles, reduced motivation in affected organizations, and the diminution of economically productive activity.<ref name="Staff 2010"/>
==See also==
==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[2006-2007 Life Peerages scandal]]
*[[Cartel]]
*[[Cartel]]
*[[Collective narcissism]]
*[[Cronies of Ferdinand Marcos]]
*[[Conflict of interest]]
*[[Crony capitalism]]
*[[Crony capitalism]]
*[[Crony-capitalism index]]
*[[Crony-capitalism index]]
*[[In-group favoritism]]
*[[In-group favoritism]]
*[[Interest group]]
*[[Interest group]]
*[[Logrolling]]
*[[Meritocracy]]
*[[Nepotism]]
*[[Nepotism]]
*[[Oligarchy]]
*[[Political corruption]]
*[[Price fixing]]
*[[Spoils system]]
*[[Wasta]]
}}
}}
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== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/s10490-009-9137-4 |title = Networks and cronyism: A social exchange analysis|journal = Asia Pacific Journal of Management|volume = 27|issue = 2|pages = 281–297|year = 2010|last1 = Begley|first1 = Thomas M.|last2 = Khatri|first2 = Naresh|last3 = Tsang|first3 = Eric W. K.|s2cid = 143799762}}
* {{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/s10490-009-9137-4 |title = Networks and cronyism: A social exchange analysis|journal = Asia Pacific Journal of Management|volume = 27|issue = 2|pages = 281–297|year = 2010|last1 = Begley|first1 = Thomas M.|last2 = Khatri|first2 = Naresh|last3 = Tsang|first3 = Eric W. K.|s2cid = 143799762}}
* {{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykSDtAEACAAJ |title = Cronies: Oil, the Bushes, and the Rise of Texas, America's Superstate|isbn = 9781586481889|last1 = Bryce|first1 = Robert|date = 2004|publisher=PublicAffairs|lccn=2003070694|author-link=Robert_Bryce_(writer)}}
* {{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykSDtAEACAAJ |title = Cronies: Oil, the Bushes, and the Rise of Texas, America's Superstate|isbn = 9781586481889|last1 = Bryce|first1 = Robert|date = 2004|publisher=PublicAffairs|lccn=2003070694|author-link=Robert Bryce (writer)}}
* {{Cite journal |jstor = 3875215|title = Cronyism: A Cross-Cultural Analysis|journal = Journal of International Business Studies|volume = 37|issue = 1|pages = 61–75|last1 = Khatri|first1 = Naresh|last2 = Tsang|first2 = Eric W. K.|last3 = Begley|first3 = Thomas M.|year = 2006|doi = 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400171|s2cid = 18930227|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5223184}}<br/>[Also in T. G. Andrews and R. Mead (Eds.), Cross Cultural Management, Volume 2 -The Impact of Culture 1: 126–150. Routledge, UK.]
* {{Cite journal |jstor = 3875215|title = Cronyism: A Cross-Cultural Analysis|journal = Journal of International Business Studies|volume = 37|issue = 1|pages = 61–75|last1 = Khatri|first1 = Naresh|last2 = Tsang|first2 = Eric W. K.|last3 = Begley|first3 = Thomas M.|year = 2006|doi = 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400171|s2cid = 18930227|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5223184}}<br/>[Also in T. G. Andrews and R. Mead (Eds.), Cross Cultural Management, Volume 2 -The Impact of Culture 1: 126–150. Routledge, UK.]
* {{Cite journal | doi=10.5465/ambpp.2003.13792813 | title=Cronyism: The Downside of Social Networking| journal=Academy of Management Proceedings| volume=2003| pages=C1–C6| year=2003| last1=Khatri| first1=Naresh| last2=Tsang| first2=Eric W. K.| last3=Begley| first3=Thomas M.|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal | doi=10.5465/ambpp.2003.13792813 | title=Cronyism: The Downside of Social Networking| journal=Academy of Management Proceedings| volume=2003| pages=C1–C6| year=2003| last1=Khatri| first1=Naresh| last2=Tsang| first2=Eric W. K.| last3=Begley| first3=Thomas M.|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.1023/A:1023081629529|year=2003|last1=Khatri|first1=Naresh|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=43|issue=4|pages=289–303|last2=Tsang|first2=Eric W. K.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226026426|title=Antecedents and Consequences of Cronyism in Organizations|s2cid=142479179}}
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.1023/A:1023081629529|year=2003|last1=Khatri|first1=Naresh|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=43|issue=4|pages=289–303|last2=Tsang|first2=Eric W. K.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226026426|title=Antecedents and Consequences of Cronyism in Organizations|s2cid=142479179}}
* {{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/00220388.2020.1849622 | journal=Journal of Development Studies| volume=57| pages=1373–1396| year=2021| last1=Diwan| first1=Ishac| last2=Haidar| first2=Jamal Ibrahim|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2020.1849622|title=Political Connections Reduce Job Creation: Firm-level Evidence from Lebanon| issue=8| s2cid=229717871}}
* {{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/00220388.2020.1849622 | journal=Journal of Development Studies| volume=57| pages=1373–1396| year=2021| last1=Diwan| first1=Ishac| last2=Haidar| first2=Jamal Ibrahim|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2020.1849622|title=Political Connections Reduce Job Creation: Firm-level Evidence from Lebanon| issue=8| s2cid=229717871| url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=Sarah |last2=Claasen |first2=Cyrlene |title=Nepotism and Cronyism as a Cultural Phenomenon? |journal=The Handbook of Business and Corruption |date=2017 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.1108/978-1-78635-445-720161006|isbn=978-1-78635-446-4 }}
== External links ==
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* "[https://www.scu.edu/government-ethics/resources/what-is-government-ethics/favoritism-cronyism-and-nepotism/ Favoritism, Cronyism, and Nepotism]". Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, [[Santa Clara University]].
* [http://www.current.tv/pods/supernews/PD00567 SuperNews: Hurricane Katrina] - A political flash cartoon about the cronyism surrounding [[Michael D. Brown]] and [[Hurricane Katrina]].
* [http://www.current.tv/pods/supernews/PD00567 SuperNews: Hurricane Katrina] - A political flash cartoon about the cronyism surrounding [[Michael D. Brown]] and [[Hurricane Katrina]].
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[[Category:Political terminology of the United States]]
[[Category:Political terminology of the United States]]
[[Category:Oligarchy]]
[[Category:Oligarchy]]
[[Category:Ethically disputed political practices]]
Cronyism is awarding positions, jobs, contracts, loans, privileges, or advantages to friends or colleagues. It is used especially in politics, when referring to partiality between politicians and businesses.[1] A person who supports or partakes in cronyism is referred to as a crony, cronie, or cronyist.
Cronyism occurs when appointing "cronies" to positions of authority regardless of their qualifications.[2] This is in contrast to a meritocracy, in which appointments are made based on merit. Politically, "cronyism" is derogatorily used to imply buying and selling favors, such as votes in legislative bodies, doing favors to organizations, or giving desirable ambassadorships to exotic places.[3]
The word crony first appeared in 17th-century London, according to the Oxford English Dictionary; it is believed to be derived from the Greek word χρόνιος (chronios), meaning Template:Gloss.[4]
Government officials are particularly susceptible to accusations of cronyism, as they spend taxpayers' money. Many democratic governments are encouraged to practice administrative transparency in accounting and contracting, but there often is no clear delineation of when an appointment to government office is "cronyism".[5]
In the private sector, cronyism exists in organizations, often termed "the old boys' club" or "the golden circle"; again, the boundary between cronyism and "networking" is difficult to delineate.[6]
Cronyism describes relationships existing among mutual acquaintances in private organizations where business, business information, and social interaction are exchanged among influential personnel. This is termed crony capitalism,[5] and is an ethical breach of the principles of the market economy; in advanced economies, crony capitalism is a breach of market regulations.
The economic and social costs of cronyism are paid by society. Those costs are in the form of reduced business opportunity for the majority of the population, reduced competition in the marketplace, inflated consumer goods prices, decreased economic performance, inefficient business investment cycles, reduced motivation in affected organizations, and the diminution of economically productive activity.[6]
Begley, Thomas M.; Khatri, Naresh; Tsang, Eric W. K. (2010). "Networks and cronyism: A social exchange analysis". Asia Pacific Journal of Management. 27 (2): 281–297. doi:10.1007/s10490-009-9137-4. S2CID143799762.
