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The '''Mallian campaign''' was conducted by [[Alexander the Great]] from November 326 to February 325 BC, against the | The '''Mallian campaign''' was conducted by [[Alexander the Great]] from November 326 to February 325 BC, against the | ||
[[Mallian people|Mallians]] of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]].{{sfn|Ian Worthington|2014|p=219}}{{sfn|Peter Green|2013|p=418}} Alexander was defining the eastern limit of his power by marching down-river along the Hydaspes to the Acesines (now the [[Jhelum]] and [[Chenab]]), but the Malli and the Oxydraci combined to refuse passage through their territory. Alexander sought to prevent their forces meeting, and made a swift campaign against them which successfully pacified the region between the two rivers. Alexander was seriously injured during the course of the campaign, almost losing his life.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=605}} | [[Mallian people|Mallians]] of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]].{{sfn|Ian Worthington|2014|p=219}}{{sfn|Peter Green|2013|p=418}} Alexander was defining the eastern limit of his power by marching down-river along the Hydaspes to the Acesines (now the [[Jhelum]] and [[Chenab]]), but the Malli and the Oxydraci combined to refuse passage through their territory. Alexander sought to prevent their forces meeting, and made a swift campaign against them which successfully pacified the region between the two rivers. Alexander was seriously injured during the course of the campaign, almost losing his life.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=605}} | ||
==Background== | |||
The campaign against the Malli (identified with the [[Malavas]]{{sfn|Ian Worthington|2014|p=219}}{{sfn|Peter Green|2013|p=418}}) occurred a year after Alexander crossed the [[Hindu Kush]],{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900}}{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} and eight years after the start of his campaigns against the Persian Empire. At this time, his conquests stretched from Greece into India; some of the Indian tribes had previously been part of the Persian Empire. The political situation in Greece was quiet.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=447}} | |||
Alexander had defeated [[King Porus]] at the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] in May 326 BC, and then stayed in his territory for thirty days.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=448}} During this time, he reconciled King Porus and his other ally, [[Taxiles]], with each other, as they were both to be his new vassals.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=448}} Alexander achieved this by arbitrating their disputes and then arranging a family alliance.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=321}} He then marched north-east toward the Glaukanokoi, and received the submission of their thirty-seven cities.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=448}} Abisares of Kashimir submitted to the Macedonians as well, and gave them many gifts, including forty elephants.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=448}} Alexander proposed to march further east to the [[River Ganges]] and fight the powerful empires of the [[Nanda Dynasty|Nanda]] and the [[Gangaridai]]. According to the second century Greek historian [[Arrian]], he expressed his thoughts thus: | |||
<blockquote>Now if anyone desires to hear where our warfare will find its end and limit, let him know that the distance from where we are to the river Ganges is no longer great; and this you will find is connected to the Hyrcanian sea; for the great sea surrounds the entire earth. I will also demonstrate to the Macedonians and their allies not only that the Indian gulf is confluent with the Persian, but the Hycranian gulf is confluent with the Indian.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=451}}</blockquote> | |||
[[File:Alexander the Great Beneath the Mallian Walls.jpg|left|thumb|Alexander the Great beneath the Mallian walls]] | |||
At the [[Beas River]], his army mutinied. They did not share his ambition and wished to return home. It had been raining for the last seventy days.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=451}} At the Battle of Hydaspes they had suffered many casualties. The Nanda Empire was rumoured to be even more powerful than Porus, who was only a princeling. Coenus' spoke on behalf of the troops and pleaded with Alexander to allow them to return, to the agreement of the other officers. Alexander finally gave in.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=454}} | |||
Shortly after this, Memnon brought up reinforcements of 6,000 cavalry from Thrace, and 7,000 infantry.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=321}} The reinforcements brought with them twenty five thousand suits of armour.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=321}} After uniting with Memnon's forces, Alexander decided to head south, following the river Hydaspes, after the [[omen]]s ostensibly declared it unfavourable to march further east. Initially, the fleet and army just sailed down the river, occasionally marching short distances inland.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=456}} Only slight opposition was experienced.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=456}} | |||
Alexander received news that the Mallians and the Oxydracians had decided to trade hostages with each other, and moved all their valuables into their fortified cities.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=592}}{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=327}} They decided to combine their forces in order to prevent him from marching through their territory. Reports suggested that they had a total of 90,000 [[Infantry|foot]], 10,000 [[cavalry|horse]] and 900 [[chariots]].{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=592}}{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=327}} In spite of the fact that the two had traditionally been enemies, it was reported that they had laid aside their disputes to fight the Macedonians. Alexander decided to prevent them from joining their forces.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} | |||
It was Alexander's habit, as with his father, to campaign in all seasons of the year.{{sfn|Hans Delbruck|1990}} In Greece, this meant the winter, but in India, it meant the rainy season or cold season. The Mallian alliance was unaware of this practice, and therefore might have expected more time to prepare for Alexander's advance. Throughout his career, Alexander made many celebrated marches in spite of difficult conditions. After the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] Alexander and his forces are alleged to have reached the [[Great Zab]], {{convert|34|mi}} from the battlefield, only one day later.{{sfn|Hans Delbruck|1990}} | |||
==Phases== | |||
===First=== | |||
[[File:Mallian phase 1 1.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.4|First phase]] | |||
Upon receiving the news of the alliance in November, Alexander raced out to prevent the junction of the two tribes. He reached the area in five days by sailing down the Hydaspes with the fleet he had recently built.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=592}} The boats had been built to be taken apart and put back together, so that they could be conveyed across the Punjab. There were, as there are now, five rivers in the Punjab - it is sometimes referred to as "The Valley of the Five Rivers" - so it was necessary to drag the boats from one to the next.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809}}{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} The [[Hydaspes]] and [[Chenab River|Acesines]] were dangerous to sail down in this area, and the Macedonians sustained considerable damage to some of their ships, in addition to some casualties.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=592}} They used two sorts of vessels, warships and the transport ships known as "round vessels".{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} The transport ships were not damaged,{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} as their round hulls helped them navigate the difficult channels. By contrast, the warships had considerable difficulties, and many were destroyed.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} Their double rows of oars meant that the bottom row of oars would get caught on the river bank.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} At one point Alexander even took off his armour, preparing to jump in the water, for fear that his ship was going to sink.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} | |||
However, the Macedonians got through.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} Arriving in the confederacies' territory, they set about the task of pacification. While their ships were undergoing repairs, the Macedonians first attacked a tribe to the west called the Sibea.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}} This tribe, alleged to have 40,000 warriors, was on the right bank, and thus the Macedonians had to cross the river in order to attack them.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}}{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=326}} The Macedonians destroyed their capital city and burned their crops, slew all the males, and enslaved the women and children.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=593}}{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=326}} Previously, Alexander had been scrupulous about being merciful towards the inhabitants of his newly conquered territories. This marked change in policy was intended as an example to the other tribes. It was done, allegedly, to secure the Macedonians' [[line of communication]]s, which, being already over-extended, were at a serious risk of being cut.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} They extended all the way from Babylon to the Punjab, if they were cut anywhere the entire expedition could have been compromised. No half measures were taken in securing the lines of communications in their extended condition. | |||
Alexander was determined not to let the Mallians escape him, and therefore he planned a sophisticated campaign that allowed him to retain the [[interior lines]], so that he could reinforce himself at any threatened point.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=595}} | |||
He added Philip's corps, [[Polyperchon]]'s brigade, the [[Horse archers|horse-bowmen]] and the [[War elephant|elephant]]s which had been marching down the river, to [[Craterus]]' force.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} He then ordered [[Nearchus]] to sail down the river with the fleet and establish a base to conduct further operations at the junction of the Acesines and the Hydraotis.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} In addition, the base would be used to catch any escaping Mallians.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} Three days later, Alexander ordered Craterus to follow him{{Clarify|date=July 2011}} down the river on the right bank.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} | |||
[[File:Mallian phase 1 2.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.4|First phase continued]] | |||
Alexander divided his army into three parts and crossed over onto the left bank.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} His own force was to march directly across the desert,{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} and was to take upon itself the most difficult work, as was his habit. His force consisted of [[hypaspists]], archers, [[Agrianians]], [[Peithon (son of Agenor)|Peithon]]'s brigade of the [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]], the horse archers and half the [[Companion cavalry]].{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} While it was a difficult march across the desert, the march was to serve two purposes; first it was to surprise the Mallians,{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} secondly it was to afford him a strategic position from which he could drive them to the south,{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} so that they would be pressed towards the rest of his forces.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} [[Hephaestion]]'s force was ordered to march opposite Craterus' force, on the left bank of the same river.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} He was sent five days ahead of Alexander, in order to ensure that any retreating forces Alexander impelled would be easily caught if they managed to evade Craterus.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy I Soter's]] force was ordered to follow Alexander's march three days later, in order to ensure that any Mallians that did escape to the north were still captured and slaughtered.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=594}} | |||
===Second=== | |||
At this point, the tentative alliance between the Mallians and the Oxydracians began to break down.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=595}} The two tribes could not agree on who was to lead them,{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=595}} and their forces retreated to their strongholds, each group to fend for themselves.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=595}} | |||
After starting across the desert, Alexander marched continuously, with only a single half-day halt at a place where water could be obtained.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=595}} His detachment of the army marched {{convert|45|mi}} in about 24 hours.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=596}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=301}} Arriving near the city of Kot Kamalia at daybreak,{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=301}} Alexander rode ahead with his Companion cavalry and totally surprised the Mallians — so much so that many of them were still outside the city. As Alexander had expected, they did not think he would cross the desert.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=597}} A vast number of them were slain,{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=597}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=302}} and Alexander chased those whom he could not massacre into the city.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=302}} He then created a cordon of cavalry around this relatively small town, and awaited the arrival of his infantry.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=597}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=302}} | |||
[[File:Mallian phase 2.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.4|Second phase]] | |||
When the infantry arrived, Alexander detached [[Perdiccas]] with the cavalry of Cleitus the White and his own cavalry, and ordered him to surround another Mallian city to the south-east.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=597}} However, he gave him specific instructions not to actually besiege the city, for fear that some of the inhabitants would flee and give news of what was going on to others in the area, giving them time to escape.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=302}} Alexander desired that Perdiccas should await his own arrival with the rest of the force.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=598}} This is another example of Alexander taking up each and every task he deemed to be important in person, this was a practice he repeated throughout all of his campaigns. It was soon after this that Alexander took the city that he was currently besieging, employing siege equipment such as the [[torsion catapult]].{{sfn|Ian Worthington|2008|p=27}} The torsion catapult was the most powerful of the era, and had revolutionised siege warfare; Alexander would use it to capture all the other cities in the region.{{sfn|Ian Worthington|2008|p=28}} Alexander's army then overcame the city's garrison, two thousand strong, and killed them all.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=598}} When Perdiccas arrived at the town he was supposed to take, he found it empty; he chased down the survivors and put them to the sword.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=302}} | |||
Alexander allowed his men to rest until the first watch of the night.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=303}} After this, the Macedonians continued to pursue the Mallians, the next town being the modern [[Brahmin]] town of [[Atari, Pakistan|Atari]]. Upon arriving, Alexander immediately sent his phalanx forward and prepared to undermine the city walls. However, the Indians, who were by now familiar with Alexander's expertise in besieging, decided they could hold out better in the citadel.{{sfn|Hans Delbruck|1990}} The Macedonians followed. Alexander led a siege of the citadel, bringing his phalanx up towards the walls.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=303}} The citadel was burnt, and five thousand Mallians died within its walls.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=600}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=304}} | |||
After taking a single day's rest,{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=304}} Alexander headed for the city of Mallians (this city has been identified as present-day [[Multan]], although this identification is not certain).{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=606}} However, the Mallians had crossed the river already,{{Clarify|date=July 2011}} and were awaiting his arrival on the western bank.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} | |||
===Final=== | |||
[[File:Mallian phase 3.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.4|Final phase]] | |||
Before continuing his campaign against the Mallians, Alexander sent Peithon and Demetrius back towards the river, the forests, and the desert.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=304}}{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=601}} Their orders were to kill anyone who did not submit.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=304}} The reason was that so many of the cities were deserted when Alexander's forces reached them.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=304}} Refugees from these cities had been taken prisoner in the forests in the area alongside the Hydraotis.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=601}}{{Clarify|date=July 2011}} | |||
The Malli offered battle to Alexander on the high ground of the western bank of the Hydraotis.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=601}} However, Alexander and his army had become such an object of fear in their eyes that he decided to charge them across the river.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} This was not a new tactic, as his father [[Philip II of Macedon|Phillip II]] had perfected the cavalry arm of Macedon to such an extent that the infantry, on many occasions, would only attack after the cavalry.{{sfn|Hans Delbruck|1990}}{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} The Mallians fled without the Macedonian infantry even joining battle. Alexander pursued them with his cavalry for {{convert|5|mi}}.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=602}} | |||
[[File:Mallian campaign cavalry attack.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.4|Cavalry attack]] | |||
The Mallians, realising how small the number of Macedonian cavalry was, chose to stop and fight them. Arrian estimated that there were fifty thousand Mallians at this point.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} As expert as the Companion cavalry was, Alexander had placed himself in a vulnerable situation. However, the Macedonians formed up and circled around the Mallians, attacking them in the flank and rear.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=602}} Eventually, the Macedonian light infantry came up, and the Mallians lost heart and fled to the city of Mallians.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=305}}{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=603}} Alexander followed them to the city, and then rested his columns for the rest of the day.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=305}}{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=603}} | |||
==Siege of the citadel== | |||
[[File:The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions within the Mallian town by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg|thumb|left|The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions within the Mallian town. [[André Castaigne]] (1898-1899).]] | |||
Alexander arranged two separate forces, one to be led by himself and the other by Perdiccas. The Indians almost immediately retreated into the main citadel. The citadel was substantial, with its walls a mile around.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=603}} But Alexander was able to force one of the gates, and made his way into the outer parts of the citadel.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=603}} There the Macedonians began to undermine the next layer of walls.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} | |||
Alexander quickly became impatient at the pace of the siege, so he grabbed a ladder and went up it himself.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=603}} He was followed by only a few soldiers. Arrian reports three soldiers on the wall, Abreas, Peucestas, and Leonnatus.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=Line 330}} Plutarch reports only two: Peucestas and Limnaeus. Either report confirms one of them dies: Abreas or Limnaeus respectively. The rest of the soldiers, nervous about the safety of their king, crowded the ladders to get up so that they could protect him. There were too many of them, and the ladders collapsed under the weight. The Mallians realised who Alexander was, and focused their energies on him. Many of Alexander's men held out their arms and called for him to jump down to them.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=458}} The King, however, would not. | |||
Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel,<ref>{{cite web|last=Dave|first=Wood|title=In the footsteps of Alexander the Great|publisher=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=862z-d53EF4&feature=view_all&list=PL6D64A7AD47C52E4E&index=27|work=The City of Multan|access-date=July 14, 2011}}</ref> where he killed the Mallians' leader.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=604}} However, during the fighting an arrow penetrated Alexander's lung, severely wounding him.{{sfn|Theodore Dodge|1890|p=604}} The Macedonians believed Alexander to be dead. After gaining entrance to the city, they planned to kill everyone in revenge.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} | |||
==Result== | |||
[[File:Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab. From a drawing by [[François Verdier]] (1651-1730).]] | |||
When the Macedonians reached Alexander, "who was lying in a faint condition",{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=312}} some of them placed him on a shield and quickly ran back with him to a tent.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=459}} An incision had to be made in order to get the arrow out, but there was indecision as to who should perform the procedure. According to Arrian, some authors "stated that Critodemus, a physician of [[Kos|Cos]], an [[Asclepiad (title)|Asclepiad]] by birth, made an incision into the injured part and drew the weapon out of the wound",{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=309}} while others claimed "that as there was no physician present at the critical moment, Perdiccas [...] at Alexander's bidding",{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=312}} removed the arrow with his sword, causing "a copious effusion of blood"{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=312}} which rendered Alexander unconscious. The soldiers were very anxious about his health, since they believed he was the only one who could lead them "back in safety to their own country, being quite enclosed by so many warlike nations, some of whom had not yet submitted, and who they conjectured would fight stoutly for their freedom; while others would no doubt revolt as soon as they were relieved of their fear of Alexander."{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=312}} For some days he hovered between life and death. | |||
The main body of the army, four days away from Alexander's location, heard that he was dead.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=459}} Rumours spread like wildfire, and when reports came in that he was alive and was recovering, they would not believe it.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=460}} He was eventually placed upon a boat so that he and his men could see one another, with Alexander ordering "the tent covering to be removed from the stern, that he might be visible to all."{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=313}} In spite of this, his troops were initially still under the impression that he was dead, and that "his corpse was being conveyed on the vessel",{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=313}} until "he stretched out his hand to the multitude".{{sfn|Arrian|1893|p=313}} However, his health was in such a delicate state that during his course down the river they would not even row the boat, for fear that the oars slapping the water would disturb him.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=461}} | |||
Four days afterwards, the Macedonians reached a fertile country which the natives had completely deserted.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=327}} Alexander was confronted by some of his close companions. They told him that he should not expose himself so recklessly in battle.{{sfn|Benjamin Wheeler|1900|p=461}} Alexander received the final submission of the Malli, who had submitted after the capture of their capital city. He sent their ambassadors away, and they returned later with 300 four horse chariots. In addition to this, Alexander also received 1,000 Indian shields, a number of lions and 100 [[Attic talent|talents]].{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1809|p=350}} | |||
==Reference== | ==Reference== | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
=== Bibliography === | |||
{{ref begin}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Arrian |authorlink=Arrian |title=Anabasis of Alexander |publisher=George Bell and Sons |year=1893 |oclc=486120 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Benjamin Wheeler |title=Alexander the Great |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201911 |year=1900 |publisher=G.B. Putnam & Sons |location=New York |oclc=458978001 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Hans Delbruck |year=1990 |title=The History of the Art of War |volume=One |location=Lincoln |publisher=University of Nebraska |isbn=0-8032-6584-0 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Ian Worthington |title=Alexander the Great: Man and God |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7AABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-86645-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Ian Worthington |title=Phillip II of Macedonia |year=2008 |publisher=University of Yale |location=New Haven |isbn=978-0-300-12079-0 |pages=22–37 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Peter Green |title=Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYo6c1iEL_4C&pg=PA418 |year=2013 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95469-4 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Quintus Curtius Rufus |title=The History of the Life and Reign of Alexander the Great |location=London |year=1809 |oclc=457392990 |publisher=S. Bagster }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Siculus Diodorus |title=The Library of History |edition=Volume VIII of the Loeb Classical Library |year=1963 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17E*.html#note67 |access-date=18 July 2011 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Theodore Dodge |authorlink=Theodore Ayrault Dodge |title=Alexander |year=1890 |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=New York |pages=592–608 }} | |||
{{ref end}} | |||
==External links== | |||
*{{Internet Archive|id=AlexanderTheGreat1900ByBenjaminIdeWheeler|name=Benjamin Wheeler (1900) ''Alexander the Great''}} | |||
*[https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander02.html Livius] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909224605/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander02.html |date=2016-09-09 }} | |||
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/3.html#11 Plutarch] | |||
*[https://archive.org/details/cu31924028252546 ''The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodoros, Plutarch and Justin''] (1896), at [[Internet Archive]] | |||
*[https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofin00smit ''The Early History of India from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan conquest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great''] (1914), by [[Vincent Arthur Smith]], at [[Internet Archive]] | |||
[[Category:Battles of Alexander the Great]] | |||
[[Category:320s BC conflicts]] | |||
[[Category:326 BC]] | |||
[[Category:325 BC]] | |||
[[Category:Military history of Pakistan]] | |||
[[Category:Malavas]] | |||
[[Category:Wars involving the Greeks]] | |||