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After surviving an assassination attempt orchestrated by his brother in Vijayanagara, Deva Raya II retaliated by executing all his opponents. Seizing this moment of vulnerability, Bahmani Sultan Alauddin saw an opportunity to invade Vijayanagara and exact tribute, which Deva Raya II had promised but failed to pay. In response, Vijayanagara troops launched attacks on Bahmani territories, plundering their positions. Alauddin mobilized his forces against Deva Raya, deploying his general Malik Tujjar against Deva Raya's sons. The Bahmanis successfully recaptured territories, compelling Vijayanagara troops to retreat from the occupied regions. The decisive battles took place at Mudgal, where Bahmani forces initially faced setbacks but ultimately emerged victorious. Deva Raya agreed to pay tribute under the condition that Alauddin would not cross the [[Tungabhadra River]] again. This conflict marked the final war between the Bahmanis and Vijayanagara. | After surviving an assassination attempt orchestrated by his brother in Vijayanagara, Deva Raya II retaliated by executing all his opponents. Seizing this moment of vulnerability, Bahmani Sultan Alauddin saw an opportunity to invade Vijayanagara and exact tribute, which Deva Raya II had promised but failed to pay. In response, Vijayanagara troops launched attacks on Bahmani territories, plundering their positions. Alauddin mobilized his forces against Deva Raya, deploying his general Malik Tujjar against Deva Raya's sons. The Bahmanis successfully recaptured territories, compelling Vijayanagara troops to retreat from the occupied regions. The decisive battles took place at Mudgal, where Bahmani forces initially faced setbacks but ultimately emerged victorious. Deva Raya agreed to pay tribute under the condition that Alauddin would not cross the [[Tungabhadra River]] again. This conflict marked the final war between the Bahmanis and Vijayanagara. | ||
== Background == | |||
[[File:Devaraya II coin.png|thumb|Bronze coins of Deva Raya II]] | |||
Following the severe blow dealt by the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanis]] during the [[Siege of Vijayanagar|Siege of Vijayanagara]] in 1423, [[Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya|Vira Vijaya]] died, and was succeeded by his brother [[Deva Raya II]].{{Sfn|Allan|1964|p=283}} The ascension of Devaraya II heralded the peak of prosperity for Vijayanagara under the first dynasty.{{Sfn|Rapson|1928|p=491}} The repeated defeats suffered at the hands of the Bahmanis prompted Deva Raya II to overhaul his military strategy. He received counsel suggesting that the success of the Bahmanis stemmed from the superiority of their [[cavalry]] and their expertise in [[archery]]. Consequently, he enlisted Muslims into his service, granted them [[Jagir|jagirs]] (land grants), and even constructed a [[mosque]] at Vijayanagar for their worship.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sinha |first1=Narendra Krishna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvs_Q7g2A30C |title=History of India |last2=Banerjee |first2=Anil Chandra |date=1944 |publisher=A. Mukherjee & Bros. |pages=294 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
After his victory against Vijayanagara in 1423, [[Ahmad Shah I Wali]] proceeded to subjugate the [[Recherla Nayakas|Velama chiefs]] of [[Telangana]], who had aided Vijayanagara in their war against the Bahmanis. He defeated and killed Anapota II, capturing the entire Telangana region in the process.{{Sfn|Sherwani|1985|pp=201-202}} Following this campaign, Ahmad Shah I focused more on the northern part of his realm. Throughout the remainder of his reign, he engaged in wars with the rulers of [[Mahur, Maharashtra|Mahur]], [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]], [[Konkan]], and [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], ensuring Vijayanagara's immunity from northern attacks for about a decade.{{Sfn|Nizami|1970|p=1057}} | |||
However, the heirs of the late Velama king managed to reclaim various districts of Telangana. But their success was short-lived, as Ahmad Shah I returned to Telangana around 1433 and reduced them to vassalage.{{Sfn|Nizami|1970|p=1057}} Similar to Ahmad Shah I, Deva Raya also sought to avenge the support of kingdoms that had allied with his enemies in the past. Deva Raya could not overlook the alliance between [[Reddi Kingdom|Pedakomati Vema]] of [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondavidu]] and [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz Shah Bahmani]]. Capitalizing on the weakness of Vema's incompetent successors, Deva Raya conquered the kingdom and incorporated it into his empire. An epigraph at Kondavidu, dated 1432, documents his grant to a [[Brahman]] from the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=General |first=India Office of the Registrar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yt4cAQAAMAAJ |title=Census of India, 1961 |date=1962 |publisher=Manager of Publications |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Nizami|1970|pp=1057-1058}} Ahmad Shah died in 1436, and he was succeeded by his son [[Alau'd-din Ahmad Shah|Alauddin II]] on July 14th, 1436, who assumed the title of Ahmad upon his accession. He renewed war with Vijayanagara upon his succession due to the Vijayanagara king's failure to pay tribute.{{Sfn|Nizami|1970|p=987}} | |||
=== Deva Raya II's attitude towards Muslim soldiers === | |||
[[File:OttomanHorseArcher.jpg|thumb|Turkish mounted Archer]] | |||
In the years leading up to 1440, Vijayanagara launched offensive attacks against the Bahmani kingdom but suffered defeat. Upon investigating the causes of this defeat, it was concluded that the superiority of the Muslim forces lay in their [[Turkish archery|Turkish mounted archers]]. In response, Devaraya took immediate steps to address this weakness by recruiting a special force of 2000 Muslim archers. He housed them in a designated quarter of the city where they had a mosque and a separate [[slaughterhouse]]. Devaraya showed them respect by placing a copy of the [[Quran]] in front of his throne, so that obeisance made before the monarch was offered to the Quran.{{Sfn|Rapson|1928|p=491}} He widely recruited Muslims and utilized them both within the ranks and as trainers for his [[Hindus|Hindu]] troops.{{Sfn|Allan|1964|p=283}} | |||
This force was not the first Muslim contingent to serve in the Vijayanagara armies. Historical records suggest that during the battle at [[Tiruchirappalli|Trichinopoly]], the last [[Hoysala Kingdom|Hoysala]] ruler commanded a contingent of 20,000 Muslims. Additionally, inscriptions indicate that [[Deva Raya I|Devaraya I]], a predecessor of Devaraya II, also employed a force of Muslim cavalry. Devaraya II utilized these Muslim troops to train other archers in cavalry tactics. As a result, within the next few years, he had amassed a body of 60,000 archers ready to take the field.{{Sfn|Rapson|1928|p=492}} Altogether, Deva Raya's army comprised 10,000 mounted foreign archers, 60,000 Hindu horsemen proficient in archery, and 300,000 adequately trained infantry soldiers.{{Sfn|Allan|1964|p=283}} | |||
=== Record of Nicolo Conti about Bahmanis === | |||
The fifteenth-century [[Italian language|Italian]] traveler [[Niccolò de' Conti|Nicolo Conti]] provides a description of Indian life during the rule of Alauddin Ahmad Shah, the Bahmani ruler at the time. He observed Indian ships, noting their distinctiveness, especially those anchored in the ports of the Deccan. Conti remarked that these ships were notably larger than those constructed in the shipyards of Italy, each equipped with five sails and as many masts. The lower part of these vessels was constructed with triple planks to withstand the force of the storms prevalent in monsoon climates. Conti mentioned that some of these ships were designed in a way that if one part were damaged by the tempest, the remaining portion could safely complete the voyage to port.{{Sfn|Sherwani|1985|p=230}} | |||
Regarding the arts of war, Conti mentions that the army utilized [[Javelin|javelins]], [[swords]], arm-pieces, round [[Shield|shields]], [[Bow and arrow|bows, and arrows]]. In particular, he notes that the inhabitants of Central India also employed [[Ballista|ballistae]], bombarding machines, and siege pieces. Conti finds it peculiar that pestilence was unknown among the people, and they were not susceptible to the diseases that afflicted populations in his own country.{{Sfn|Sherwani|1985|p=230}} | |||
=== Record of Abd al-Razzaq about Vijayanagara === | |||
Shortly after the war, [[Abd al-Razzaq Samarqandi|Abd-ur-Razzaq]], the ambassador of [[Shah Rukh]] from [[Samarkand|Samarqand]], who had spent some time in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], visited Vijayanagara and stayed in the capital for a few months. According to his account, by 1442, the fortifications, temples, palaces, and public buildings of Vijayanagara had been completed. The city occupied an area of approximately sixty-four square miles, with seven enclosures, the accepted number of circuits for a first-class city. The three outermost enclosures consisted of fields designated for cultivation, along with the huts of those working on the land. The four inner enclosures were occupied by houses, with the innermost enclosure containing the palace and its precincts. Several channels had been directed into the city from the [[Tungabhadra River]]; one of them is still known as the Räya channel. These channels served the dual purpose of cultivation and supplying water to the city. Despite the potential for exaggeration in Abd-ur-Razzaq's account, Vijayanagara under Devaraya II must have been a splendid city, boasting exceptional fortifications.{{Sfn|Rapson|1928|p=492}} | |||