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Recent findings revealed early Iron Age proto-urban layers dated to the eleventh to eighth centuries BC, indicating that the fortified urban settlement in Barikot, encompassing both the lower area and acropolis, was established around the mid-first millennium BC. | Recent findings revealed early Iron Age proto-urban layers dated to the eleventh to eighth centuries BC, indicating that the fortified urban settlement in Barikot, encompassing both the lower area and acropolis, was established around the mid-first millennium BC. | ||
==Bronze Age (c. 1700 - 1400 | ==Bronze Age (c. 1700 - 1400 BCE)== | ||
The earliest signs of human activity in Barikot date from around 1700 to 1400 | The earliest signs of human activity in Barikot date from around 1700 to 1400 BCE. According to Giorgio Stacul's findings from 1987, these remnants are classified as belonging to Swat Period IV, with pit structures identified since approximately 1700 BCE. | ||
==Late Bronze/Iron Age (c. 1200–800 BCE)== | |||
Between 2016 and 2017, the Italian Archaeological Mission conducted excavation campaigns that revealed the transitional period from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age, estimated to be around 1200 to 800 BCE. Excavations in trench BKG 12 W uncovered various artifacts during Macrophase 1b, including residential structures, workshops, a toy-cart, bi-carinated pottery, miniature vessels, stone tools, and incised pottery. These items were radiocarbon-dated to between 1196 and 1021 BC, with a 95.4% probability model. | |||
During this era, approximately from 1200 to 800 BCE, archaeological evidence indicates the existence of a substantial settlement covering about 15 hectares. This included a hilltop acropolis, as noted by Callieri et al. (2000), an inner stronghold, and a large outer graveyard. This phase was previously referred to as the Gandhara grave culture. | |||
== Abandonment Phase (c. 800–600 BCE) == | |||
Following the Iron Age, the settlement experienced the downfall of its earthen rampart during Macrophase 1c. Subsequently, the site was deserted, and alluvial deposits began to cover the area in Interphase 1c/2a, which spanned approximately from 800 to 600 BCE. | |||
== The Beginning of the City and Achaemenid Acculturation Phase (c. 600–400 BCE) == | |||
Following the abandonment, archaeological evidence indicates that the city's beginnings can be traced to Macrophase 2a1, which occurred between 600 and 500 BCE, marking a pre-Achaemenid phase. This period is poorly represented in terms of finds and pottery, with only "a poorly preserved section of a wall revealing signs of a passageway indicated by wheel traces." | |||
The influence of Achaemenid culture is associated with Macrophase 2a2, spanning from 500 to 400 BCE. This acculturation, evident from around 500 to 450 BCE, began with "the local production of tulip bowls at Barikot [which] implies that processes of emulation and social aspiration were already underway among the Swat elite during the early part of [the 5th century BCE]" within the Classic period of the Persian Empire. During this phase in Barikot, archaeologists discovered luxury pottery characteristic of the Achaemenids, alongside the emergence of non-luxury Indic pottery and various local glass artifacts. | |||
== Regionalisation Phase (c. 400–250 BCE) == | |||
Greek and Latin texts, such as those by Curtius Rufus, indicate that by around 350 BCE, Swat and Gandhara were no longer under Achaemenid control. During this period, a tribe known as the Assakenoi emerged as rulers of the region, forming alliances with other Indian tribes. Archaeologists from the Italian Mission suggest that this phase marked the complete decline of Achaemenid ceramic styles, although household Indic vessels continued to be used in Barikot. This time frame corresponds to archaeological Macrophase 2b, which lasted from approximately 400 to 250 BCE. Notably, the Macedonian siege of Barikot (Bazira) took place during this period, specifically in the autumn of 327 BCE. Additionally, within Macrophase 2b, a Mauryan coin was discovered in trench BKG 11, which was radiocarbon dated to between 349 and 282 BCE, with a 95.4% probability model indicating a date of 315 ± 34 BCE. | |||
== Mauryan and Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms Linking Phase (c. 250–200 BCE) == | |||
Beginning in 2011, excavations in the southwest corner of the site revealed several older settlements than previously anticipated. In 2016, one pre-Indo-Greek layer was dated to the mid-3rd century BCE, corresponding to the middle of the Mauryan era. This period, referred to archaeologically as Macrophase 3a1, saw Barikot integrated into a political and commercial network that connected the Mauryan and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms. During this time, both Greco-Bactrian and Hellenistic pottery forms were introduced at the site, showcasing distinct connections to northern Afghanistan and Central Asia, similar to those found at Ai-Khanoum. | |||
== Old Apsidal Temple == | |||
In December 2021, archaeologists from Ca’ Foscari University and the Italian Archaeological Mission, in collaboration with the provincial department of archaeology and museums in Pakistan and led by Dr. Luca Maria Olivieri, announced the discovery of the earliest Buddhist apsidal temple at Barikot, known in antiquity as Bazira. This temple is believed to have been constructed during the reign of Ashoka in the Mauryan period, around 250 BCE. Evidence suggests that the structure remained in use during the reign of Menander I, the Indo-Greek king, in the mid-second century BCE. Although it underwent enhancements in subsequent periods, the temple ultimately ceased to function around the third or fourth century CE, coinciding with the abandonment of the city by the Kushan rulers due to an earthquake. | |||
This discovery marks the earliest known apsidal temple in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan) to date, representing a significant finding that indicates the presence of Buddhism in Swat since the 3rd century BCE. It also confirms that Menander I, referred to as Milinda by early Buddhists, actively supported this religious tradition. | |||
Dr. Michele Minardi, a member of the Italian mission, remarked, “We have found coins, including a silver specimen issued by King Menander, an onyx seal adorned with a Hellenistic intaglio depicting a youth in Greek attire alongside a Kharosthi inscription, a monumental Kharosthi epigraph, and numerous other Kharosthi inscriptions on pots and potsherds belonging to the Indo-Greek cultural horizon, such as fish plates and polished black pottery that imitates Attic models.” | |||
A 2024 publication by Luca Maria Olivieri posits that the apsidal temple is associated with an Indian-style Buddhist stupa, dating back to the era of the prominent Buddhist advocate, the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (r. 268-232 BCE). Olivieri notes that this monument was modified from an earlier, non-Buddhist shrine that existed during the time when Alexander the Great besieged Barikot in 327 BCE. This suggests a continuity and transformation of religious practices at the site, reflecting the shifts in cultural and spiritual influences in the region over time. | |||
== Indo-Greek Phase (c. 200–100 BCE) == | |||
The Italian expeditions in the 1980s and 90s uncovered an Indo-Greek town dating to the time of King Menander I in the 2nd century BCE. At its peak, this town spanned approximately 12 hectares (30 acres), including the acropolis, or about 7 hectares (17 acres) excluding it. The settlement was fortified by a defensive wall featuring massive rectangular bastions. This wall, constructed around Barikot during the Indo-Greek phase, is associated with Macrophase 3a2, postdating 200 BCE. Excavations conducted by the same Italian mission in 2016-2017 provided numismatic evidence and radiocarbon analysis that dated the wall to this period. Additionally, a burial linked to the construction of the Indo-Greek city wall was dated to around 130–115 BCE, which corresponds to the later part of Menander I's reign and the onset of Antalkidas's rule. | |||
== Sakas and Parthians Phase (c. 50 BC–70 CE) == | |||
Belonging to Macrophase 3b, the period in Barikot reflects significant historical and cultural developments, specifically the annexation of Swat by the Sakas and Parthians. Evidence indicates that prior to 80 AD, the defensive wall surrounding the town was reinforced, showcasing the strategic importance of Barikot during this time. This reinforcement likely corresponds to the broader geopolitical changes occurring in the region as these groups exerted their influence over Swat. | |||
== Early Kushan Phase (c. 70-200 CE) == | |||
This period corresponds to Macrophase 4a and 4b during the Early Kushan times, when, in the first centuries of the Common Era, the geographical area of Barikot emerged as a referential space for at least three distinct and overlapping religious and social realities. These included the Buddhist ''saṅgha'' ({{lang-hi|बौद्ध सङ्घ|label=none}}), the so-called 'Dardic' communities, and the urban elites of Barikot. This dynamic interplay among diverse cultural and social groups highlights the region's significance as a melting pot of ideas, beliefs, and practices during the Early Kushan period. | |||
== Late Kushan Phase (c. 200-250 CE) == | |||
This period is classified as Macrophase 5a (circa 200-250 CE). Under the Kushan Empire, Bazira developed into a significant town; however, it faced devastation from a series of earthquakes in the 3rd century CE. The combination of earthquake damage and the subsequent decline of the Kushan Empire led to the abandonment of Bazira by the end of the 3rd century. | |||
Excavations at the site have uncovered a variety of artifacts that illuminate the daily life of its inhabitants, including coins, pottery, and weapons. Among the notable finds are a large green-schist statue of Siddhartha Buddha riding his horse Kanthaka and a carving of a stupa flanked by two lions, both of which underscore the Buddhist heritage of Bazira. Additionally, another statue depicts an unknown deity seated on a throne, characterized by long, curled hair and holding a wine goblet alongside a severed goat head. This figure may represent Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, or potentially another local deity, reflecting the cultural syncretism present in the region during this period. | |||
== Late Kushan, sub-Kushan, and Kushano-Sasanian Phase (c. 250-400 CE) == | |||
This timeframe is classified as Macrophase 5b (approximately 250-300 CE) and extends into Macrophase 6 (around 300-400 CE), which pertains to the late Kushan, sub-Kushan, and Kushano-Sasanian phases. | |||
==Abandonment Phase (c. 400-550 CE)== | |||
The Macrophase 7, (c. 400-550 CE) is considered as an abandonment phase, although a sacred building was constructed. | |||
== Shahi Phase (c. 680-1000 CE) == | |||
The Shahi phase is categorized under Macrophase 8 (circa 680-1000 CE). | |||
The Turk Shahi was a Turkic dynasty based in Kabul that also governed the Swat Valley from the 7th to the 9th centuries CE. During this time, members of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan discovered a remarkable temple built in Barikot, located atop the Ghwandai mound. This find is significant, as there are very few cultic centers in this region associated with the Shahi periods overall. Dr. Luca Maria Olivieri noted that the temple was constructed around 700 CE, during which the Uddiyana (Swat Valley) was under the rule of a king referred to as "From Kesar." He was the son of Khurasan Tegin Shah, a prominent Turk Shahi ruler from Kabul. Furthermore, the temple was re-established and maintained until the Hindu Shahi period (approximately 1000 CE). This temple is also referenced in a Hindu Shahi inscription discovered in Barikot during the late 19th century, which is now preserved in the Lahore Museum. | |||
==Ghaznavid Phase (c. 1000-1100 CE)== | |||
Ghaznavid phase belongs to Macrophase 9a, (c. 1000-1100 CE). | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
{{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||