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'''Pargana''' | '''Pargana''' or '''parganah''', also spelt '''pergunnah''', equivalent to [[Mahallah|Mohallah]]<ref name=Banglapedia>{{cite book |last=Akhter |first=Nasrin |year=2012 |chapter=Sarkar |chapter-url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sarkar |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> as a subunit of [[Subah (province)|Subah]] (Suba),<ref name="Conermann2015"/><ref name="Robinson2009"/> was a type of former [[administrative division]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] during the time of the [[Sultanate of Delhi|Delhi Sultanate]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] and [[British Raj|British Colonial]] empires.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924007471935/cu31924007471935_djvu.txt "A Catalogue of Manuscript and Printed Reports, Field Books, Memoirs, Maps ..." Vol. iv, "Containing the treaties, etc., relating to the states within the Bombay presidency"]</ref><ref name=pirs1/> Mughal Empire was divided into [[Subah (province)|Subah]] (Suba) or province headed by a ''Subahdar'', which were further subdivided into ''[[Sarkar (administrative division)|sarkars]]'' or '''tarafs''',<ref name=taraf1/> which in turn were further subdivided into groups of villages known as ''parganas'' or [[Mahalla]]s (Mahal).<ref name="Conermann2015"/><ref name="Robinson2009"/> Depending on the size, the ''parganas'' may or may not be further subdivided into ''pirs''<ref name=pirs1>{{Cite book |last= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EiYLAQAAIAAJ |title=Orissa District Gazetteers: Mayurbhanj |date=1967 |publisher=Superintendent, Orissa Government Press |location=Orissa (India) |pages=347 |language=en}}</ref> or ''[[mouza]]s'' which were the smallest revenue units, consisting of one or more villages and the surrounding countryside. In [[Bengal]], the Sarkar system was replaced in the early 18th century by the [[Chakla (administrative division)|Chakla]] system.<ref>{{cite book |last=Akhtar |first=Shirin |year=2012 |chapter=Chakla System |chapter-url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Chakla_System |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> In the [[Punjab region]], the British established new [[Punjab Canal Colonies]] in which the smallest unit [equivalent to village or Mauza or pir] were termed [[Chak (village)|Chak]]. Above-mentioned revenue units were used primarily, but not exclusively, by Muslim kingdoms. After [[Independence of India]] in 1947, the parganas became equivalent to [[Community development block|Block]]/[[Tehsil|Tahsil]], and pirs or mahals became [[Gram panchayat|Grampanchayat]]. | ||
'' | The Mughal government in the ''pargana'' consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.<ref name="Conermann2015">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mughal Empire |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online |year=2015 |last=Conermann |first=Stephan |publisher=Brill |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EMHO/COM-024206.xml?rskey=YrXHKP |access-date=2022-03-28 |doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_024206|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Robinson2009">{{Citation |last=Robinson |first=Francis |title=Mughal Empire |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0549 |year=2009 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329002419/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0549 |url-status=live |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Under the reign of [[Sher Shah Suri]], administration of parganas was strengthened by the addition of other officers, including a '''''[[Sikdar|shiqdar]]''''' (police chief), an '''''amin''''' or '''''munsif''''' (an arbitrator who assessed and collected revenue) and a '''''karkun''''' (record keeper). | ||
==Mughal era== | |||
In the 16th century the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]] organised the empire into ''[[Subah (province)|subahs]]'' (roughly equivalent of state or province), which were further subdivided into [[sarkar (administrative division)|sarkars]] (roughly the equivalent of districts), which were themselves organised into ''parganas'' (roughly the equivalent of district subdivisions such as tehsil). In the Mughal system, ''parganas'' served as the local administrative units of a ''sarkar''. Individual parganas observed common customs regarding land rights and responsibilities, which were known as the ''pargana dastur'', and each pargana had its own customs regarding rent, fees, wages, and weights and measures, known as the ''pargana nirikh''.<ref name=Banglapedia>{{cite book |last=Akhter |first=Nasrin |year=2012 |chapter=Sarkar |chapter-url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sarkar |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> | |||
== | Pargana consisted of several ''tarafs'', which in their turn consisted of several villages plus some uninhabited mountain and forest land.<ref name=taraf1>{{cite book |title=The Making Of British India - 1756-1858 |year=2006 |publisher=Read Books |page=289 |url=https://www.amazon.in/Making-British-India-1756-1858/dp/1406723789 |author1=Ramsay Muir |author-link=Ramsay Muir |access-date=27 July 2024 |format=Paperback}}</ref>{{anchor|Bahmani usage}} During the reign of the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] in the [[Deccan]], ''tarafs'' represented the provinces of the sultanate and its main territorial division. Tarafs were ruled by a ''tarafdar'', the provincial governor, who held a significant amount of autonomy.<ref>{{cite book|first=Haroon Khan|last=Sherwani|year=1973|title=History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142905|publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh|page=189}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Haroon Khan|last=Sherwani|year=1973|title=History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9T5uAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh|page=509}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Radhey|last=Shyam|date=1966|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5C4hBqKdkEsC|title=The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120826519|page=17}}</ref> | ||
==British Indian Empire== | |||
==British | As the [[British India|British]] expanded into former Mughal provinces, starting with [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], they at first retained the ''pargana'' administration, but, under the Governorship of [[Charles Cornwallis]], enacted the [[Permanent Settlement]] of 1793, which abolished the pargana system in favour of the ''[[zamindar]]i'' system, in which ''zamindars'' were made the absolute owners of rural lands, and abolished the ''pargana dastur'' and ''pargana nirikh''. British administration consisted of [[districts of India|districts]], which were divided into [[tehsil]]s or [[taluk]]s. Parganas remained important as a geographical term, persisting in land surveys, village identification and court decrees. | ||
As the [[British India|British]] expanded into former Mughal provinces, starting with [[Bengal]], they at first retained the ''pargana'' administration, but, under the Governorship of [[Charles Cornwallis]], enacted the [[Permanent Settlement]] of 1793, which abolished the | |||
==Post independence== | ==Post independence== | ||
The ''pargana'' system persisted in several [[princely states]], including [[Tonk, India|Tonk]] and [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]]. Parganas disappeared almost completely after the independence of | The ''pargana'' system persisted in several [[princely states]], including [[Tonk, India|Tonk]] and [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]]. Parganas disappeared almost completely after the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, although the term lives on in place names, like the districts of [[North 24 Parganas]] and [[South 24 Parganas]] in India's [[West Bengal]] state. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Administrative divisions of India]] | |||
* [[Punjab Canal Colonies]] | |||
* [[Chak (village)]] | |||
* [[Chakla (administrative division)]] | |||
* [[List of parganas of Uttarakhand]] | * [[List of parganas of Uttarakhand]] | ||
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{{Types of administrative country subdivision}} | {{Types of administrative country subdivision}} | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Delhi Sultanate]] | ||
[[Category:Economic history of India]] | [[Category:Economic history of India]] | ||
[[Category:Administrative divisions of India]] | [[Category:Administrative divisions of India]] | ||
Latest revision as of 06:22, 30 May 2025
Pargana or parganah, also spelt pergunnah, equivalent to Mohallah[1] as a subunit of Subah (Suba),[2][3] was a type of former administrative division in the Indian subcontinent during the time of the Delhi Sultanate, Mughal and British Colonial empires.[4][5] Mughal Empire was divided into Subah (Suba) or province headed by a Subahdar, which were further subdivided into sarkars or tarafs,[6] which in turn were further subdivided into groups of villages known as parganas or Mahallas (Mahal).[2][3] Depending on the size, the parganas may or may not be further subdivided into pirs[5] or mouzas which were the smallest revenue units, consisting of one or more villages and the surrounding countryside. In Bengal, the Sarkar system was replaced in the early 18th century by the Chakla system.[7] In the Punjab region, the British established new Punjab Canal Colonies in which the smallest unit [equivalent to village or Mauza or pir] were termed Chak. Above-mentioned revenue units were used primarily, but not exclusively, by Muslim kingdoms. After Independence of India in 1947, the parganas became equivalent to Block/Tahsil, and pirs or mahals became Grampanchayat.
The Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.[2][3] Under the reign of Sher Shah Suri, administration of parganas was strengthened by the addition of other officers, including a shiqdar (police chief), an amin or munsif (an arbitrator who assessed and collected revenue) and a karkun (record keeper).
Mughal era[edit | edit source]
In the 16th century the Mughal emperor Akbar organised the empire into subahs (roughly equivalent of state or province), which were further subdivided into sarkars (roughly the equivalent of districts), which were themselves organised into parganas (roughly the equivalent of district subdivisions such as tehsil). In the Mughal system, parganas served as the local administrative units of a sarkar. Individual parganas observed common customs regarding land rights and responsibilities, which were known as the pargana dastur, and each pargana had its own customs regarding rent, fees, wages, and weights and measures, known as the pargana nirikh.[1]
Pargana consisted of several tarafs, which in their turn consisted of several villages plus some uninhabited mountain and forest land.[6] During the reign of the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, tarafs represented the provinces of the sultanate and its main territorial division. Tarafs were ruled by a tarafdar, the provincial governor, who held a significant amount of autonomy.[8][9][10]
British Indian Empire[edit | edit source]
As the British expanded into former Mughal provinces, starting with Bengal, they at first retained the pargana administration, but, under the Governorship of Charles Cornwallis, enacted the Permanent Settlement of 1793, which abolished the pargana system in favour of the zamindari system, in which zamindars were made the absolute owners of rural lands, and abolished the pargana dastur and pargana nirikh. British administration consisted of districts, which were divided into tehsils or taluks. Parganas remained important as a geographical term, persisting in land surveys, village identification and court decrees.
Post independence[edit | edit source]
The pargana system persisted in several princely states, including Tonk and Gwalior. Parganas disappeared almost completely after the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, although the term lives on in place names, like the districts of North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas in India's West Bengal state.
See also[edit | edit source]
- Administrative divisions of India
- Punjab Canal Colonies
- Chak (village)
- Chakla (administrative division)
- List of parganas of Uttarakhand
Notes[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Akhter, Nasrin (2012). "Sarkar". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Conermann, Stephan (2015). "Mughal Empire". Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online. Brill. doi:10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_024206. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Robinson, Francis (2009), "Mughal Empire", The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5, archived from the original on 29 March 2022, retrieved 28 March 2022
- ↑ "A Catalogue of Manuscript and Printed Reports, Field Books, Memoirs, Maps ..." Vol. iv, "Containing the treaties, etc., relating to the states within the Bombay presidency"
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Orissa District Gazetteers: Mayurbhanj. Orissa (India): Superintendent, Orissa Government Press. 1967. p. 347.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Ramsay Muir (2006). The Making Of British India - 1756-1858 (Paperback). Read Books. p. 289. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
- ↑ Akhtar, Shirin (2012). "Chakla System". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
- ↑ Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh. p. 189.
- ↑ Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume II. Government of Andhra Pradesh. p. 509.
- ↑ Shyam, Radhey (1966). The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 17. ISBN 9788120826519.
References[edit | edit source]
- Hunter, William Wilson, Sir, et al. (1908). Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume 12. 1908–1931; Clarendon Press, Oxford.
- Markovits, Claude (ed.) (2004). A History of Modern India: 1480-1950. Anthem Press, London.