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{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox royalty
{{Infobox royalty
|name           = Sthanu Ravi  
| name         = Sthanu Ravi
|title="Kulasekhara" Deva
| title       = Kulasekhara
|image           = Koodiyattam, Kalamandalam Sindhu (cropped).jpg
| image       = Koodiyattam, Kalamandalam Sindhu (cropped).jpg
|image_size     =  
| image_size   =  
|caption         = The art-form known as [[Kudiyattam]] is associated Kulasekhara.
| caption     = The art-form known as [[Kudiyattam]] is associated with Kulasekhara.
|succession     = Ruler of Chera Perumal Kingdom
| succession   = Chera Perumal
|reign           =  
| reign       = 844/45 – 870/71 AD
844/45 – 870/71 AD
| full name   =  
|full name       =  
| predecessor = N/A
 
| successor   = [[Rama Rajasekhara]]
|predecessor     =N/A  
| spouse       =  
|successor       =[[Rama Rajasekhara]]  
| issue       = [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Kizhan Atikal Ravi Neeli]]<ref>As per MGS, 1972</ref>
|spouse         =  
| house       = [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Cheras (medieval Kerala)]]<ref>As per MGS, 1972</ref>
|issue           = [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Kizhan Atikal Ravi Neeli]]<ref>As per MGS, 1972</ref>
| religion     = [[Hinduism]]
|house           = [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal of Makotai]]<ref>As per MGS, 1972</ref>  
| regnal name = Kulasekhara<ref>As per MGS, 1972</ref>|
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}
|regnal name = Kulasekhara<ref>As per MGS, 1972</ref>
'''Sthanu Ravi Varma''' ([[Malayalam|early Malayalam]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''Ko''' '''Tanu Iravi'''), known as the '''Kulasekhara,''' was the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] ruler of Kerala in southern India from 844/45 to c. 870/71 AD.<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashima (ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ&q=A+Concise+History+of+South+India:+Issues+and+Interpretations. A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations].'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146-47.</ref><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala Perumāḷs of Kerala].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 65-66.</ref><ref name=":32">'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Uz0oQEACAAJ&q=Irreverent+History:-+Essays+for+M.G.S.+Narayanan Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan],'' Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75.</ref> He is the earliest medieval [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Chera]] ruler of Kerala known to scholars.<ref name=":32" /> Sthanu Ravi notably assisted the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] ruler [[Aditya I]] (c. 871–907 AD) in conquering the Kongu country from the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] around 885 AD.<ref name=":9">Ali, Daud. “The Death of a Friend: Companionship, Loyalty and Affiliation in Chola South India.” ''Studies in History'', vol. 33, no. 1, Feb. 2017, pp. 36–60.</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India |date=2023 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-93-570-5618-2 |edition=2nd |pages=1481 |orig-year=2008}}</ref>
|}}
 
'''Sthanu Ravi Varma''' ([[Malayalam|Early Malayalam]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''Ko''' '''Tanu Iravi'''), known as the '''Kulasekhara''', was the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] ruler of Kerala in southern India from 844/45 to 870/71 AD.<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ&q=A+Concise+History+of+South+India:+Issues+and+Interpretations. A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations].'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala Perumāḷs of Kerala].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 65-66.</ref><ref name=":32">'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Uz0oQEACAAJ&q=Irreverent+History:-+Essays+for+M.G.S.+Narayanan Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan],'' Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75.</ref> He is the earliest [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] ruler known to scholars.<ref name=":32" />
 
The Chera Perumal relations with the [[Chola dynasty]] were inaugurated during the reign of Sthanu Ravi.<ref name=":5">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 64-66 and 78-79.</ref> The famous [[Tharisapalli plates|Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates]] are dated in the fifth regnal year of king Sthanu Ravi. Two more inscriptions dated in the regnal years of Sthanu Ravi can be found at [[Irinjalakuda]] [[Koodalmanikyam Temple|Kudalmanikyam Temple]], and at Thiruvatruvay, [[Thiruvalla]].<ref name=":33">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 436.</ref> Koyil Adhikarikal (the Royal Prince) during the time of Sthanu Ravi was his son-in-law (husband of his daughter) Vijayaraga.<ref name=":5" /> Sthanu Ravi had a son born to him in or about 870 AD.<ref name=":7">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 79-80.</ref> He was succeeded by [[Rama Rajasekhara]] (870/71–c. 883/84).<ref name=":32" />
 
Sthanu Ravi probably abdicated the throne toward the end of his reign and became a [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] [[Alwars|alvar]] saint known as [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Alvar]] (seventh of the twelve mystic [[Alwars|alvars]]).<ref name=":34">'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), ''Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan,'' Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75 and 78.</ref> He is also identified with playwright Chera king Kulasekhara Varma.<ref>Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143.</ref><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 46-48 .</ref><ref>Veluthat, Kesavan. 2004. 'Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur', in ''South-Indian Horizons'', eds Jean-Luc Chevillard, Eva Wilden, and A. Murugaiyan, pp. 471–85. École Française D'Extrême-Orient.</ref>
 
== Career ==
[[File:Thillaisthanam_inscription_(9th_century_AD,_Aditya_Chola).png|thumb|378x378px|Remains of the Thillaisthanam inscription (9th century AD, [[Aditya I|Aditya Chola]])]]
Present-day central Kerala probably detached from [[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Chera or Kerala kingdom]] (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera Perumal kingdom.<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Central Kerala was under some form of viceregal rule prior to this period.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-93.</ref>
 
The direct authority of the Chera Perumal king was restricted to the country around capital [[Kodungallur|Makotai (Mahodaya, present-day Kodungallur)]] in central Kerala.<ref name=":43">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref> His kingship was only ritual and remained nominal compared with the power that local chieftains (the udaiyavar) exercised politically and militarily. [[Nambudiri]]-[[Brahmin|Brahmins]] also possessed huge authority in religious and social subjects (the so-called ritual sovereignty combined with Brahmin oligarchy).<ref name=":43" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. 2002. ‘The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala’, in ''State and Society in Premodern South India'', eds R. Champakalakshmi, Kesavan Veluthat, and T. R. Venugopalan, pp.111–19. Thrissur, CosmoBooks.</ref>


=== Chola contemporary of Sthanu Ravi ===
The famous [[Tharisapalli plates|Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates]] are dated to the fifth regnal year of king Sthanu Ravi. Two more inscriptions dated in the regnal years of Sthanu Ravi are found at the [[Irinjalakuda]] [[Koodalmanikyam Temple|Kudalmanikyam Temple]] and at Thiruvatruvay, [[Thiruvalla]].<ref name=":33">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 436.</ref> The Koyil Adhikarikal ("Royal Prince") during his time was his son-in-law (husband of his daughter), Vijayaraga.<ref name=":5">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 64-66 and 78-79.</ref> Sthanu Ravi had a son born around 870 AD.<ref name=":7">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 79-80.</ref> He was succeeded by [[Rama Rajasekhara]] (c. 870/71–c. 883/84).<ref name=":32" />  
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|thumb|379x379px|Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]
Sthanu Ravi was a partner in the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] king Rajakesari Varma's campaign in Kongu country (central [[Tamil Nadu]]).<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435-437.</ref> It is known that the two rulers jointly conferred military honours on a chief of [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]] called Vikki Annan (who was the husband of Kadamba Mahadevi), probably a [[Western Ganga dynasty|Ganga]] prince. Vikki Annan, son of Prithvipati, is mentioned in a Ganga inscription of the mid-9th century AD.<ref>''Tillaisthanam Inscription (844-5 CE, Tanjore) of "Tondainadu Pavina Cholan Palyanai", Ko Kandan, Rajakesarivarman. South Indian Inscriptions 23 (1979), no. 129.''</ref><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 95-96.</ref> The title "[[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]]" suggests a relationship with the Kadamba lineage.<ref name="google1">Menon, A. Sreedhara (1967). ''A Survey of Kerala History.'' Kottayam (Kerala): DC Books, 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ESpUMAEACAAJ&q=editions:UOM39015059676398] </ref><ref name=":0" />  


King Rajakesari Varma can be identified either with Aditya Chola (c. 871–907 AD<ref name=":9">Ali, Daud. “The Death of a Friend: Companionship, Loyalty and Affiliation in Chola South India.” ''Studies in History'', vol. 33, no. 1, Feb. 2017, pp. 36–60.</ref>) or with Srikantha Chola (817–845 AD).<ref name=":8">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 436-37.</ref>
Toward the end of his reign, Sthanu Ravi probably abdicated the throne and became a [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] [[Alwars|alvar]] saint known as [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Alvar]] (the seventh of the twelve mystic [[Alwars|alvars]]).<ref name=":34">'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), ''Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan,'' Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75 and 78.</ref> He is also identified with the playwright Chera king "Kulasekhara Varma".<ref>Noburu Karashima (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146-47.</ref><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 46-48 .</ref><ref>Veluthat, Kesavan. 2004. 'Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur', in ''South-Indian Horizons'', eds Jean-Luc Chevillard, Eva Wilden, and A. Murugaiyan, pp. 471–85. École Française D'Extrême-Orient.</ref>
== Background ==
Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara is regarded as the earliest known Chera ruler (the Perumal) of Kerala.<ref name=":32" /> It is speculated that present-day central Kerala likely separated from the larger [[Kongu Chera dynasty|Chera or Kerala kingdom]] around the 8th–9th century AD to form the Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur.<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Central Kerala was probably under some form of viceregal rule before this period.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 80-93.</ref>[[File:Thillaisthanam_inscription_(9th_century_AD,_Aditya_Chola).png|thumb|378x378px|Remains of the Thillaisthanam inscription (9th century AD, [[Aditya I|Aditya Chola]])]]
[[File:Cola-Cera_Perumal_relations_(c._9th-10th_centuries_AD).png|thumb|378x378px|Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)]]
The direct sovereign authority of the Chera Perumal king was likely restricted to the country around the capital, [[Kodungallur|Makotai (Mahodayapuram, present-day Kodungallur)]], in central Kerala.<ref name=":43">Noburu Karashima (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146-47.</ref> His pan-Kerala kingship was likely ritualistic, remaining nominal compared to the political and military power wielded by local chieftains (the udaiyavar). [[Nambudiri|Nambudiri Brahmins]] also exercised significant authority in religious and social matters, a system often described as "ritual sovereignty combined with Brahmin oligarchy".<ref name=":43" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. 2002. ‘The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala’, in ''State and Society in Premodern South India'', eds R. Champakalakshmi, Kesavan Veluthat, and T. R. Venugopalan, pp.111–19. Thrissur, CosmoBooks.</ref>


* Identification of Rajakesari Varma with [[Aditya I|Aditya Chola]] (c. 871–907 AD) (followed Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai) – Elamkulam also assumes that Sthanu Ravi ruled up to 885 AD to be able to become the junior partner in Aditya Chola's wars in Kongu Nadu.<ref name=":7" /> – this view is found acceptable by the recent scholarship.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":282">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781108494571|location=|pages=150|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref>
== Campaigns in the Kongu country ==
* Identification of Rajakesari Varma with Srikantha Chola (817–845 AD) – this puts the joint action in 844/45 AD and Sthanu Ravi's final regnal year in 883 AD<ref name=":7" /> – this view was found acceptable by M. G. S. Narayanan (following T. V. Mahalingam).<ref name=":7" />
Sthanu Ravi appears to have acted as a junior ally in a military campaign led by the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] ruler bearing the title "Rajakesari Varma" in the Kongu country (central [[Tamil Nadu]]).<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 435-437.</ref> Epigraphic evidence indicates that the two rulers jointly conferred military honours upon a [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]] chief named Vikki Annan, who was married to a woman identified as "Kadamba Mahadevi". Vikki Annan was likely a Ganga prince, being the son of Prithvipati, and is mentioned in a Ganga inscription dated to the mid-9th century AD.<ref>''Tillaisthanam Inscription (844-5 CE, Tanjore) of "Tondainadu Pavina Cholan Palyanai", Ko Kandan, Rajakesarivarman. South Indian Inscriptions 23 (1979), no. 129.''</ref><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 95-96.</ref> The designation "Kadamba" in the princess's name suggests a probable affiliation with the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]] lineage.<ref name="google1">Menon, A. Sreedhara (1967). ''A Survey of Kerala History.'' Kottayam (Kerala): DC Books, 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ESpUMAEACAAJ&q=editions:UOM39015059676398] </ref><ref name=":0" />


=== Astronomy ===
The identity of the Chola ruler titled "Rajakesari Varma" remains a subject of scholarly debate.<ref name=":8">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 436-37.</ref><ref name=":52" /> One interpretation, advanced by historian Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai, identifies "Rajakesari Varma" with [[Aditya I|Aditya Chola]] (c. 871–907 AD<ref name=":9" />). This hypothesis assumes that Sthanu Ravi ruled Kerala until around 885 AD, enabling his participation as a junior partner in Aditya Chola’s Kongu campaigns, particularly the conquest of the region from the Pandyas (c. 885 AD).<ref name=":7" /> Recent scholarship generally supports this view.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":282">{{Cite book |last=Devadevan |first=Manu V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India |title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108494571 |location= |pages=150 |chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref> An alternative interpretation, accepted by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972/1996) following T. V. Mahalingam ("An Interregnum in Pallava History", JIH, XLI, I), identifies "Rajakesari Varma" with [[Srikantha Chola]] (817–845 AD), thereby placing the joint military action in Kongu around 844/45 AD.<ref name=":7" />
An astronomer called [[Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa|Sankara Narayana]] (c. 840 – 900 AD) was a member of the royal court of Kulasekhara. Narayana is best known as the author of ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha'', a detailed commentary of on the works of mathematician [[Bhāskara I|Bhaskara I]] (early 6th century AD).<ref name=":6">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 78-79.</ref>  
== Astronomy ==
The astronomer and mathematician [[Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa|Sankaranarayana]] (c. 840–900 AD) served as a distinguished member of the royal court of Kulasekhara at the capital, Mahodayapuram (present-day [[Kodungallur]]). He is best known for authoring the Laghubhaskariyavyakha, an extensive commentary on the works of the eminent mathematician [[Bhāskara I|Bhaskara I]] (7th century AD).<ref name=":6">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 78-79.</ref> Evidence suggests that an "astronomical observatory" operated at Mahodayapuram under Sankaranarayana's supervision.<ref name="Joseph">{{cite book |last=George Gheverghese Joseph |url=https://archive.org/details/passagetoinfinit00jose |title=A Passage to Infinity |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-321-0168-0 |location=New Delhi |page=[https://archive.org/details/passagetoinfinit00jose/page/n25 13] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name=":4">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 390-391 and 408-409.</ref>  


An observatory functioned at Kodungallur under the charge of Narayana.<ref name="Joseph">{{cite book|last=George Gheverghese Joseph|url=https://archive.org/details/passagetoinfinit00jose|title=A Passage to Infinity|publisher=SAGE Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-81-321-0168-0|location=New Delhi|page=[https://archive.org/details/passagetoinfinit00jose/page/n25 13]|url-access=limited}}</ref> There are references to an instrument called "Rashi Chakra" marked by a "Yanthra Valaya" in the ''Vyakha''. This instrument might be the same as the Gola Yanthra/Chakra Yanthra mentioned by famous polymath [[Aryabhata]]. The Chakra Yanthra was developed further and called Phalaka Yanthra by Bhaskara I.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 390-391 and 408-409.</ref>
The vyakhya contains references to an instrument termed the "Rashichakra", marked by a "Yanthravalaya". This "device" is possibly identical to the Golayanthra or Chakrayanthra described by the renowned polymath [[Aryabhata]]. The Chakrayanthra was subsequently refined and came to be known as the Phalakayanthra by Bhaskara I.<ref name=":4" />


== Inscriptions ==
== Inscriptions ==
=== As Sthanu Ravi ===
=== As Sthanu Ravi ===
Ayyan Adikal, the chieftain of Quilon ([[Venad|Kollam]]) under Sthanu Ravi, issued the famous [[Tharisapalli plates|Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates]] in c. 849 AD. The inscription records that Ayyan Adikal granted land and serfs to a Christian church at Quilon, built by Mar Sapir Iso, and entrusted its maintenance to trade guilds [[anjuvannam]] and [[manigramam]].<ref name=":0" /> The grant was made in the presence of Chera Perumal prince [[Vijayaraga]].<ref name=":22">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435 and 37.</ref> Daughter of Kulasekhara, with the title [[Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli]], was married to Vijayaraga (who was probably was the son of the sister of Kulasekhara also).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 65-67 and 437-438.</ref>
Ayyan Adikal, the chieftain of the port of Quilon (present-day [[Kollam]]) under Sthanu Ravi, issued the renowned [[Tharisapalli plates|Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates]] around 849 AD. The inscription records that Ayyan Adikal granted land and serfs to a Christian church at Quilon, established by Mar Sapir Iso, and entrusted its maintenance to the trade guilds [[anjuvannam]] and [[manigramam]].<ref name=":0" /> The grant was made in the presence of the Chera Perumal prince [[Vijayaraga]].<ref name=":22">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 435 and 37.</ref> An inscription from [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]] indicates that Vijayaraga was married to a daughter of Kulasekhara, titled [[Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli]], and was likely the son of Kulasekhara's sister.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 65-67 and 437-438.</ref>
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* The oldest Chera Perumal inscription from Kerala.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781108494571|location=|pages=150|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref>
* The oldest Chera Perumal inscription from Kerala.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781108494571|location=|pages=150|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref>
*Dated in the 5th regnal year (849-50) of king Tanu Ravi.<ref name=":02">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435-437.</ref>
*Dated in the 5th regnal year (849/50) of king Tanu Ravi.<ref name=":02">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 435-437.</ref>
* Ayyan Adigal, the chieftain of Venad, grant land and serfs to the Christian church of Tarsa, Quilon.<ref name=":02" />
* Ayyan Adigal, the chieftain of Venad, grant land and serfs to the Christian church of Tarsa, Quilon.<ref name=":02" />
* Koyil Adhikarikal (the Royal Prince) Vijayaraga is present when Ayyan Adigal gives privileges to Christian merchant Mar Sapir Iso.<ref name=":23">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 437-38.</ref>
* Koyil Adhikarikal (the Royal Prince) Vijayaraga is present when Ayyan Adigal gives privileges to Christian merchant Mar Sapir Iso.<ref name=":23">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 437-38.</ref>
|-
|-
|855 AD
|855 AD
|Irinjalakkuda inscription ([[Koodalmanikyam Temple|Kudalmanikyam Temple]]) - a single granite slab currently fixed on the bottom portion of the inside wall of the first prakara of the temple.<ref name=":3">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 436.</ref>
|Irinjalakkuda inscription ([[Koodalmanikyam Temple|Kudalmanikyam Temple]]) - a single granite slab currently fixed on the bottom portion of the inside wall of the first prakara of the temple.<ref name=":3">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 436.</ref>
|Temple committee resolution (Malayalam)
|Temple committee resolution (Malayalam)
|"Tanu Ravi, Ko"
|"Tanu Ravi, Ko"
|
|
* Dated in the 11th regnal year (855-56) of king Tanu Ravi.<ref name=":3" />
* Dated in the 11th regnal year (855/56) of king Tanu Ravi.<ref name=":3" />
* A council of the "Irungadikkudal" Parathaiyar (the Temple Committee) and Ilayavar.<ref name=":3" />
* A council of the "Irungadikkudal" Parathaiyar (the Temple Committee) and Ilayavar.<ref name=":3" />
* The council unanimously decide to lease out land for some purpose.<ref name=":3" />
* The council unanimously decide to lease out land for some purpose.<ref name=":3" />
Line 85: Line 74:
|"Tanu Ravi, Ko"
|"Tanu Ravi, Ko"
|
|
* Dated in the 17th regnal year (861-62) of king Tanu Ravi.<ref name=":3" />
* Dated in the 17th regnal year (861/62) of king Tanu Ravi.<ref name=":3" />
* Earliest reference to [[Onam|Onam Festival]] in Kerala.<ref name=":3" />
* Earliest reference to [[Onam|Onam Festival]] in Kerala.<ref name=":3" />
* A council of the Thiruvatruvay Sabha (the Temple Assembly) and Adikalmar (the Respected People).<ref name=":3" />
* A council of the Thiruvatruvay Sabha (the Temple Assembly) and Adikalmar (the Respected People).<ref name=":3" />
* The council unanimously wrap up [[Onam|Avani Onam]] feast arrangements with the land donated by certain Punchappatakarathu Chenthan Sankaran.<ref name=":3" />
* The council unanimously wrap up [[Onam|Avani Onam]] feast arrangements with the land donated by certain Punchappatakarathu Chenthan Sankaran.<ref name=":3" />
|-
|-
|c. 870/71 AD
| colspan="5" |'''Inscription of Aditya Chola'''
|-
|c. 885 AD
|Thillaisthanam inscription (Tanjore) - a single granite slab<ref name=":0" /> on the south wall of the central shrine in the Ghrithasthaneshwara Temple,  Thillaisthanam.
|Thillaisthanam inscription (Tanjore) - a single granite slab<ref name=":0" /> on the south wall of the central shrine in the Ghrithasthaneshwara Temple,  Thillaisthanam.
|Temple inscription (Tamil)
|Temple inscription (Tamil)
Line 113: Line 104:
* "Vijayaraga Deva"
* "Vijayaraga Deva"
|
|
* A donation by Chera/Perumal princess [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal]] to Thirunanthikkarai Temple.<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 437-438.</ref>
* A donation by Chera/Perumal princess [[Ko Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli|Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal]] to Thirunanthikkarai Temple.<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 437-438.</ref>
* Thirunathikkarai Perumakkal (the Village Elders), the Thaliyalvan, and the Kanakar (members of the temple trust) meeting to receive 10 kalanju of gold from (princess) Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal for the Permanent Lamp (the nanda-vilakku) in the Thirunathikkarai temple.<ref name=":42" />
* Thirunathikkarai Perumakkal (the Village Elders), the Thaliyalvan, and the Kanakar (members of the temple trust) meeting to receive 10 kalanju of gold from (princess) Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal for the Permanent Lamp (the nanda-vilakku) in the Thirunathikkarai temple.<ref name=":42" />
* Princess Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal is described as the daughter of king Kulasekhara Deva and wife of Vijayaraga Deva.<ref name=":42" />
* Princess Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal is described as the daughter of king Kulasekhara Deva and wife of Vijayaraga Deva.<ref name=":42" />
|}
|}
== Literary references ==
== Literary references ==
An anonymous work called ''Padmapada Acharya Charita'' says that the protagonist who was the disciple of philosopher-theologian [[Shankaracharya|Sankara]] flourished in time of king "Kulasekhara".<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 65-66, 95-96, 383-5, 436.</ref> Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1982|title=The Status of the Monarch|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141225|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|pages=147–157|jstor=44141225|issn=2249-1937|via=}}</ref> Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara and [[Rama Rajasekhara]]) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.<ref name=":82" /> Some scholars also identify king [[Rama Kulasekhara]] as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and thus placing Vasubhatta in 11th-12 centuries AD).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vielle|first=Christophe|date=2012|title=Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala|url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/11188|journal=Religions of South Asia|volume=5|issue=1|pages=365–387|doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365|via=}}</ref> This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/early-medieval-origins-india?format=PB&isbn=9781108748513|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=|location=|pages=229–30|chapter=The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre}}</ref>


=== ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha'' ===
=== Contradicting testimonials ===
The opening verse of ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha,'' composed in the court of Ravi Kulasekhara, gives an indirect invocation to the lord called "Sthanu" (carefully composed to be applicable to god [[Shiva|Siva]] and the ruling king).<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Quilon_Syrian_Plates.jpg|thumb|302x302px|Quilon Syrian Plates]]
{{cquote
 
| quote = sa sthanurjayati trirupasahito lingepi lokarcitah
* An anonymous work titled "Padmapadacharyacharita" states that the protagonist — who was a disciple of philosopher-theologian [[Shankaracharya|Shankara]] — flourished during the time of a Kerala king named "Kulasekhara". However, "Shivanandalahari", attributed to Shankara, indirectly refers to the Kerala ruler as Rajasekhara. Similarly, "Shankaravijaya" by Vidyaranya also mentions a Kerala king named Rajasekhara as a contemporary of Shankara.<ref name=":1">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 65-66, 95-96, 383-5, 436.</ref>
| author =  
* Vasubhatta, a renowned Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala and the author of "Tripuradahana" and "Saurikathodaya", identifies his patron king as "Rama". "Vijayadarsika", a later commentary by Acyuta on Vasubhatta's "Yudhisthiravijaya", states that "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title of king Rama, whose given name, according to the commentator, was "Rama" ("Kulasekhara ityabhisekakrtam nama; pitradikrtam theramavarmeti"). "Ratnapradipika" by Sivadasa — another commentary subsequent to "Vijayadarsika" — echoes the same claim: "Kulasekharasya Kulasekhara iti namavatah, etadabhisekakrtam nama. Pitradikriam tu ramavarmeti".<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1982|title=The Status of the Monarch|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141225|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|pages=147–157|jstor=44141225|issn=2249-1937|via=}}</ref> Modern scholars, however, generally regard these assertions as the result of confusion on the part of the commentators Acyuta and Sivadasa, who were chronologically distant from Vasubhatta, leading them to conflate Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara with [[Rama Rajasekhara]].<ref name=":822">{{Cite journal |last=Veluthat |first=Kesavan |date=1982 |title=The Status of the Monarch |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141225 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=43 |pages=147–157 |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44141225 |via=}}</ref>
| source = ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha,'' Chapter I
 
* Some scholars also identify king [[Rama Kulasekhara]] as the patron of the poet Vasubhatta, thereby placing Vasubhatta in the 11th–12th centuries AD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vielle|first=Christophe|date=2012|title=Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala|url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/11188|journal=Religions of South Asia|volume=5|issue=1|pages=365–387|doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365|via=|url-access=subscription|hdl=2078.1/129594|hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, this view is generally considered unacceptable for several reasons.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/early-medieval-origins-india?format=PB&isbn=9781108748513|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=|location=|pages=229–30|chapter=The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre}}</ref>
 
== Laghubhaskariyavyakha ==
 
=== Identification of Sthanu Ravi with Kulasekhara ===
[[File:Tiruvarruvay_inscription,_Tiruvalla_(Sthanu_Ravi,_medieval_Cera_dynasty,_Kerala).jpg|thumb|378x378px|Tiruvarruvay inscription, Tiruvalla]]
{{Quote box
| quote = ''"Sa sthanurjayati trirupasahito lingepi lokarcitah."''
| author = Chapter I, ''Laghubhaskariyavyakha''
| source =  
| width = 50%
| align = center
| align = center
| border = none
| fontsize = 100%
}}In his commentary Laghubhaskariyavyakha, Sankaranarayana notes that he was patronized by a king of Mahodayapuram named "Ravi", who bore the title "Kulasekhara", thereby supporting the identification of Sthanu Ravi with Kulasekhara.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages=78-79 |orig-date=1972}}</ref><ref name=":6s2">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://archive.org/details/laghubhaskariyabhaskaracharyavivarnashankarnaraynaed.narayanapillaip.k.universit_123_/page/n1/mode/1up |title=Laghubhaskariya Vivarana |date= |publisher=University of Kerala |year=1974 |isbn= |editor-last=Pillai |editor-first=P. K. Narayana |location=Trivandrum (Kerala) |pages=XX and XXI-XII |orig-date= |orig-year=1949}}</ref> The opening verse of the commentary also contains an indirect invocation to a lord referred to as "Sthanu", deliberately composed so as to be applicable both to the deity [[Shiva]] and to the reigning monarch.<ref name=":6" />
=== Coronation year of Sthanu Ravi ===
Laghubhaskariyavyakha also provides two distinct dates, one in the [[Kali Era]] (866 AD, the date of an eclipse) and the other in the [[Shaka era|Saka Era]] (870 AD).
{{Quote box
| quote = ''"Angartvambara nanda devamanubhir yate dinanam gane<br>Graste tigma mayukhamalinitamobhute parahne divi<br>Prsta praggrahanad dvitiyaghatika grasa pramanam raver<br>Bharta sri Kulasekharena vilasad velavrtaya bhuva."''
| author = Chapter IV, ''Laghubhaskariyavyakha''
| source =
| width = 50%
| width = 50%
| align = center
| border = none
| fontsize = 100%
}}
}}
The commentary also gives the current date as Kali Era and as Saka Era.
* "Angartvambara nanda devamanubhir yate dinanam gane"
{{cquote
* Decipherment
| quote = angartvambara nanda devamanubhir yate dinanam gane<br>graste tigma mayukhamalinitamobhute parahne divi<br>prsta praggrahanad dvitiyaghatika grasa pramanam raver<br>bharta sri kulasekharena vilasad velavrtaya bhuva
** Anga = 6, Rtu = 6, Ambara = 0, Nanda = 9, Veda = 4, and Manu = 14
| author =  
** Order - 6609414
| source = ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha,'' Chapter IV
** Read in Reverse Order - 1449066
* Equivalent Kali Date - 3967 years and 86 days [= 25 Mithuna, [[Malayalam calendar|Kollam Era]] 41] = 866 AD<ref name=":6" />
{{Quote box
| quote = ''"Evam Sakabdah punariha candra randhramuni sankhyaya asambhiravagatah."''
| author = Chapter I, ''Laghubhaskariyavyakha''
| source =  
| width = 50%
| border = none
| fontsize = 100%
| align = center
| align = center
| width = 50%
}}
}}
* Anga = 6, Rtu = 6, Ambara = 0, Nanda = 9, Veda = 4, and Manu = 14
* Another reference to the date - "Sakabdah punariha candra randhramuni sankhyaya"
* Order - 6609414
** Candra = 1, Randhra = 9, and Muni = 7
* Reverse Order - 1449066
** Order - 197
* Kali Date - 3967 years and 86 days = 25 Mithuna, [[Malayalam calendar|Kollam Era]] 41 = 870 AD
** Read in Reverse Order - 791 ([[Shaka era|Saka Year]]) = 870 AD<ref name=":6" />
{{cquote
According to its own testimony, the Laghubhaskariyavivarana was composed in the 25th regnal year of Ravi Kulasekhara (869/70 AD), placing his coronation around 844/45 AD.<ref name=":6" />
| quote = evam sakabdah punariha candra randhramuni sankhyaya asambhiravagatah
 
| author =  
{{Quote box
| source = ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha,'' Chapter 1 (c. 870 AD)
| quote = ''"Capapravista guru sauri samatva kalam<br>Yamyottaram gamanamantaratah pramanam<br>Acaksvya sarvamavagamya bhatoktamargad<br>Ityuktavan ravirasena nrpabhivandya."<br><br>"Tada pancavimsati Varsanyatitani devasya."''
| align = center
| author = Chapter VII, ''Laghubhaskariyavyakha''
| source =  
| width = 50%
| width = 50%
}}
* Candra = 1, Randhra = 9, and Muni = 7
* Order - 197
* Reverse Order - 791 ([[Shaka era|Saka Year]]) = 870 AD
It was on the basis of certain statements in ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha'', the date coronation of Ravi Kulasekhara was fixed at 844 AD.
<ref name=":6" />
{{cquote
| quote = capapravista guru sauri samatva kalam<br>yamyottaram gamanamantaratah pramanam<br>acaksvya sarvamavagamya bhatoktamargad<br>ityuktavan ravirasena nrpabhivandya<br>tada pancavimsati varsanyatitani devasya
| author =
| source = ''Laghu Bhaskariya Vyakha,'' Chapter VII
| align = center
| align = center
| width = 50%
| border = none
}}
| fontsize = 100%
* Meeting of Guru (=Jupiter) and Sauri (=Saturn) in Capa (Dhanu) = 25th regnal year of the king = 870 AD
}}Further, Sankaranarayana mentions the conjunction of Guru (Jupiter) and Sauri (Saturn) in Capa (Dhanu), stating that it occurred when the king had completed 25 regnal years (Chapter VII). It is known that, in the 9th century AD, Jupiter and Saturn simultaneously entered Dhanu Rasi only in 869 AD.<ref name=":62" />
 
== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola]]
* [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola]]
* [[Raja Raja Chola I|Raja Raja Chola]]
* [[Raja Raja Chola I|Raja Raja Chola]]
 
* [[Kulasekhara Alvar]]
== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
 
[[Category:People from the Kodungallur Chera kingdom]]
[[Category:People of the Kodungallur Chera kingdom]]
[[Category:9th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:9th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Kodungallur Chera kings]]
[[Category:Kodungallur Chera kings]]

Latest revision as of 10:35, 2 February 2026

Sthanu Ravi
Kulasekhara
The art-form known as Kudiyattam is associated with Kulasekhara.
Chera Perumal
Reign844/45 – 870/71 AD
PredecessorN/A
SuccessorRama Rajasekhara
IssueKizhan Atikal Ravi Neeli[1]
Regnal name
Kulasekhara[2]
HouseCheras (medieval Kerala)[3]
ReligionHinduism

Sthanu Ravi Varma (early Malayalam and Tamil: Ko Tanu Iravi), known as the Kulasekhara, was the Chera Perumal ruler of Kerala in southern India from 844/45 to c. 870/71 AD.[4][5][6] He is the earliest medieval Chera ruler of Kerala known to scholars.[6] Sthanu Ravi notably assisted the Chola ruler Aditya I (c. 871–907 AD) in conquering the Kongu country from the Pandyas around 885 AD.[7][8]

The famous Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates are dated to the fifth regnal year of king Sthanu Ravi. Two more inscriptions dated in the regnal years of Sthanu Ravi are found at the Irinjalakuda Kudalmanikyam Temple and at Thiruvatruvay, Thiruvalla.[9] The Koyil Adhikarikal ("Royal Prince") during his time was his son-in-law (husband of his daughter), Vijayaraga.[10] Sthanu Ravi had a son born around 870 AD.[11] He was succeeded by Rama Rajasekhara (c. 870/71–c. 883/84).[6]

Toward the end of his reign, Sthanu Ravi probably abdicated the throne and became a Vaishnavite alvar saint known as Kulasekhara Alvar (the seventh of the twelve mystic alvars).[12] He is also identified with the playwright Chera king "Kulasekhara Varma".[13][14][15]

Background[edit | edit source]

Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara is regarded as the earliest known Chera ruler (the Perumal) of Kerala.[6] It is speculated that present-day central Kerala likely separated from the larger Chera or Kerala kingdom around the 8th–9th century AD to form the Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur.[16] Central Kerala was probably under some form of viceregal rule before this period.[17]

Remains of the Thillaisthanam inscription (9th century AD, Aditya Chola)
Chola-Chera Perumal relations (c. 9th-10th centuries AD)

The direct sovereign authority of the Chera Perumal king was likely restricted to the country around the capital, Makotai (Mahodayapuram, present-day Kodungallur), in central Kerala.[18] His pan-Kerala kingship was likely ritualistic, remaining nominal compared to the political and military power wielded by local chieftains (the udaiyavar). Nambudiri Brahmins also exercised significant authority in religious and social matters, a system often described as "ritual sovereignty combined with Brahmin oligarchy".[18][19]

Campaigns in the Kongu country[edit | edit source]

Sthanu Ravi appears to have acted as a junior ally in a military campaign led by the Chola ruler bearing the title "Rajakesari Varma" in the Kongu country (central Tamil Nadu).[20] Epigraphic evidence indicates that the two rulers jointly conferred military honours upon a Tanjore chief named Vikki Annan, who was married to a woman identified as "Kadamba Mahadevi". Vikki Annan was likely a Ganga prince, being the son of Prithvipati, and is mentioned in a Ganga inscription dated to the mid-9th century AD.[21][22] The designation "Kadamba" in the princess's name suggests a probable affiliation with the Kadamba lineage.[23][20]

The identity of the Chola ruler titled "Rajakesari Varma" remains a subject of scholarly debate.[24][8] One interpretation, advanced by historian Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai, identifies "Rajakesari Varma" with Aditya Chola (c. 871–907 AD[7]). This hypothesis assumes that Sthanu Ravi ruled Kerala until around 885 AD, enabling his participation as a junior partner in Aditya Chola’s Kongu campaigns, particularly the conquest of the region from the Pandyas (c. 885 AD).[11] Recent scholarship generally supports this view.[7][25] An alternative interpretation, accepted by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972/1996) following T. V. Mahalingam ("An Interregnum in Pallava History", JIH, XLI, I), identifies "Rajakesari Varma" with Srikantha Chola (817–845 AD), thereby placing the joint military action in Kongu around 844/45 AD.[11]

Astronomy[edit | edit source]

The astronomer and mathematician Sankaranarayana (c. 840–900 AD) served as a distinguished member of the royal court of Kulasekhara at the capital, Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur). He is best known for authoring the Laghubhaskariyavyakha, an extensive commentary on the works of the eminent mathematician Bhaskara I (7th century AD).[26] Evidence suggests that an "astronomical observatory" operated at Mahodayapuram under Sankaranarayana's supervision.[27][28]

The vyakhya contains references to an instrument termed the "Rashichakra", marked by a "Yanthravalaya". This "device" is possibly identical to the Golayanthra or Chakrayanthra described by the renowned polymath Aryabhata. The Chakrayanthra was subsequently refined and came to be known as the Phalakayanthra by Bhaskara I.[28]

Inscriptions[edit | edit source]

As Sthanu Ravi[edit | edit source]

Ayyan Adikal, the chieftain of the port of Quilon (present-day Kollam) under Sthanu Ravi, issued the renowned Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates around 849 AD. The inscription records that Ayyan Adikal granted land and serfs to a Christian church at Quilon, established by Mar Sapir Iso, and entrusted its maintenance to the trade guilds anjuvannam and manigramam.[20] The grant was made in the presence of the Chera Perumal prince Vijayaraga.[29] An inscription from Kanyakumari indicates that Vijayaraga was married to a daughter of Kulasekhara, titled Kizhan Adikal Ravi Neeli, and was likely the son of Kulasekhara's sister.[30]

Year Inscription Nature (language) Royal Name Notes
849 AD Quilon Syrian Christian copper plates Royal charter (Malayalam)
  • "Tanu Ravi"
  • "Koyil Adhikarikal Vijayaraga Deva"
  • The oldest Chera Perumal inscription from Kerala.[31]
  • Dated in the 5th regnal year (849/50) of king Tanu Ravi.[32]
  • Ayyan Adigal, the chieftain of Venad, grant land and serfs to the Christian church of Tarsa, Quilon.[32]
  • Koyil Adhikarikal (the Royal Prince) Vijayaraga is present when Ayyan Adigal gives privileges to Christian merchant Mar Sapir Iso.[33]
855 AD Irinjalakkuda inscription (Kudalmanikyam Temple) - a single granite slab currently fixed on the bottom portion of the inside wall of the first prakara of the temple.[34] Temple committee resolution (Malayalam) "Tanu Ravi, Ko"
  • Dated in the 11th regnal year (855/56) of king Tanu Ravi.[34]
  • A council of the "Irungadikkudal" Parathaiyar (the Temple Committee) and Ilayavar.[34]
  • The council unanimously decide to lease out land for some purpose.[34]
861 AD Thiruvatruvay copper plate - owned by Muvidathu Mecheri Illam (Thiruvalla) Temple committee resolution (Malayalam) "Tanu Ravi, Ko"
  • Dated in the 17th regnal year (861/62) of king Tanu Ravi.[34]
  • Earliest reference to Onam Festival in Kerala.[34]
  • A council of the Thiruvatruvay Sabha (the Temple Assembly) and Adikalmar (the Respected People).[34]
  • The council unanimously wrap up Avani Onam feast arrangements with the land donated by certain Punchappatakarathu Chenthan Sankaran.[34]
Inscription of Aditya Chola
c. 885 AD Thillaisthanam inscription (Tanjore) - a single granite slab[20] on the south wall of the central shrine in the Ghrithasthaneshwara Temple, Thillaisthanam. Temple inscription (Tamil) "Cheraman Tanu Ravi, Ko"

Hail Prosperity!

The wife of Vikki Annan, who was honoured by the king Kandan Rajakesari Varma who was the possessor of several elephants ["tondai-nadu-pavina-cholan-pal-yanai-ko-kandan"] and by the Cheraman Ko Tanu Iravi, with [the privilege of using] the seat [of honour], the chauris, the palanquin, the drum, a palace, [royal] dinner, [participation in it perhaps] and the bugle and [who was presented] with a battalion of elephants and the hereditary title of Sembiyan Tamilavel - Kadamba Mahadevi gave to the god Mahadeva at Tiruneyyttanam a perpetual lamp, for which the number of sheep given by her is a hundred.

My these [charities] be under the protection of the several mahesvaras.

— Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume II)

As Kulasekhara[edit | edit source]

9th century AD Thirunanthikarai inscription - a single slab of granite in the courtyard of the structural temple Temple committee resolution (Tamil)
  • "Kulasekhara Deva"
  • "Vijayaraga Deva"
  • A donation by Chera/Perumal princess Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal to Thirunanthikkarai Temple.[35]
  • Thirunathikkarai Perumakkal (the Village Elders), the Thaliyalvan, and the Kanakar (members of the temple trust) meeting to receive 10 kalanju of gold from (princess) Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal for the Permanent Lamp (the nanda-vilakku) in the Thirunathikkarai temple.[35]
  • Princess Ravi Neeli Kizhan Adigal is described as the daughter of king Kulasekhara Deva and wife of Vijayaraga Deva.[35]

Literary references[edit | edit source]

Contradicting testimonials[edit | edit source]

Quilon Syrian Plates
  • An anonymous work titled "Padmapadacharyacharita" states that the protagonist — who was a disciple of philosopher-theologian Shankara — flourished during the time of a Kerala king named "Kulasekhara". However, "Shivanandalahari", attributed to Shankara, indirectly refers to the Kerala ruler as Rajasekhara. Similarly, "Shankaravijaya" by Vidyaranya also mentions a Kerala king named Rajasekhara as a contemporary of Shankara.[36]
  • Vasubhatta, a renowned Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala and the author of "Tripuradahana" and "Saurikathodaya", identifies his patron king as "Rama". "Vijayadarsika", a later commentary by Acyuta on Vasubhatta's "Yudhisthiravijaya", states that "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title of king Rama, whose given name, according to the commentator, was "Rama" ("Kulasekhara ityabhisekakrtam nama; pitradikrtam theramavarmeti"). "Ratnapradipika" by Sivadasa — another commentary subsequent to "Vijayadarsika" — echoes the same claim: "Kulasekharasya Kulasekhara iti namavatah, etadabhisekakrtam nama. Pitradikriam tu ramavarmeti".[37] Modern scholars, however, generally regard these assertions as the result of confusion on the part of the commentators Acyuta and Sivadasa, who were chronologically distant from Vasubhatta, leading them to conflate Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara with Rama Rajasekhara.[38]
  • Some scholars also identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of the poet Vasubhatta, thereby placing Vasubhatta in the 11th–12th centuries AD.[39] However, this view is generally considered unacceptable for several reasons.[40]

Laghubhaskariyavyakha[edit | edit source]

Identification of Sthanu Ravi with Kulasekhara[edit | edit source]

Tiruvarruvay inscription, Tiruvalla
"Sa sthanurjayati trirupasahito lingepi lokarcitah."

Chapter I, Laghubhaskariyavyakha

In his commentary Laghubhaskariyavyakha, Sankaranarayana notes that he was patronized by a king of Mahodayapuram named "Ravi", who bore the title "Kulasekhara", thereby supporting the identification of Sthanu Ravi with Kulasekhara.[41][42] The opening verse of the commentary also contains an indirect invocation to a lord referred to as "Sthanu", deliberately composed so as to be applicable both to the deity Shiva and to the reigning monarch.[26]

Coronation year of Sthanu Ravi[edit | edit source]

Laghubhaskariyavyakha also provides two distinct dates, one in the Kali Era (866 AD, the date of an eclipse) and the other in the Saka Era (870 AD).

"Angartvambara nanda devamanubhir yate dinanam gane
Graste tigma mayukhamalinitamobhute parahne divi
Prsta praggrahanad dvitiyaghatika grasa pramanam raver
Bharta sri Kulasekharena vilasad velavrtaya bhuva."

Chapter IV, Laghubhaskariyavyakha

  • "Angartvambara nanda devamanubhir yate dinanam gane"
  • Decipherment
    • Anga = 6, Rtu = 6, Ambara = 0, Nanda = 9, Veda = 4, and Manu = 14
    • Order - 6609414
    • Read in Reverse Order - 1449066
  • Equivalent Kali Date - 3967 years and 86 days [= 25 Mithuna, Kollam Era 41] = 866 AD[26]
"Evam Sakabdah punariha candra randhramuni sankhyaya asambhiravagatah."

Chapter I, Laghubhaskariyavyakha

  • Another reference to the date - "Sakabdah punariha candra randhramuni sankhyaya"
    • Candra = 1, Randhra = 9, and Muni = 7
    • Order - 197
    • Read in Reverse Order - 791 (Saka Year) = 870 AD[26]

According to its own testimony, the Laghubhaskariyavivarana was composed in the 25th regnal year of Ravi Kulasekhara (869/70 AD), placing his coronation around 844/45 AD.[26]

"Capapravista guru sauri samatva kalam
Yamyottaram gamanamantaratah pramanam
Acaksvya sarvamavagamya bhatoktamargad
Ityuktavan ravirasena nrpabhivandya."

"Tada pancavimsati Varsanyatitani devasya."

Chapter VII, Laghubhaskariyavyakha

Further, Sankaranarayana mentions the conjunction of Guru (Jupiter) and Sauri (Saturn) in Capa (Dhanu), stating that it occurred when the king had completed 25 regnal years (Chapter VII). It is known that, in the 9th century AD, Jupiter and Saturn simultaneously entered Dhanu Rasi only in 869 AD.[41]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ As per MGS, 1972
  2. ↑ As per MGS, 1972
  3. ↑ As per MGS, 1972
  4. ↑ Noburu Karashima (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146-47.
  5. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 65-66.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan, Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Ali, Daud. “The Death of a Friend: Companionship, Loyalty and Affiliation in Chola South India.” Studies in History, vol. 33, no. 1, Feb. 2017, pp. 36–60.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Singh, Upinder (2023) [2008]. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (2nd ed.). Pearson. p. 1481. ISBN 978-93-570-5618-2.
  9. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 436.
  10. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 64-66 and 78-79.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 79-80.
  12. ↑ 'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan, Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75 and 78.
  13. ↑ Noburu Karashima (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146-47.
  14. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 46-48 .
  15. ↑ Veluthat, Kesavan. 2004. 'Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur', in South-Indian Horizons, eds Jean-Luc Chevillard, Eva Wilden, and A. Murugaiyan, pp. 471–85. École Française D'Extrême-Orient.
  16. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 89-90 and 92-93.
  17. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 80-93.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Noburu Karashima (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146-47.
  19. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. 2002. ‘The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala’, in State and Society in Premodern South India, eds R. Champakalakshmi, Kesavan Veluthat, and T. R. Venugopalan, pp.111–19. Thrissur, CosmoBooks.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 435-437.
  21. ↑ Tillaisthanam Inscription (844-5 CE, Tanjore) of "Tondainadu Pavina Cholan Palyanai", Ko Kandan, Rajakesarivarman. South Indian Inscriptions 23 (1979), no. 129.
  22. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 95-96.
  23. ↑ Menon, A. Sreedhara (1967). A Survey of Kerala History. Kottayam (Kerala): DC Books, 2007. [1]
  24. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 436-37.
  25. ↑ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. ISBN 9781108494571.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 78-79.
  27. ↑ George Gheverghese Joseph (2009). A Passage to Infinity. New Delhi: SAGE Publications. p. 13. ISBN 978-81-321-0168-0.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 390-391 and 408-409.
  29. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 435 and 37.
  30. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 65-67 and 437-438.
  31. ↑ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. ISBN 9781108494571.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 435-437.
  33. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 437-38.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 34.7 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 436.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 437-438.
  36. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013 [1972]. 65-66, 95-96, 383-5, 436.
  37. ↑ Veluthat, Kesavan (1982). "The Status of the Monarch". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 43: 147–157. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141225.
  38. ↑ Veluthat, Kesavan (1982). "The Status of the Monarch". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 43: 147–157. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141225.
  39. ↑ Vielle, Christophe (2012). "Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala". Religions of South Asia. 5 (1): 365–387. doi:10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365. hdl:2078.1/129594.
  40. ↑ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–30.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 78–79. ISBN 9788188765072.
  42. ↑ Pillai, P. K. Narayana, ed. (1974) [1949]. Laghubhaskariya Vivarana. Trivandrum (Kerala): University of Kerala. pp. XX and XXI-XII.
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