Pulakeshin II: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|610–642 ruler of Vatapi (Badami, India)}}

{{Redirect|Immadi Pulikeshi|the 1967 Indian film|Immadi Pulikeshi (film)}}

| name        = Pulakeshin

| title        = Satyashraya, Shri-prithvi-vallabha, Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Karnateshwara{{sfn|Rimjhim Sharma, Anish Kumar|2012|p=134}}

| succession  = Chalukya king

| reign        = {{circa|610|642}}

'''Pulakeshin II''' ([[IAST]]: Pulakeśin, r. c. 610–642 CE) was the most famous ruler of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Vatapi]] (present-day Badami in [[Karnataka]], India). During his reign, the Chalukya kingdom expanded to cover most of the [[Deccan]] region in peninsular India.

A son of the Chalukya king [[Kirttivarman I]], Pulakeshin overthrew his uncle [[Mangalesha]] to gain control of the throne. He suppressed a rebellion by Appayika and Govinda, and decisively defeated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]] in the south. The [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] and the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu]] recognized his suzerainty. He consolidated the Chalukya control over the western coast by subjugating the Mauryas of [[Konkan]]a. His [[Aihole inscription]] also credits him with subjugating the [[Lata (region)|Latas]], the [[Malavas]], and the [[Gurjaras of Nandipuri|Gurjaras]] in the north.

The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful northern emperor [[Harshavardhana]], whose failure to conquer the Chalukya kingdom is attested by the Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]]. In the east, Pulakeshin subjugated the rulers of [[Dakshina Kosala]] and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. After defeating the [[Vishnukundina dynasty|Vishnukundina]] ruler, he appointed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of eastern Deccan; this brother later established the independent [[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Vengi]]. Pulakeshin also achieved some successes against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] in the south, but was ultimately defeated during an invasion by the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman I]].

Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], but was tolerant of other faiths, including [[Shaivism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]]. He patronized several scholars, including Ravikirtti, who composed his Aihole inscription.

== Early life ==

Pulakeshin was a son of the Chalukya king [[Kirttivarman I]]. When Kirttivarman died, Pulakeshin appears to have been a minor, as Kirttivarman's younger brother [[Mangalesha]] became the next king.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=59}}

Pulakeshin's [[Hyderabad]] inscription is dated 613 CE ([[Shaka era|Shaka]] year 534), and was issued during the third year of his reign, which suggests that he must have ascended the throne in c. 610–611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48, 51}}

The matter is complicated by the Maruturu inscription, which is dated to Pulakeshin's eighth regnal year, and was issued on the occasion of a [[solar eclipse]] on the [[new moon]] day (''[[amavasya]]'') of the [[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyeshtha]] month. According to modern calculations, this solar eclipse took place on 21 May 616 CE, which would mean that Pulakeshin ascended the throne in 609 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}}

Pulakeshin ended the Kadamba dynasty, and annexed their territory to his empire. He divided this territory among his vassals: the major part of the Kadamba kingdom was granted to the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] under the name kadamba-mandala; the Nagarakhanda division of Banavasi was given to the Sendrakas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}}

=== Repulsion of First Arab Invasion ===

The first Arab invasion of India was an expedition by sea to conquer Thana near Mumbai as early as 636 A.D. It was undertaken during the vigorous expansionist regime of the second Caliph, Umar-bin-Akhtab, who was on a proselytizing mission to spread Islam to all corners of the world. He appointed Usman, of the tribe of Sakif, to capture Bahrain and Oman. Usman sent his brother Hakam to Bahrain and himself proceeded to Oman. Upon reaching Oman, Usman sent a naval expedition to capture Thana on the western coast of India. The Arab naval expedition was successfully repulsed by Chalukyan Navy under Pulakeshin II and they returned to Oman. The first ever Arab raid on India was defeated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=Dr. Ram Gopal |title=Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders Up to 1206 A.D |date=December 1992 |isbn=9788185126463}}</ref>{{page needed|reason=Also, what are the credentials of this author?|date=September 2022}}

The Ganga ruler [[Durvinita]] married his daughter to Pulakeshin;{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} she was the mother of Pulakeshin's son [[Vikramaditya I]]. And another ruler named Kulabhadra married his daughter, Tarinidevi to Pulakeshi. She was the mother of [[Chandraditya]]{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} The Gangas probably hoped to gain Chalukya support against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]], who had captured the [[Kongunadu]] region from them. The Gangas subsequently defeated the Pallava ruler Kaduvetti of Kanchi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}}

Pulakeshin's father Kirttivarman had defeated the Mauryas of Konkana (modern [[Konkan]]), who ruled in the coastal region of present-day Goa and Maharashtra. The Mauryas acknowledged the Chalukya suzerainty during Mangalesha's reign, but seem to have declared independence during the Chalukya war of succession. After consolidating his power in southern Deccan, Pulakeshin successfully besieged the Mauryan capital Puri, which is variously identified as [[Gharapuri]] (Elephanta) or Rajapuri (near [[Murud-Janjira|Janjira]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}}

The date of the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin has been debated by modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's fifth regnal year (c. 615 CE), mentions the conflict, but this inscription is regarded as spurious by modern scholars.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}}

Some scholars, such as [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] and [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], date the battle to c. 612 CE or before, based on the 612–613 CE Hyderabad inscription of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This inscription boasts that Pulakeshin defeated a king who had fought a hundred battles (presumably Harsha).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=83}} The later Chalukya inscriptions, dating from the reign of [[Vikramaditya I]] onwards, mention Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha using similar expressions.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This early date for the war is also supported by the writings of Xuanzang, who states that Harsha fought wars for six years, and then ruled in peace for thirty years.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}}

Scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni date the battle to the winter of 618–619 CE. These scholars note that the Bijapur-Mumbai grant inscription, dated to 4 April 619 CE, mentions Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha, which proves that the conflict definitely took place sometime before this date. The earlier Satara inscription of Pulakeshin's brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], issued during his eighth regnal year (c. 618 CE) does not mention the conflict. Based on this, Bapat and Sohoni theorize that the conflict took place between November 618 CE and February 619 CE.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}}

The cause for the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin is not certain. Historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] suggests that Harsha's growing influence may have driven the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras to accept Pulakeshin's suzerainty.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=213}} Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit adds that these three kingdoms are known to have been enemies of Harsha's father [[Prabhakaravardhana|Prabhakara-vardhana]], as attested by Harsha's court poet [[Banabhatta|Bana]]: this enmity probably continued during the reign of Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} The Malava king played a role in the murder of Harsha's predecessor [[Rajyavardhana|Rajya-vardhana]], and also killed Harsha's brother-in-law, the [[Maukhari dynasty|Maukhari]] ruler Graha-varman. The [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjara]] ruler Dadda II aided the [[Maitraka dynasty]] against Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} When Harsha decided to take action against these three kingdoms, their rulers probably sought protection of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} Pulakeshin may have granted asylum to Harsha's adversaries.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=87–88}}

The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]], who calls Pulakeshin's kingdom Mo-ho-la-cha (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), provides the evidence of Pulakeshin's success against Harsha. Xuanzang states that Shiladitya (that is, Harsha) had conquered the nations from east to west, and had marched with his army to remote parts of India: only the people of Mo-ho-la-cha had refused to accept his suzerainty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} Xuanzang further states that Harsha gathered troops from different parts of his kingdom, summoned his best commanders, and himself led the army to punish the people of Mo-ho-la-cha, but could not subjugate them.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}}

The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] visited Pulakeshin's kingdom in 641–642 CE.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} He calls the Chalukya kingdom "Mo-ho-la-cha" (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), and corroborates Pulakeshin's success against Harsha ([[#Result|see above]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} He had visited the Pallava kingdom before arriving in the Chalukya kingdom, but he doesn't mention any conflict between the two kingdoms, presumably because he was not aware of major political changes or because his main interest was Buddhism rather than politics.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}}

Xuanzang describes Pulakeshin ("Po-le-ke-she") as "a man of farsighted resource and astuteness who extends kindness to all". The king's subjects were "tall and sturdy in nature and... proud and carefree by nature... grateful for kindness and revengeful for injustice".{{sfn|Tsai Chiashan|2006|p=428}} They preferred death to disloyalty,{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} and called for a [[duel]] if they or their families were insulted.{{sfn|Tsai Chiashan|2006|p=428}}

According to Xuanzang, the king was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was a [[Kshatriya]] by birth.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} His well-disciplined troops comprised several thousands of men, and several hundreds of [[war elephant|elephants]]. The elephants, who were intoxicated with wine before battles, were used to break the enemy's [[front line]]. When his generals were defeated, they were not punished, but were humiliated by being ordered to wear women's dresses.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} The soldiers who lost a battle would commit suicide as a matter of honour.{{sfn|Tsai Chiashan|2006|p=428}}

According to Xuanzang, the kingdom's capital (not named by Xuanzang) was situated to the east of a large river, around 1000 [[li (unit)|li]] from [[Bharukachchha]] (modern Bharuch).{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} This description does not fit the Chalukya capital Vatapi (modern Badami).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=218–219}} Modern scholars identify the city mentioned by Xuanzang as [[Nashik]], although this identification is not conclusive.{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} It is possible that Xuanzang spent some time in Nashik, which was an important centre of Buddhism, and mistook it as the kingdom's capital.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=219}} Xuanzang mentions that there were five [[stupas]] in and around the capital city: these stupas had been built by the earlier king [[Ashoka]], and were several hundred feet high.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|pp=266–267}} Around 5,000 Buddhist monks lived in over 100 monasteries in the kingdom;{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} in particular, Xuanzang describes a large monastery identified with the [[Ajanta Caves]] by modern scholars.{{sfn|Sally Wriggins|2008|pp=132–134}} Xuanzang adds that the kingdom also had temples of "heretics" who "[[vibhuti|smeared dust]] on their bodies".{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}}

The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava king. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=93}}

The Aihole inscription states that the Pallava ruler opposed the rise of Pulakeshin, who caused the enemy's splendour to be "obscured by the dust of his army" and forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the Pallava capital [[Kanchipuram]].{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Kashakudi inscription of the Pallavas states that the Pallava King Mahendravarman defeated an unnamed enemy at Pallalura (modern [[Pullalur]]).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=215–216}} These two accounts appear to refer to the same battle, which must have been inconclusive: the Pallava army was probably forced to retreat to Kanchipuram, but inflicted enough damage on the Chalukya army to force Pulakeshin to retreat to Vatapi.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=216}}

The Aihole inscription suggests that Pulakeshin won over the Chola, the Chera, and the Pandya kings as his allies in his struggle against the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|pp=58–59}} He marched towards Kanchipuram, but the Pallava inscriptions suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala, near Kanchipuram.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=96-97}}

The Pallavas, during the reign of Narasimha-varman I, ultimately besieged the Chalukya capital Vatapi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=97}} Pulakeshin was probably killed, when a Pallava force led by [[Paranjothi|Shiruttondar Paranjoti]] captured Vatapi in c. 642–643 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=99}} The Pallava occupation of Vatapi is attested by an inscription found at the Mallikarjunadeva temple in Badami, dated to the 13th regnal year of Narasimha-varman.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=219}}

* [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] (c.643-645?) is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]] (c.645-646?).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}}

* [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] (c.646-649?) attested by the Nerur and Kochre grant inscriptions of his wife [[Vijaya-Bhattarika]], which accord him imperial titles, but are dated in the regnal years of his wife. It is possible that Chandraditya held the throne after Abhinavaditya, and after his death, his wife acted as a regent for their minor son    (c.649-655). His brother Vikramaditya I, appears to have restored Chalukya power as the supreme commander of the Chalukya army during this period, becoming the de facto ruler in the process.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=116-119}}

* [[Vikramaditya I]] (655-680) restored the Chalukya power,{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} and recaptured Vatapi from the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=59}}

== Extent of the kingdom ==

The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang attests that Pulakeshin ruled an extensive, militarily powerful and economically prosperous kingdom through several loyal vassals.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} The Aihole inscription states that Pulakeshin's kingdom was bound by the oceans on three sides, suggesting that he ruled a vast portion of the Indian peninsula to the south of the Vindhyas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} However, there is no evidence that he was able to annex the extreme southern kingdoms of the Cholas, the Keralas (Cheras), and the Pandyas to his empire.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}}

Pulakeshin could not administer this large kingdom centrally, and therefore, ruled through governors from the Chalukya family and loyal vassals, who included the rulers defeated by him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Sendraka prince Sena-nanda-raja ruled the [[Konkan]]a and neighbouring areas as his loyal feudatory. The family of Alla-shakti ruled the [[Khandesh]] and neighbouring areas as his vassal, as attested by the Abhona and Kasare inscriptions.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}}

After defeating the Vishnukundins, Pulakeshin acquired control of a large part of the eastern Deccan region, extending from Vishakhapatnam in north to Nellore and Guntur in the south.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin appointed his younger brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], who had earlier served as his governor of the Velvola country, as the governor of Vengi in eastern Deccan. Vishnu-vardhana acknowledges Pulakeshin's suzerainty in his 631 CE Kopparam inscription, but asserts himself as an independent ruler in his 641 CE Chirupalli inscription.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}}

According to the ninth-century Persian historian [[Al-Tabari]], Pulakeshin ("Pharmis") maintained diplomatic relations with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] ruler [[Khosrow II]] of present-day Iran. Pulakeshin sent expensive presents and letters to Khusrow and his sons, during the 26th regnal year of the Sasanian monarch.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} This embassy can be dated to c. 625 CE.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}}

In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian king sent a return embassy to the Chalukya kingdom.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=181}} This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct:{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}} the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sassanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana [[Jataka tales|Jataka]], in which the enthroned king can be identified as the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous births as a King.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} The inclusions of numerous men in Sassanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sassanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an object of intense interest by the Indians.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}}

The good relations between Indian and the [[Sasanian Empire]] encouraged the migration to India of [[Zoroastrians]], who were persecuted by the rise of [[Islam]]. They settled on the West coast of the Deccan and established the [[Parsi Community]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Publishing |first1=Britannica Educational |title=The History of India |date=1 April 2010 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-201-7 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdmcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |language=en}}</ref>

== Religion ==

Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature [[varaha]], an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}}

He was tolerant of other faiths: The construction of the [[Shaivite]] shrines now called the Upper Shivalaya, the Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya, started during his reign.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}} The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] mentions that there were over 100 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monasteries in his kingdom; over 5,000 monks - both Mahayana and Hinayana - lived in these monasteries.{{sfn|Lal Mani Joshi|1987|p=40}} The Meguti [[Jainism|Jain]] temple at Aihole was also built during his reign, by Ravikirrti, who composed the [[Aihole inscription]] engraved on the wall of this temple.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}}{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=90}}

The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin states that he was generous in "bestowing gifts and honours on the brave and the learned". The inscription's composer Ravikirrti, a court poet of Pulakeshin, describes himself as an equal of the famous Sanskrit poets [[Bhasa]] and [[Kalidasa]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=554}}

* The Chiplun copper-plate inscription record the grant of the Amravatavaka village in Avaretika ''vishaya'' (province) to a Brahmana named Maheshvara. It refers to Pulakeshin's maternal uncle and vassal king Shrivallabha Sena-nanda-raja, who belonged to the Sendraka dynasty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}}

Following inscriptions are attributed to Pulakeshin's reign, but are considered spurious by modern scholars:

Several Kannada groups demanded the installation of Pulakeshin statue at Badami, Karnataka, to celebrate the great Kannada ruler of past who is being ignored by present government<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/top-karnataka-stories/seeing-beyond-shivaji-activists-push-for-pulikeshi-ii-1055994.html | title=Seeing beyond Shivaji: Activists push for Pulikeshi II. Learn More. | date=30 Nov 2021}}</ref>

* {{cite book |author=Rimjhim Sharma, Anish Kumar |title=History: BA (Hons) Semester II Course Pack, University of Delhi |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/History_BA_Hons_Semester_II_Course_Pack/cyI8BAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-93-325-1157-6 }}