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{{ | {{Short description|Chalukya Emperor from 610 to 642}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date= | {{Redirect|Immadi Pulikeshi|the 1967 Kannada film|Immadi Pulikeshi (film)}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} | |||
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | {{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | ||
{{Infobox royalty | |||
| name | | name = Pulakeshin II | ||
| title | | title = Karnataka Kulatilaka <br> Satyashraya <br> Shri-prithvi-vallabha <br> Bhattaraka <br> [[King of Kings|Maharajadhiraja]] <br> Parameshvara <br> Karnatakeshwara{{sfn|Rimjhim Sharma, Anish Kumar|2012|p=134}} | ||
| succession | | succession = [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya Emperor]] | ||
| reign | | reign = {{circa|610|642 CE}} | ||
| predecessor | | predecessor = [[Mangalesha]] | ||
| successor | | successor = [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] | ||
| house | | house = [[Chalukyas of Vatapi]] | ||
| house-type | | house-type = Dynasty | ||
| father | | father = [[Kirttivarman I]] | ||
| issue = [[Adityavarman]] <br> [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] <br> Ranaragha-varman <br> [[Vikramaditya I]] <br> [[Chalukyas of Navasarika|Dharashraya Jayasimhavarman]] | |||
| religion = [[Jainism]]<ref>{{Cite book |quote=The Western Chalukyas of Vatapi, Pulkesin II and Vikramaditya I, were also great patrons of Jainism.|last=Chatterjee |first=C. D. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.15533/page/117/mode/1up |title=The Journal of the U.P. historical society |date=1955 |pages=117 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.calcutta.03149/page/219/mode/1up |title=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Volume XXI |quote=Pulkesin II patronized the Jaina temple at Aihole, an event immortalized by the poet Ravikirti in an inscription from that place.|pages=219 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yazdani G. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.527925/page/244/mode/1up |title=The Early History Of The Deccan Pat I-VI (1960) |date=1960 |publisher=Oxford University Press.|quote=Jainism had a considerable vogue and was much respected. Ravikirtti, who built a stone temple to Jina at Ahiole, claims to have enlisted the particular favour of Pulakesin II for his enterprise and thus made the temple the abode of all excellence ( bhavanam mahimnam).|pages=144}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumund |quote=The Jain religion seems to have enjoyed considerable patronage at the hands of the Early Chalukyas. Thus Pulakesin II patronised a certain Jain poet Ravikirti. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5069/page/n178/mode/1up |title=History of India |date= |publisher=Srinivasa Varadachari, Madras |pages=168}}</ref><br>[[Vaishnavism]]<ref>{{Cite book |quote=Pulakeshin was a Vaishanavite Hindu, as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription.|last=Chatterjee |first=C. D. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.15533/page/117/mode/1up |title=The Journal of the U.P. historical society |date=1955 |pages=117 |language=English}}</ref> | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Chalukyas|Vatapi}} | {{Chalukyas|Vatapi}} | ||
'''Pulakeshin II''' ([[IAST]]: Pulakeśin, r. | '''Pulakeshin II''' ([[IAST]]: Pulakeśin, r. {{Circa|610}}–642 CE) popularly known as '''Immaḍi Pulakeśi''', was the greatest [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyan Emperor]] who reigned from [[Vatapi]] (present-day Badami in [[Karnataka]], India). During his reign, the Chalukya Empire expanded to cover most of the [[Deccan]] region in [[peninsular India]]. | ||
A son of the Chalukya | A son of the Chalukya monarch [[Kirttivarman I]], Pulakeshin overthrew his uncle [[Mangalesha]] to gain control of the throne. He suppressed a rebellion by Appayika and Govinda, and decisively defeated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]] in the south. The [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] and the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu]] recognized his suzerainty. He consolidated the Chalukya control over the western coast by subjugating the [[Mauryas of Puri|Mauryas of Konkana]]. His [[Aihole inscription]] also credits him with subjugating the [[Lata (region)|Latas]], the [[Malavas]], and the [[Gurjaras of Nandipuri|Gurjaras]] in the north. | ||
The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful northern emperor [[Harshavardhana | The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful northern emperor [[Harshavardhana]], whose failure to conquer the Chalukyan territories to the south is attested by the Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]]. In the east, Pulakeshin subjugated the rulers of [[Dakshina Kosala]] and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. After defeating the [[Vishnukundina dynasty|Vishnukundina]] monarch, he appointed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of eastern Deccan; this brother later established the independent [[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Vengi]]. Pulakeshin also achieved some successes against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] in the south, but was ultimately defeated during an invasion by the Pallava monarch [[Narasimhavarman I]]. | ||
Pulakeshin was a [[ | Pulakeshin was a [[Jain]], but was tolerant of other faiths, including [[Shaivism|Shaivite Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite Hinduism]]. He patronized several Jaina scholars, including Ravikirtti, who composed his Aihole inscription.<ref>{{Cite book |last=K.V. Madhusudana Reddy |url=https://archive.org/details/shdgnga.the-eastern-chalukyan-inscriptions-a-social-and-cultural-study/page/n154/mode/1up |title=The Eastern Chalukyan Inscriptions a Social and Cultural Study |date=1993 |publisher=Sri Venkateswara University |pages=143 |language=English}}</ref> | ||
== Names and titles == | == Names and titles == | ||
Two variants of Pulakeshin's name appear in the Chalukya records: Pulikeshin ([[IAST]]: Pulikeśin) and Polekeshin (IAST: Polekeśin).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} "Ereya" appears to have been another of his names: the [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription calls him "Ereyatiyadigal"{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=77}} (or "Ereyitiyadigal"{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=279}}), and the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription mentions the variant "Eraja".{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} Historian [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] theorizes that Ereya was the pre-coronation name of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=76}} | Two variants of Pulakeshin's name appear in the Chalukya records: Pulikeshin ([[IAST]]: Pulikeśin) and Polekeshin (IAST: Polekeśin).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} "Ereya" appears to have been another of his names: the [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription calls him "Ereyatiyadigal"{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=77}} (or "Ereyitiyadigal"{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=279}}), and the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription mentions the variant "Eraja".{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} Historian [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] theorizes that Ereya was the pre-coronation name of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=76}} | ||
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The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] calls him Pu-lo-ki-she.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=246}} The Persian historian [[Al-Tabari]] calls him Paramesa or Pharmis, probably a Persian transcription of his title ''Parameshvara''.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] calls him Pu-lo-ki-she.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=246}} The Persian historian [[Al-Tabari]] calls him Paramesa or Pharmis, probably a Persian transcription of his title ''Parameshvara''.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | ||
== Early | == Early years == | ||
Pulakeshin was a son of the Chalukya monarch [[Kirttivarman I]]. When Kirttivarman died, Pulakeshin appears to have been a minor, as Kirttivarman's younger brother [[Mangalesha]] succeeded him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=59}} | |||
Pulakeshin was a son of the Chalukya | |||
The inscriptions of the later [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]], who claimed descent from the Chalukyas of Vatapi, state that Mangalesha "took upon himself the burden of administration" because Pulakeshin was a minor. However, these inscriptions also wrongly claim that Mangalesha returned the kingdom to Pulakeshin when Pulakeshin grew up, praising the Chalukya lineage for such exemplary behaviour. This claim is contradicted by Pulakeshin's own [[Aihole inscription]], and appears to be a late attempt to gloss over Pulakeshin's overthrow of Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=209}} The exact details of the conflict between these two men are unclear, because the Aihole inscription describes it in a rather enigmatic way.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=211}} | The inscriptions of the later [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]], who claimed descent from the Chalukyas of Vatapi, state that Mangalesha "took upon himself the burden of administration" because Pulakeshin was a minor. However, these inscriptions also wrongly claim that Mangalesha returned the kingdom to Pulakeshin when Pulakeshin grew up, praising the Chalukya lineage for such exemplary behaviour. This claim is contradicted by Pulakeshin's own [[Aihole inscription]], and appears to be a late attempt to gloss over Pulakeshin's overthrow of Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=209}} The exact details of the conflict between these two men are unclear, because the Aihole inscription describes it in a rather enigmatic way.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=211}} | ||
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=== Date of ascension === | === Date of ascension === | ||
Pulakeshin's [[Hyderabad]] inscription is dated 613 CE ([[Shaka era|Shaka]] year 534), and was issued during the third year of his reign, which suggests that he must have ascended the throne in {{Circa|610}}–611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48, 51}} | |||
Pulakeshin's [[Hyderabad]] inscription is dated 613 CE ([[Shaka era|Shaka]] year 534), and was issued during the third year of his reign, which suggests that he must have ascended the throne in | |||
The exact year of his ascension is debated among modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} The 610–611 CE [[Goa]] grant inscription, which refers to an unnamed Chalukya overlord titled ''Shri-prithvi-vallabha Maharaja'', was probably issued during the reign of Pulakeshin's predecessor Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48–49}} It is dated to the Shaka year 532: assuming it was issued after 532 years of the Shaka era had expired, the date of issue was 4 January 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=51}} However, if we assume that it was issued when the 532rd year of the Shaka era was current, it can be dated to 5 July 610 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} Based on this inscription, the end of Mangalesha's reign is variously dated to 610 CE or 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | The exact year of his ascension is debated among modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} The 610–611 CE [[Goa]] grant inscription, which refers to an unnamed Chalukya overlord titled ''Shri-prithvi-vallabha Maharaja'', was probably issued during the reign of Pulakeshin's predecessor Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48–49}} It is dated to the Shaka year 532: assuming it was issued after 532 years of the Shaka era had expired, the date of issue was 4 January 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=51}} However, if we assume that it was issued when the 532rd year of the Shaka era was current, it can be dated to 5 July 610 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} Based on this inscription, the end of Mangalesha's reign is variously dated to 610 CE or 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | ||
The matter is complicated by the Maruturu inscription, which is dated to Pulakeshin's | The matter is further complicated by the Maruturu inscription, which is dated to Pulakeshin's eighth regnal year, and was issued on the occasion of a [[solar eclipse]] on the [[new moon]] day (''[[amavasya]]'') of the [[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyeshtha]] month. According to modern calculations, this solar eclipse took place on 21 May 616 CE, which would mean that Pulakeshin ascended the throne in 609 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | ||
== Military conquests == | == Military conquests == | ||
After Mangalesha's death, Pulakeshin appears to have faced opposition from multiple rivals, including those who were loyal to Mangalesha and those who wanted to take advantage of the turmoil resulting from the Chalukya war of succession.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The [[Aihole inscription]] declares that "the whole world was enveloped in the darkness that was the enemies". Pulakeshin subjugated these enemies, and established the Chalukyas as the dominant power in the Indian peninsula.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} | After Mangalesha's death, Pulakeshin appears to have faced opposition from multiple rivals, including those who were loyal to Mangalesha and those who wanted to take advantage of the turmoil resulting from the Chalukya war of succession.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The [[Aihole inscription]] declares that "the whole world was enveloped in the darkness that was the enemies". Pulakeshin subjugated these enemies, and established the Chalukyas as the dominant power in the Indian peninsula.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} | ||
=== Appayika and Govinda === | === Appayika and Govinda === | ||
The Aihole inscription suggests that two rulers named Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The identity of these rulers is uncertain, but they are said to have approached the core Chalukya territory from the north of the Bhimarathi (modern [[Bhima River|Bhima]]) river in present-day [[Maharashtra]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=73}} According to historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], the way they are mentioned in the inscription suggests that they were military adventurers and not from a royal background.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=212}} However, according to historian Durga Prasad Dikshit, their names suggest that they may have belonged to a Rashtrakuta branch, which was distinct from the imperial [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]. This branch may have become subordinate to the Chalukyas after facing invasions from the [[Nala dynasty|Nala]] and Mauryas of Konkan, and later rebelled taking advantage of the conflict between Pulakeshin and Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=73–74}} | The Aihole inscription suggests that two rulers named Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The identity of these rulers is uncertain, but they are said to have approached the core Chalukya territory from the north of the Bhimarathi (modern [[Bhima River|Bhima]]) river in present-day [[Maharashtra]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=73}} According to historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], the way they are mentioned in the inscription suggests that they were military adventurers and not from a royal background.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=212}} However, according to historian Durga Prasad Dikshit, their names suggest that they may have belonged to a Rashtrakuta branch, which was distinct from the imperial [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]. This branch may have become subordinate to the Chalukyas after facing invasions from the [[Nala dynasty|Nala]] and Mauryas of Konkan, and later rebelled taking advantage of the conflict between Pulakeshin and Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=73–74}} | ||
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=== Recapture of Banavasi === | === Recapture of Banavasi === | ||
Pulakeshin's predecessors had subjugated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]], but the Kadambas no longer recognized the Chalukya suzerainty during his reign. Pulakeshin marched against them, and besieged their capital of Banavasi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=74}} The Aihole inscription suggests that the Kadambas put up a strong resistance, but were ultimately defeated. The Kadamba ruler at this time was probably Bhogivarman.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} | |||
Pulakeshin | Pulakeshin ended the Kadamba dynasty and annexed their territory to his empire. He divided this territory among his vassals: the major part of the Kadamba kingdom was granted to the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] under the name kadamba-mandala; the Nagarakhanda division of Banavasi was given to the Sendrakas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} | ||
=== Repulsion of the First Arab Caliphatic Invasion === | |||
{{Main|Umayyad campaigns in India}} | |||
The first Arab Caliphatic invasion of India was an expedition by sea to conquer Thana near present-day Mumbai as early as 636 CE. It was undertaken during the vigorous Islamic expansionist regime of the second Caliph, [[Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]], who was on a proselytizing mission to Islamize the whole world. He appointed [[Uthman ibn Abi al-As|Usman]], of the tribe of [[Thaqif|Sakif]], to capture [[Bahrayn]] and [[Oman]]. Usman sent his brother Hakam to [[Bahrayn]] and himself proceeded to Oman. Upon reaching Oman, Usman sent a naval expedition to capture Thana on the western coast of India. The Arab-Islamic naval expedition was successfully repulsed by the Imperial Chalukyan Navy under Pulakeshin II and they returned to Oman. The first Arab-Islamic raid on India was defeated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoyland |first1=Robert.G. |title=In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-991636-8}}</ref>{{pn|date=January 2024}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=Dr. Ram Gopal |title=Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders Up to 1206 A.D |date=December 1992 |isbn=9788185126463}}</ref>{{page needed|reason=Also, what are the credentials of this author?|date=September 2022}} | |||
=== Alupas === | === Alupas === | ||
According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshin subjugated the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]], who had earlier served as Kadamba vassals. However, according to the Chalukya inscriptions, the Alupas had already been subjugated by Pulakeshin's predecessors. Therefore, it appears that the Aihole inscription simply refers to Pulakeshin reaffirming the Chalukya suzerainty over the Alupas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} Another possibility is that the Alupas had not been completely subdued by the Pulakeshin's predecessors.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshin subjugated the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]], who had earlier served as Kadamba vassals. However, according to the Chalukya inscriptions, the Alupas had already been subjugated by Pulakeshin's predecessors. Therefore, it appears that the Aihole inscription simply refers to Pulakeshin reaffirming the Chalukya suzerainty over the Alupas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} Another possibility is that the Alupas had not been completely subdued by the Pulakeshin's predecessors.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | ||
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=== Gangas of Talakad === | === Gangas of Talakad === | ||
The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu|Talakad]], who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated the Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu|Talakad]], who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated the Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | ||
The Ganga ruler [[Durvinita]] married his daughter to Pulakeshin;{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} she was the mother of Pulakeshin's son [[Vikramaditya I]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} The Gangas probably hoped to gain Chalukya support against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]], who had captured the Kongunadu region from them. The Gangas subsequently defeated the Pallava ruler Kaduvetti of Kanchi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | The Ganga ruler [[Durvinita]] married his daughter to Pulakeshin;{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} she was the mother of Pulakeshin's son [[Vikramaditya I]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} The Gangas probably hoped to gain Chalukya support against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]], who had captured the [[Kongunadu]] region from them. The Gangas subsequently defeated the Pallava ruler Kaduvetti of Kanchi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} In return, Shilabhattarika, a daughter of Pulakeshin II was married to Dadiga, a son of Mokkara (Mushkara) and grandson of Durvinita, as attested by a copperplate charter of Chalukya Vijayaditya dated January–February 717 CE. Shreenand L. Bapat of [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]], who deciphered this inscription, identifies her with the renowned Sanskrit poet [[Shilabhattarika]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.academia.edu/99893306 | title=Vijayaditya's charter showing that the Sanskrit poetess Shilabhattarika was a Chalukya princess, and three more copperplate charters | journal=Tarun Bharat, Mumbai | date=January 2023 | last1=Bapat | first1=Shreenand }}</ref> | ||
=== Mauryas of Konkana=== | === Mauryas of Konkana=== | ||
Pulakeshin's father Kirttivarman had defeated the [[Mauryas of Puri|Mauryas of Konkana]] (modern [[Konkan]]), who ruled in the coastal region of present-day Goa and Maharashtra. The Mauryas acknowledged the Chalukya suzerainty during Mangalesha's reign, but seem to have declared independence during the Chalukya war of succession. After consolidating his power in southern Deccan, Pulakeshin successfully besieged the Mauryan capital Puri, which is variously identified as [[Gharapuri]] (Elephanta) or Rajapuri (near [[Murud-Janjira|Janjira]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | |||
Pulakeshin's father Kirttivarman had defeated the Mauryas of Konkana (modern [[Konkan]]), who ruled in the coastal region of present-day Goa and Maharashtra. The Mauryas acknowledged the Chalukya suzerainty during Mangalesha's reign, but seem to have declared independence during the Chalukya war of succession. After consolidating his power in southern Deccan, Pulakeshin successfully besieged the Mauryan capital Puri, which is variously identified as [[Gharapuri]] (Elephanta) or Rajapuri (near [[Murud-Janjira|Janjira]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | |||
=== Latas, Malavas, and Gurjaras === | === Latas, Malavas, and Gurjaras === | ||
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=== Victory over Harsha === | === Victory over Harsha === | ||
{{see also|Battle of Narmada}} | |||
The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful emperor [[Harshavardhana|Harsha-vardhana]], who ruled over much of northern India. The inscriptions of Pulakeshin's successors prominently mention this victory even when they ignore his other military achievements.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} | The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful emperor [[Harshavardhana|Harsha-vardhana]], who ruled over much of northern India. The inscriptions of Pulakeshin's successors prominently mention this victory even when they ignore his other military achievements.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} | ||
==== Date ==== | ==== Date ==== | ||
The date of the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin has been debated by modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's fifth regnal year ({{Circa|615 CE}}), mentions the conflict, but this inscription is regarded as spurious by modern scholars.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} | |||
Some scholars, such as [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] and [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], date the battle to {{Circa|612 CE}} or before, based on the 612–613 CE Hyderabad inscription of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This inscription boasts that Pulakeshin defeated a king who had fought a hundred battles (presumably Harsha).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=83}} The later Chalukya inscriptions, dating from the reign of [[Vikramaditya I]] onwards, mention Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha using similar expressions.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This early date for the war is also supported by the writings of Xuanzang, who states that Harsha fought wars for six years, and then ruled in peace for thirty years.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} | |||
Some scholars, such as [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] and [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], date the battle to | |||
Scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni date the battle to the winter of 618–619 CE. These scholars note that the Bijapur-Mumbai grant inscription, dated | Scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni date the battle to the winter of 618–619 CE. These scholars note that the Bijapur-Mumbai grant inscription, dated 4 April 619 CE, mentions Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha, which proves that the conflict definitely took place sometime before this date. The earlier Satara inscription of Pulakeshin's brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], issued during his eighth regnal year ({{Circa|618 CE}}) does not mention the conflict. Based on this, Bapat and Sohoni theorize that the conflict took place between November 618 CE and February 619 CE.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}} | ||
Some earlier scholars, such as D. Devahuti dated the conflict to 630s CE, but this is no longer considered correct after the publication of the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription in 2017.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}} | Some earlier scholars, such as D. Devahuti dated the conflict to 630s CE, but this is no longer considered correct after the publication of the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription in 2017.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}} | ||
==== Cause of the war ==== | ==== Cause of the war ==== | ||
The cause of the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin is not certain. Historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] suggests that Harsha's growing influence may have driven the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras to accept Pulakeshin's suzerainty.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=213}} Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit adds that these three kingdoms are known to have been enemies of Harsha's father [[Prabhakaravardhana|Prabhakara-vardhana]], as attested by Harsha's court poet [[Banabhatta|Bana]]: this enmity probably continued during the reign of Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} The Malava king played a role in the murder of Harsha's predecessor [[Rajyavardhana|Rajya-vardhana]], and also killed Harsha's brother-in-law, the [[Maukhari dynasty|Maukhari]] ruler Graha-varman. The [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjara]] ruler Dadda II aided the [[Maitraka dynasty]] against Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} When Harsha decided to take action against these three kingdoms, their rulers probably sought the protection of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} Pulakeshin may have granted asylum to Harsha's adversaries.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=87–88}} | |||
The cause | |||
According to scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni, the "Malavas" mentioned in the Chalukya record were the [[Later Gupta dynasty|Later Guptas]] who controlled the [[Malwa]] region. The expansion of the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka]] influence in the Malwa region must have attracted Harsha's attention. The Maitraka ruler Shiladitya I may have sympathized with Pulakeshin's cause during the latter's northern campaign against the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras. This situation ultimately resulted in a conflict between Harsha and Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|pp=208–209}} | According to scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni, the "Malavas" mentioned in the Chalukya record were the [[Later Gupta dynasty|Later Guptas]] who controlled the [[Malwa]] region. The expansion of the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka]] influence in the Malwa region must have attracted Harsha's attention. The Maitraka ruler Shiladitya I may have sympathized with Pulakeshin's cause during the latter's northern campaign against the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras. This situation ultimately resulted in a conflict between Harsha and Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|pp=208–209}} | ||
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=== Result === | === Result === | ||
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin boasts the ''harsha'' (mirth) of Harsha melted away by fear, as his elephants fell in the battle.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} The only other inscription from his reign that mentions this battle is the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=209}} Harsha's court poet Bana does not mention this conflict in his biography ''Harsha-charita'', presumably to avoid portraying his patron in a negative light.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} However, Pulakeshin's success against Harsha is confirmed by other independent sources.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} | The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin boasts the ''harsha'' (mirth) of Harsha melted away by fear, as his elephants fell in the battle.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} The only other inscription from his reign that mentions this battle is the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=209}} Harsha's court poet Bana does not mention this conflict in his biography ''Harsha-charita'', presumably to avoid portraying his patron in a negative light.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} However, Pulakeshin's success against Harsha is confirmed by other independent sources.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} | ||
The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]], who calls Pulakeshin's kingdom Mo-ho-la-cha (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), provides | The Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]], who calls Pulakeshin's kingdom Mo-ho-la-cha (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), provides evidence of Pulakeshin's success against Harsha. Xuanzang states that Shiladitya (that is, Harsha) had conquered the nations from east to west, and had marched with his army to remote parts of India: only the people of Mo-ho-la-cha had refused to accept his suzerainty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} Xuanzang further states that Harsha gathered troops from different parts of his kingdom, summoned his best commanders, and led the army to punish the people of Mo-ho-la-cha, but could not subjugate them.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} | ||
The [[Rashtrakuta]]s, who ultimately overthrew the Chalukyas several years after Pulakeshin's death, also boast that they defeated the dynasty that claimed victory over Harshavardhana, thus indirectly confirming Pulakeshin's achievement.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} | The [[Rashtrakuta]]s, who ultimately overthrew the Chalukyas several years after Pulakeshin's death, also boast that they defeated the dynasty that claimed victory over Harshavardhana, thus indirectly confirming Pulakeshin's achievement.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} | ||
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=== Dakshina Kosala and Kalinga === | === Dakshina Kosala and Kalinga === | ||
The Aihole inscription states that the rulers of Koshala and Kalinga accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty without offering any resistance.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=90}} | The Aihole inscription states that the rulers of Koshala and Kalinga accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty without offering any resistance.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=90}} | ||
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=== Vishnukundina dynasty === | === Vishnukundina dynasty === | ||
According to the Aihole inscription and the Maruturu inscription, Pulakeshin invaded and captured [[Pishtapura]] (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} The Maruturu inscription suggests that this event took place around or before 617–618 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Aihole inscription states that subsequently, a fierce battle was fought near Kunala lake (identified with modern [[Kolleru Lake]]), whose water turned red with the blood of those killed in the war. These inscriptions do not name Pulakeshin's rival in these conflicts, but modern scholars identify him as a king of the [[Vishnukundina dynasty]], which ruled in Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} | According to the Aihole inscription and the Maruturu inscription, Pulakeshin invaded and captured [[Pishtapura]] (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} The Maruturu inscription suggests that this event took place around or before 617–618 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Aihole inscription states that subsequently, a fierce battle was fought near Kunala lake (identified with modern [[Kolleru Lake]]), whose water turned red with the blood of those killed in the war. These inscriptions do not name Pulakeshin's rival in these conflicts, but modern scholars identify him as a king of the [[Vishnukundina dynasty]], which ruled in Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} | ||
Pulakeshin probably subjugated Vishnukundina vassals during his eastern campaign in Kalinga, which may have brought him in conflict with the Vishnukundina dynasty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} Pulakeshin conquered the Vishnukundina kingdom, located in the lower [[Godavari River|Godavari]]-[[Krishna River|Krishna]] valley, and appointed his younger brother 'Kubja' [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of the newly | Pulakeshin probably subjugated Vishnukundina vassals during his eastern campaign in Kalinga, which may have brought him in conflict with the Vishnukundina dynasty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} Pulakeshin conquered the Vishnukundina kingdom, located in the lower [[Godavari River|Godavari]]-[[Krishna River|Krishna]] valley, and appointed his younger brother 'Kubja' [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of the newly conquered territory.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Chalukya conquest in this region is corroborated by Vishnu-vardhana's 631 CE Kopparam copper-plate inscription, which records a land grant in the Karma-rashtra region of present-day Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} | ||
The Vishnukundina ruler defeated by Pulakeshin was probably Indravarman: he appears to have ultimately accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty, and was allowed to rule as a Chalukya vassal.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin assigned some of the newly | The Vishnukundina ruler defeated by Pulakeshin was probably Indravarman: he appears to have ultimately accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty, and was allowed to rule as a Chalukya vassal.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin assigned some of the newly conquered territories to his own feudatories. For example, the Maruturu inscription states that the Aluka ruler Gunasagara, a Chalukya vassal, came from Mangalapura (identified with modern Mangalagiri in Guntur district) to Kallura after undergoing several hardships.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} | ||
== Xuanzang's visit == | == Xuanzang's visit == | ||
The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] visited Pulakeshin's Empire in 641–642 CE.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} He calls the Chalukya emperor the ruler of "Mo-ho-la-cha" (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), and corroborates Pulakeshin II's success against emperor [[Harsha]] ([[#Result|see above]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} He had visited the [[Pallava]] state before arriving in the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya Empire]], but he does not mention any conflict between the two states, presumably because he was not aware of major political changes or because his main interest was Buddhism rather than politics.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} | |||
Xuanzang describes Pulakeshin ("Po-le-ke-she") as "a man of farsighted resource and astuteness who extends kindness to all". The emperor's subjects were "tall and sturdy in nature and... proud and carefree by nature... grateful for kindness and revengeful for injustice".{{sfn|Tsai Chiashan|2006|p=428}} They preferred death to disloyalty,{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} and called for a [[duel]] if they or their families were insulted.{{sfn|Tsai Chiashan|2006|p=428}} | |||
Xuanzang | According to Xuanzang, the emperor was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was a [[Kshatriya]] by birth.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} His well-disciplined troops comprised several thousands of men, and several hundreds of [[war elephants]]. The elephants, who were intoxicated with wine before battles, were used to break the enemy's [[front line]]. When his generals were defeated, they were not punished, but were humiliated by being ordered to wear women's dresses.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} The soldiers who lost a battle would commit suicide as a matter of honour.{{sfn|Tsai Chiashan|2006|p=428}} | ||
According to Xuanzang, the | According to Xuanzang, the empire's capital (not named by Xuanzang) was situated to the east of a large river, around 1000 [[li (unit)|li]] from [[Bharukachchha]] (modern Bharuch).{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} This description does not fit the Chalukya capital Vatapi (modern Badami).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=218–219}} Modern scholars identify the city mentioned by Xuanzang as [[Nashik]], although this identification is not conclusive.{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} It is possible that Xuanzang spent some time in Nashik, which was an important centre of Buddhism, and mistook it as the empire's capital.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=219}} Xuanzang mentions that there were five [[stupas]] in and around the capital city: these stupas had been built by the earlier [[Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]], and were several hundred feet high.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|pp=266–267}} Around 5,000 Buddhist monks lived in over 100 monasteries in the empire;{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} in particular, Xuanzang describes a large monastery identified with the [[Ajanta Caves]] by modern scholars.{{sfn|Sally Wriggins|2008|pp=132–134}} Xuanzang adds that the emperor also had temples of "heretics" who "[[vibhuti|smeared dust]] on their bodies".{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} | ||
== War with the Pallavas and defeat == | |||
== War with the Pallavas and | |||
{{see also|Battle of Pullalur|Battle of Vatapi}} | {{see also|Battle of Pullalur|Battle of Vatapi}} | ||
[[File:The defeat of Pulikesin II, the Chalukhya, byMahamalla Pallava at Badami.jpg|thumb|300px|''"The defeat of Pulakeshin II, the | [[File:The defeat of Pulikesin II, the Chalukhya, byMahamalla Pallava at Badami.jpg|thumb|300px|''"The defeat of Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya, by Mahamalla Pallava at Badami''", an artistic depiction of Pulakeshin's defeat]] | ||
The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava | The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]]. The [[Vishnukundina dynasty|Vishnukundins]] were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava monarch. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=93}} | ||
The Aihole inscription states that the Pallava ruler opposed the rise of Pulakeshin, who caused the enemy's splendour to be "obscured by the dust of his army" and forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the Pallava capital [[Kanchipuram]].{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Kashakudi inscription of the Pallavas states that the Pallava | The Aihole inscription states that the Pallava ruler opposed the rise of Pulakeshin, who caused the enemy's splendour to be "obscured by the dust of his army" and forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the Pallava capital [[Kanchipuram]].{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Kashakudi inscription of the Pallavas states that the Pallava Monarch [[Mahendravarman I]] defeated an unnamed enemy at Pallalura (modern [[Pullalur]]).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=215–216}} These two accounts appear to refer to the same battle, which must have been inconclusive: the Pallava army was probably forced to retreat to Kanchipuram, but inflicted enough damage on the Chalukya army to force Pulakeshin to retreat to Vatapi.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=216}} | ||
The undated [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription records Pulakeshin's grant of the Elpattu Simbhige village in Bana-raja-vishaya ("Bana king's province") after the subjugation of Ranavikrama. Assuming that Ranavikrama was a Bana king, it appears that Pulakeshin defeated the Banas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} (An alternative theory identifies Ranavikrama as Mangalesha; see [[#Early life|Early life]] section above.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|pp=76–77}}) The Banas appear to have been Pallava feudatories before their submission to Pulakeshin, as suggested by the name of the inscription's engraver: Mahendra Pallavachari.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} Pulakeshin's subjugation of a Pallava feudatory must have renewed his conflict with the Pallavas.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=217–218}} | The undated [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription records Pulakeshin's grant of the Elpattu Simbhige village in Bana-raja-[[vishaya]] ("Bana king's province") after the subjugation of Ranavikrama. Assuming that Ranavikrama was a Bana king, it appears that Pulakeshin defeated the Banas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} (An alternative theory identifies Ranavikrama as Mangalesha; see [[#Early life|Early life]] section above.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|pp=76–77}}) The Banas appear to have been Pallava feudatories before their submission to Pulakeshin, as suggested by the name of the inscription's engraver: Mahendra Pallavachari.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} Pulakeshin's subjugation of a Pallava feudatory must have renewed his conflict with the Pallavas.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=217–218}} | ||
The Aihole inscription suggests that Pulakeshin won over the Chola, the Chera, and the Pandya kings as his allies in his struggle against the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|pp=58–59}} He marched towards Kanchipuram, but the Pallava inscriptions suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala, near Kanchipuram.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp= | The Aihole inscription suggests that Pulakeshin won over the Chola, the Chera, and the Pandya kings as his allies in his struggle against the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|pp=58–59}} He marched towards Kanchipuram, but the Pallava inscriptions suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala, near Kanchipuram.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=96–97}} | ||
The Pallavas, during the reign of | The Pallavas, during the reign of [[Narasimhavarman I]], ultimately besieged the Chalukyan capital [[Vatapi]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=97}} Pulakeshin was probably killed, when a Pallava force led by General [[Paranjothi|Shiruttondar Paranjoti]] captured Vatapi in c. 642–643 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=99}} The Pallava occupation of Vatapi is attested by an inscription found at the Mallikarjunadeva temple in Badami, dated to the 13th regnal year of [[Narasimhavarman I]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=219}} | ||
== Succession == | == Succession == | ||
By 641 CE, during Pulakeshin's lifetime, his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Chalukya dynasty of Vengi]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of Pulakeshin, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} | By 641 CE, during Pulakeshin's lifetime, his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Chalukya dynasty of Vengi]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of Pulakeshin, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} | ||
Pulakeshin had multiple sons, and the order of succession after him is not clear from the available historical evidence: | Pulakeshin had multiple sons, and the order of succession after him is not clear from the available historical evidence: | ||
* [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}} | * [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] (c.643–645?) is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]] (c.645–646?).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}} | ||
* [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] | * [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] (c.646–649?) attested by the Nerur and Kochre grant inscriptions of his wife [[Vijaya-Bhattarika]], which accord him imperial titles, but are dated in the regnal years of his wife. It is possible that Chandraditya held the throne after Abhinavaditya, and after his death, his wife acted as a regent for their minor son (c.649–655). His brother Vikramaditya I, appears to have restored Chalukya power as the supreme commander of the Chalukya army during this period, becoming the de facto ruler in the process.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=116–119}} | ||
* Ranaragha-varman is attested by the Honnur inscription dated to the 16th regnal year of his younger brother Vikramaditya. The inscription states that Ranaragha-varman's daughter was the wife of the Ganga prince Madhava, a subordinate of Vikramaditya.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | * Ranaragha-varman is attested by the Honnur inscription dated to the 16th regnal year of his younger brother Vikramaditya. The inscription states that Ranaragha-varman's daughter was the wife of the Ganga prince Madhava, a subordinate of Vikramaditya.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | ||
* [[Vikramaditya I]] restored the Chalukya power,{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} and recaptured Vatapi from the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=59}} | * [[Vikramaditya I]] (655–680) restored the Chalukya power,{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} and recaptured Vatapi from the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=59}} | ||
* [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Dharashraya Jayasimhavarman|Dharashraya Jayasimha-varman]], a younger brother of Vikramaditya, is attested by the 671 CE Navsari grant inscription.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | * [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Dharashraya Jayasimhavarman|Dharashraya Jayasimha-varman]], a younger brother of Vikramaditya, is attested by the 671 CE Navsari grant inscription.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | ||
== Extent of the | == Extent of the Empire == | ||
[[File:Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg|thumb|Chalukya territories during the reign of Pulakeshin II, as estimated by historian [[Suryanath U. Kamath]].{{sfn|Suryanath U. | [[File:Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg|thumb|Chalukya territories during the reign of Pulakeshin II, as estimated by historian [[Suryanath U. Kamath]].{{sfn|Suryanath U. Kamath|1980|p=327}}]] | ||
The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang attests that Pulakeshin ruled an extensive, militarily powerful and economically prosperous | The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] attests that Pulakeshin ruled an extensive, militarily powerful and economically prosperous Empire through several loyal vassals.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} The Aihole inscription states that Pulakeshin's Empire was bound by the oceans on three sides, suggesting that he ruled a vast portion of the Indian peninsula to the south of the Vindhyas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} However, there is no evidence that he was able to annex the extreme southern kingdoms of the Cholas, the Keralas (Cheras), and the Pandyas to his empire.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}} | ||
After his victory over Harsha, Pulakeshin appears to have acquired control of a large part of western Deccan to the south of the Narmada river. The Aihole inscription states that he gained control of the "three | After his victory over Harsha, Pulakeshin appears to have acquired control of a large part of western Deccan to the south of the Narmada river. The Aihole inscription states that he gained control of the "three Maharashtrakas" which included 99,000 villages. The identity of these "three Maharashtras" is not certain: according to historian [[D. C. Sircar]], they may have been the Maharashtra proper (a large part of present-day Maharashtra), Konkana, and Karnata.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=90}} | ||
Pulakeshin could not administer this large | Pulakeshin could not administer this large empire centrally, and therefore, ruled through governors from the Chalukya family and loyal vassals, who included the rulers defeated by him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Sendraka prince Sena-nanda-raja ruled the [[Konkan]]a and neighbouring areas as his loyal feudatory. The family of Alla-shakti ruled the [[Khandesh]] and neighbouring areas as his vassal, as attested by the Abhona and Kasare inscriptions.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}} | ||
After defeating the Vishnukundins, Pulakeshin acquired control of a large part of the eastern Deccan region, extending from Vishakhapatnam in north to Nellore and Guntur in the south.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin appointed his younger brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], who had earlier served as his governor of the Velvola country, as the governor of Vengi in eastern Deccan. Vishnu-vardhana acknowledges Pulakeshin's suzerainty in his 631 CE Kopparam inscription, but asserts himself as an independent ruler in his 641 CE Chirupalli inscription.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} | After defeating the [[Vishnukundins]], Pulakeshin acquired control of a large part of the eastern Deccan region, extending from Vishakhapatnam in north to Nellore and Guntur in the south.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin appointed his younger brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], who had earlier served as his governor of the Velvola country, as the governor of Vengi in eastern Deccan. Vishnu-vardhana acknowledges Pulakeshin's suzerainty in his 631 CE Kopparam inscription, but asserts himself as an independent ruler in his 641 CE Chirupalli inscription.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} | ||
After Pulakeshin's death, the Chalukya governor Vijaya-varman, who ruled in the [[Lata (region)|Lata]] region (in southern Gujarat), also seems to have asserted his independence. Vijaya-varman's 643 CE Kheda (Kaira) inscription records a land grant without any reference to a Chalukya overlord.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=95–96}} | After Pulakeshin's death, the Chalukya governor Vijaya-varman, who ruled in the [[Lata (region)|Lata]] region (in southern Gujarat), also seems to have asserted his independence. Vijaya-varman's 643 CE Kheda (Kaira) inscription records a land grant without any reference to a Chalukya overlord.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=95–96}} | ||
== Foreign relations == | == Foreign relations == | ||
=== Relations with Sassanid Persia === | |||
[[File:The Persian embassy.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Original frescoes in Ajanta Cave 1, and corresponding artistic depiction of Pulakeshin receiving envoys from Persia. Earlier scholars believed that Pulakeshin received an envoy from the Sasanian emperor of Persia, based on the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] cave painting, but this theory is no longer considered correct.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}}]] | [[File:The Persian embassy.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Original frescoes in Ajanta Cave 1, and corresponding artistic depiction of Pulakeshin receiving envoys from Persia. Earlier scholars believed that Pulakeshin received an envoy from the Sasanian emperor of Persia, based on the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] cave painting, but this theory is no longer considered correct.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}}]] | ||
According to the | According to the ninth-century Persian historian [[Al-Tabari]], Pulakeshin ("Pharmis") maintained diplomatic relations with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian Emperor]] [[Khosrow II]] of present-day Iran. Pulakeshin sent expensive presents and letters to Khusrow II and his sons, during the 26th regnal year of the Sasanian emperor.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} This embassy can be dated to c. 625 CE.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | ||
In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian | In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a [[Sasanian]] embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian emperor sent a return embassy to the Chalukya empire.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=181}} This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct:{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}} the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sasanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana [[Jataka tales|Jataka]], in which the enthroned king can be identified as the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous births as a King.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} The inclusion of numerous men in Sasanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sasanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an object of intense interest by the Indians.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | ||
== | The good relations between the Indians and the [[Sasanian Empire]] encouraged the migration to India of [[Zoroastrian]] refugees, who were severely persecuted by [[Rashidun Caliphate|Arab]]-[[Islamic]] Colonizers in Persia. They settled on the West coast of the Deccan and established the [[Parsi Community]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Publishing |first1=Britannica Educational |title=The History of India |date=1 April 2010 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-201-7 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdmcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature [[ | == Religion and religious policy == | ||
Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite|Vaishanavite Hindu]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of [[Vishnu]]"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to the [[Vishnu|Lord Vishnu]], and bear seals with emblems that feature [[Varaha]], an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | |||
He was tolerant of other faiths | He was tolerant of other sects and faiths. The construction of the [[Shaivite|Shaivite Hindu]] shrines now called the Upper Shivalaya, the Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya, started during his reign.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}} The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] mentions that there were over 100 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monasteries in his empire; over 5,000 monks – both [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] – lived in these monasteries.{{sfn|Lal Mani Joshi|1987|p=40}} The Meguti [[Jainism|Jain]] temple at Aihole was also built during his reign, by Ravikirrti, who composed the [[Aihole inscription]] engraved on the wall of this temple.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}}{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=90}} | ||
== Cultural activities == | == Cultural activities == | ||
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II states that he was generous in "bestowing gifts and honours on the brave and the learned". The inscription's composer Ravikirrti, a court poet of Pulakeshin, describes himself as an equal of the great Sanskrit poets [[Bhasa]] and [[Kalidasa]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=554}} | |||
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin states that he was generous in "bestowing gifts and honours on the brave and the learned". The inscription's composer Ravikirrti, a court poet of Pulakeshin, describes himself as an equal of the | |||
== Inscriptions == | == Inscriptions == | ||
[[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|The Aihole inscription composed by Pulakeshin's court poet Ravikirtti]] | [[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|The Aihole inscription composed by Pulakeshin's court poet Ravikirtti]] | ||
Following inscriptions from Pulakeshin's reign have been discovered: | Following inscriptions from Pulakeshin's reign have been discovered: | ||
* The Yekkeri rock inscription, which was probably issued in Pulakeshin's first regnal year, contains land records in certain towns said to be owned by the god [[Shiva|Mahadeva]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | * The Yekkeri rock inscription, which was probably issued in Pulakeshin's first regnal year, contains land records in certain towns said to be owned by the god [[Shiva|Mahadeva]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | ||
* The Hyderabad copper-plate grant inscription is dated to the Shaka year 532 (expired), and was issued during Pulakeshin's | * The Hyderabad copper-plate grant inscription is dated to the Shaka year 532 (expired), and was issued during Pulakeshin's third regnal year. It was issued during the solar eclipse on the Amavasya of the Bhadrapada month, which corresponds to 23 July 613.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=51}} It records a village grant.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | ||
* The Maruturu grant inscription records the grant of the Maruturu village at the instance of the Aluka vassal ruler, and notices the occupation of Pishtapura.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | * The Maruturu grant inscription records the grant of the Maruturu village at the instance of the Aluka vassal ruler, and notices the occupation of Pishtapura.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | ||
* The Satara grant inscription of Vishnu-vardhana refers to him as the crown-prince.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | * The Satara grant inscription of Vishnu-vardhana refers to him as the crown-prince.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | ||
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* The Aihole prashasti inscription, composed by Pulakeshin's court poet Ravikirtti, records the construction of a Jinendra temple by Ravikirtti, and lists Pulakeshin's military achievements.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=554–555}} | * The Aihole prashasti inscription, composed by Pulakeshin's court poet Ravikirtti, records the construction of a Jinendra temple by Ravikirtti, and lists Pulakeshin's military achievements.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=554–555}} | ||
* The undated Tummeyanaru grant inscription of Pulakeshin bestows the title ''Paramaveshvara'' on him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The undated Tummeyanaru grant inscription of Pulakeshin bestows the title ''Paramaveshvara'' on him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
* The Chiplun copper-plate inscription | * The Chiplun copper-plate inscription records the grant of the Amravatavaka village in Avaretika ''vishaya'' (province) to a Brahmana named Maheshvara. It refers to Pulakeshin's maternal uncle and vassal king Shrivallabha Sena-nanda-raja, who belonged to the Sendraka dynasty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
* The Nerur inscription.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The Nerur inscription.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
* The fragmentary Badami rock inscription refers to the "victorious metropolis" of Vatapi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The fragmentary Badami rock inscription refers to the "victorious metropolis" of Vatapi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
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* The Bijapur-Mumbai copper-plate grant inscription records a land grant to Nagasharman of [[Kaushika]] [[gotra]], and includes a [[prashasti]] (praise) of the dynasty and its kings. The granted land was located in the Brahmana-Vataviya villages situated on the banks of the [[Godavari River]] (identified with modern Brahmangaon and Wadvali, east of [[Paithan]], in [[Aurangabad District, Maharashtra|Aurangabad district]]).{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} The copper plates were purchased by Raghuvir Pai of Mumbai from a scrap-vendor of Bijapur in the 1990s. The inscription was unreadable because of corrosion, but Shreenand L. Bapat of [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] cleaned it and published it in 2017. It is written in Sanskrit language and inscribed in a southern variety of the [[Brahmi script]].{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=205}} It was issued on the occasion of a lunar eclipse on a [[purnima|full-moon day]] in the [[Vaishakha]] month of Pulakeshin's ninth regnal year, which corresponds to 4 April 619 CE.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} | * The Bijapur-Mumbai copper-plate grant inscription records a land grant to Nagasharman of [[Kaushika]] [[gotra]], and includes a [[prashasti]] (praise) of the dynasty and its kings. The granted land was located in the Brahmana-Vataviya villages situated on the banks of the [[Godavari River]] (identified with modern Brahmangaon and Wadvali, east of [[Paithan]], in [[Aurangabad District, Maharashtra|Aurangabad district]]).{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} The copper plates were purchased by Raghuvir Pai of Mumbai from a scrap-vendor of Bijapur in the 1990s. The inscription was unreadable because of corrosion, but Shreenand L. Bapat of [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] cleaned it and published it in 2017. It is written in Sanskrit language and inscribed in a southern variety of the [[Brahmi script]].{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=205}} It was issued on the occasion of a lunar eclipse on a [[purnima|full-moon day]] in the [[Vaishakha]] month of Pulakeshin's ninth regnal year, which corresponds to 4 April 619 CE.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} | ||
The following inscriptions are attributed to Pulakeshin's reign, but are considered spurious by modern scholars: | |||
* The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's fifth regnal year, records the grant of the Pirigipa village on Revati island. It is considered spurious because its script features irregular characters and its language is very inaccurate.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} Additionally, its seal and opening matter are different from other Chalukya inscriptions, and it contains a faulty description of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} | |||
* The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's | |||
* The Lakshmeshvara inscription records the grant of a field to the chaitya of Shankha Jinendra. It is considered spurious because of "late script and irregular dating".{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The Lakshmeshvara inscription records the grant of a field to the chaitya of Shankha Jinendra. It is considered spurious because of "late script and irregular dating".{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
* The Pimpalner copper-plate inscription, considered spurious for the same reasons as the Lakshmeshvara inscription, records the grant of the Pippalanagara to Nagarasvami Dikshita.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The Pimpalner copper-plate inscription, considered spurious for the same reasons as the Lakshmeshvara inscription, records the grant of the Pippalanagara to Nagarasvami Dikshita.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
==In popular culture== | |||
* Several Kannada groups demanded the installation of Pulakeshin II's statue at Badami, Karnataka, to celebrate the great "kannada" emperor of past who they claimed was being ignored by the Karnataka Government.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/top-karnataka-stories/seeing-beyond-shivaji-activists-push-for-pulikeshi-ii-1055994.html | title=Seeing beyond Shivaji: Activists push for Pulikeshi II. Learn More. | date=30 Nov 2021}}</ref> | |||
* The 1967 [[Kannada cinema|Kannada film ]] ''[[Immadi Pulikeshi (film)|Immadi Pulikeshi]]'' starring [[Dr. Rajkumar]] was based on the life of Pulakeshin II. | |||
* The Tamil-language historical novel ''[[Sivagamiyin Sapatham]]'' (1948) by [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]] revolves around the historical events of the Chalukya emperor, Pulakeshin II, laying siege to Kanchi, and [[Narasimhavarman I]] avenging this by attacking Vatapi, the capital of the Chalukyas. | |||
[[File:Pulakeshin statue, badami.png|thumb|Statue of Pulakeshin II in Badami]] | |||
[[File:Pulakeshin painting bengaluru.jpg|thumb|Painting of Pulakeshin II in Bengaluru]] | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]] | |||
* [[Timeline of Karnataka]] | |||
* [[History of South India]] | * [[History of South India]] | ||
* [[Sivagamiyin sabadham]], a historical novel featuring Pulakeshin II | * [[Sivagamiyin sabadham]], a historical novel featuring Pulakeshin II | ||
* [[Immadi Pulikeshi (film)]], a Kannada-language film based on the life of Pulakeshin II | * [[Immadi Pulikeshi (film)]], a Kannada-language film based on the life of Pulakeshin II | ||
* [https://history-is-mystery.com/pulakeshin-ii-the-vanquisher-of-the-arab-invaders/ Pulakeshin II: The Vanquisher of the Arab Invaders] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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=== Bibliography === | === Bibliography === | ||
{{commons category| | {{commons category|Pulakeshin II}} | ||
{{ | {{refbegin}} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Rimjhim Sharma, Anish Kumar |title=History: BA (Hons) Semester II Course Pack, University of Delhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cyI8BAAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-93-325-1157-6 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |author-link=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA58 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 }} | * {{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |author-link=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA58 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 }} | ||
* {{cite book |editor=B. Chaitanya Deva |title=Musical instruments in sculpture in Karnataka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gIAQAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study / Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0641-2 }} | * {{cite book |editor=B. Chaitanya Deva |title=Musical instruments in sculpture in Karnataka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gIAQAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study / Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0641-2 }} | ||
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* {{cite book |author=K. V. Ramesh |title=Chalukyas of Vātāpi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAwhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan |oclc=567370037 }} | * {{cite book |author=K. V. Ramesh |title=Chalukyas of Vātāpi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAwhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan |oclc=567370037 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Lal Mani Joshi |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&pg=PA40 |year=1987 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 }} | * {{cite book |author=Lal Mani Joshi |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&pg=PA40 |year=1987 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 }} | ||
* {{cite journal |author1=Shreenand L. Bapat |author2=Pradeep S. Sohoni |title=The Bijapur-Mumbai copperplate grant of Călukya ruler Pulakeśin II, dated April 04, 619 CE, mentioning his triumph over emperor Harṣavardhana |editor1=S. S. Bahulkar |editor2=Shilpa Sumant |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute | * {{cite journal |author1=Shreenand L. Bapat |author2=Pradeep S. Sohoni |title=The Bijapur-Mumbai copperplate grant of Călukya ruler Pulakeśin II, dated April 04, 619 CE, mentioning his triumph over emperor Harṣavardhana |editor1=S. S. Bahulkar |editor2=Shilpa Sumant |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=XCIII |year=2017 |pages=205–209 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34011338 |ref={{harvid|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017}} }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Sally Wriggins |title=The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSYKO5zLgZkC&pg=PT132 |year=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2544-1 }} | * {{cite book |author=Sally Wriggins |title=The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSYKO5zLgZkC&pg=PT132 |year=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2544-1 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Sandhya Jain |title=The India They Saw |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 |year=2011 |publisher=Ocean Books |isbn=978-81-8430-106-9 }} | * {{cite book |author=Sandhya Jain |title=The India They Saw |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 |year=2011 |publisher=Ocean Books |isbn=978-81-8430-106-9 }} | ||
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* {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA554 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 }} | * {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA554 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Walter M. Spink |chapter=The Persian Embassy |title=Ajanta: The end of the Golden Age |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjgq2OivwmkC&pg=PA181 |year=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-14832-9 }} | * {{cite book |author=Walter M. Spink |chapter=The Persian Embassy |title=Ajanta: The end of the Golden Age |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjgq2OivwmkC&pg=PA181 |year=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-14832-9 }} | ||
{{ | {{refend}} | ||
{{Karnataka topics}} | {{Karnataka topics}} | ||
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[[Category:Indian military leaders]] | [[Category:Indian military leaders]] | ||
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]] | [[Category:Hindu monarchs]] | ||
[[Category:Chalukya kings]] | |||