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{{Short description|Period of Greek history from 323 to 31 BC}}
#REDIRECT[[Hellenistic period]]
{{redirect|Greek world|the geographical distribution of Greek speakers|Greek language}}
[[File:Nike of Samothrake Louvre Ma2369 n4.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1|The [[Nike of Samothrace]] is considered one of the greatest masterpieces of [[Hellenistic art]].]]
{{History of Greece}}
In [[classical antiquity]], the '''Hellenistic period''' covers the time in [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean history]] after [[Classical Greece]], between the [[death of Alexander the Great]] in 323 BC and the death of [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra VII]] (30 BC),<ref>[CHAMBERS Dictionary of WORLD HISTORY]</ref> followed by the emergence of the [[Roman Empire]], as signified by the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC and the conquest of [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]] the following year.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition.] Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130531025138/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm Archived here.]</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/260307/Hellenistic-Age Hellenistic Age.] [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130514031055/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/260307/Hellenistic-Age Archived here.]</ref> The [[Ancient Greek]] word ''Hellas'' ({{lang|grc|Ἑλλάς}}, ''Hellás'') was gradually recognized as the [[name of Greece|name for Greece]], from which the word ''Hellenistic'' was derived.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1653418|title=Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age|website=www.penfield.edu|access-date=2017-10-08}}</ref> "Hellenistic" is distinguished from "Hellenic" in that the latter refers to Greece itself, while the former encompasses all ancient territories under Greek influence, in particular the East after the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]].
 
After the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian conquest]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in 330 BC and its disintegration shortly after, the Hellenistic kingdoms were established throughout [[Southwest Asia|south-west Asia]] ([[Seleucid Empire]], [[Attalid dynasty|Kingdom of Pergamon]]), north-east Africa ([[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]) and [[South Asia]] ([[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]], [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]).<ref>[http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/10hellenism.html Professor Gerhard Rempel, ''Hellenistic Civilization'' (Western New England College)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705195541/http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/10hellenism.html|date=2008-07-05}}.</ref><ref name="wilcken">Ulrich Wilcken, ''Griechische Geschichte im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte''.</ref> This resulted in an influx of Greek [[Settler|colonists]] and the export of [[Greek culture]] and language to these new realms, spanning as far as modern-day India. These new kingdoms were also influenced by the indigenous cultures, adopting local practices where beneficial, necessary, or convenient. Hellenistic culture thus represents a fusion of the ancient Greek world with that of Western Asian, Northeastern African, and Southwestern Asian.<ref>Green 2008, pp. xv–xvii.</ref> This mixture gave rise to a common [[Attic Greek|Attic]]-based Greek dialect, known as [[Koine Greek]], which became the ''[[lingua franca]]'' throughout the ancient world.
 
During the Hellenistic period, Greek cultural influence and power reached its peak in the Mediterranean and beyond. Prosperity and progress in the [[Hellenistic art|arts]], [[literature]], [[Ancient Greek theatre|theatre]], [[architecture]], [[music]], [[Hellenistic mathematics|mathematics]], [[Hellenistic philosophy|philosophy]], and [[Hellenistic science|science]] characterize the era. The Hellenistic period saw the rise of [[New Comedy]], [[Alexandrian school|Alexandrian poetry]], translation efforts such as the [[Septuagint]], and the philosophies of [[Stoicism]], [[Epicureanism]], and [[Pyrrhonism]]. In science, the works of the mathematician [[Euclid]] and the [[polymath]] [[Archimedes]] are exemplary. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian [[Serapis]], eastern deities such as [[Attis]] and [[Cybele]], and a [[Greco-Buddhism|syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism]] in [[Bactria]] and Northwest [[Indian subcontinent|India]].
 
Scholars and historians are divided as to which event signals the end of the Hellenistic era. Proposals include the final conquest of the Greek heartlands by [[Roman Republic|Rome]] in 146 BC following the [[Achaean War]], the final defeat of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Kingdom]] at the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, and the move by [[Roman emperor]] [[Constantine the Great]] of the capital of the [[Roman Empire]] to [[Constantinople]] in AD 330.<ref name=eb>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/260307/Hellenistic-Age |title=Hellenistic Age |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book |title=Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age |page=xiii |last=Green |first=P |isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9|year=2008 |publisher=Phoenix }}</ref> [[Angelos Chaniotis]] ends the Hellenistic period with the death of [[Hadrian]] in AD 138, who integrated the Greeks fully into the Roman Empire, though a range from {{Circa|321 BC}} to AD 256 may also be given.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chaniotis |first1=Angelos |author-link1=Angelos Chaniotis |title=Age of Conquests: The Greek World from Alexander to Hadrian |date=2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |page=4}}</ref><ref name="ChapmanWylie2015">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Anderson |first1=Terence J. |last2=Twining |first2=William |editor-last1=Chapman |editor-first1=Robert |editor-last2=Wylie |editor-first2=Alison |title=Law and archaeology: Modified Wigmorean Analysis |encyclopedia=Material Evidence: Learning from Archaeological Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zky2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PT290 |access-date=20 August 2019 |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, UK; New York, NY |isbn=978-1-317-57622-8 |page=290 }}</ref>
 
== Etymology ==
{{See also|Names of the Greeks}}
The word originated from ancient Greek {{lang|grc|Ἑλληνιστής}} (''Hellēnistḗs'', "one who uses the Greek language"), from {{lang|grc|Ἑλλάς}} (''Hellás'', "Greece"); as if "Hellenist" + "ic".{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = '''Left image''': The [[Sampul tapestry]], a woolen wall hanging from [[Lop County]], [[Hotan Prefecture]], [[Xinjiang]], [[China]], possibly showing a [[Yuezhi]], wielding a spear, and wearing what appears to be a ''[[diadem]]'' headband; depicted above him is a [[centaur]], from [[Greek mythology]], a common [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]] in [[Hellenistic art]]<br /> '''Right image''': painted clay and [[alabaster]] head of a [[Zoroastrian]] priest wearing a distinctive [[Bactria]]n-style headdress, [[Takhti-Sangin]], [[Tajikistan]], 3rd–2nd century&nbsp;BC | footer_align = left | image1 = UrumqiWarrior.jpg | total_width = 290 | caption1 = | image2 = Head of Bactrian ruler (Satrap), Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i-Sangin, 3rd-2nd century BC.jpg | caption2 = }}
The idea of a Hellenistic period is a 19th-century concept, and did not exist in [[ancient Greece]]. Although words related in form or meaning, e.g. ''Hellenist'' ({{lang-grc|Ἑλληνιστής}}, ''Hellēnistēs''), have been attested since ancient times,<ref name=HellenistesLSJ>{{LSJ|*(ellhnisth/s|Ἑλληνιστής|ref}}.</ref> it was [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] in the mid-19th century, who in his classic work ''Geschichte des Hellenismus'' (''History of Hellenism''), coined the term ''Hellenistic'' to refer to and define the period when Greek culture spread in the non-Greek world after Alexander's conquest.<ref name=DroysenHellenismus>{{cite book|title=Greek History: Hellenistic. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|first=Angelos|last=[[Angelos Chaniotis|Chaniotis]]
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBrSQebTZekC&pg=PA8|page=8|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-980507-5}}</ref> Following Droysen, ''Hellenistic'' and related terms, e.g. ''Hellenism'', have been widely used in various contexts; a notable such use is in ''[[Culture and Anarchy]]'' by [[Matthew Arnold]], where Hellenism is used in contrast with [[Hebraism]].<ref name=MatthewArnold>{{cite book|title=Culture and Anarchy|first1=Matthew|last1=Arnold|author1-link=Matthew Arnold|chapter=Chapter IV|page=143|year=1869|publisher=Smith, Elder & Co.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xD5AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA143|title-link=Culture and Anarchy}} {{cite book|title=Culture and Anarchy|first1=Matthew|last1=Arnold|author1-link=Matthew Arnold|first2=Jane (editor)|last2=Garnett|chapter=Chapter IV|page=96|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280511-9|title-link=Culture and Anarchy}}</ref>
 
The major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Some areas of the conquered world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The term Hellenistic also implies that the Greek populations were of majority in the areas in which they settled, but in many cases, the Greek settlers were actually the minority among the native populations. The Greek population and the native population did not always mix; the Greeks moved and brought their own culture, but interaction did not always occur.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
 
== Sources ==
While a few fragments exist, there are no complete surviving historical works that date to the hundred years following Alexander's death. The works of the major Hellenistic [[historians]] [[Hieronymus of Cardia]] (who worked under Alexander, [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus&nbsp;I]] and other successors), [[Duris of Samos]] and [[Phylarchus]], which were used by surviving [[Primary source|sources]], are all lost.<ref name="Walbank">F.W. Walbank et al. THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY, SECOND EDITION, VOLUME VII, PART I: The Hellenistic World, p. 1.</ref> The earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is [[Polybius]] of [[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]] (c. 200–118), a statesman of the [[Achaean League]] until 168&nbsp;BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage.<ref name="Walbank" /> His ''[[The Histories (Polybius)|Histories]]'' eventually grew to a length of forty books, covering the years 220 to 167&nbsp;BC.
 
The most important source after Polybius is [[Diodorus Siculus]] who wrote his ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' between 60 and 30&nbsp;BC and reproduced some important earlier sources such as Hieronymus, but his account of the Hellenistic period breaks off after the [[battle of Ipsus]] (301&nbsp;BC). Another important source, [[Plutarch]]'s ({{circa|AD&nbsp;50|120}}) ''[[Parallel Lives]]'' although more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality, outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures. [[Appian]] of Alexandria (late 1st century AD–before 165) wrote a history of the [[Roman empire]] that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
 
Other sources include [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]'s (2nd century AD) [[epitome]] of [[Pompeius Trogus]]' ''Historiae Philipicae'' and a summary of [[Arrian]]'s ''Events after Alexander'', by [[Photios&nbsp;I of Constantinople]]. Lesser supplementary sources include [[Curtius Rufus]], [[Pausanias of Damascus|Pausanias]], [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], and the [[Byzantine]] [[encyclopedia]] the [[Suda]]. In the field of philosophy, [[Diogenes Laërtius]]' ''[[Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers]]'' is the main source; works such as [[Cicero]]'s ''[[De Natura Deorum]]'' also provide some further detail of philosophical schools in the Hellenistic period.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
 
== Background ==
{{See also|Philip II of Macedon|Alexander the Great|Wars of Alexander the Great}}
[[File:Napoli BW 2013-05-16 16-24-01.jpg|left|thumb|[[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] fighting the Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius&nbsp;III]]. From the [[Alexander Mosaic]], [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]].]]
{{Alexander the Great series}}
 
Ancient Greece had traditionally been a fractious collection of fiercely independent city-states. After the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431–404&nbsp;BC), Greece had fallen under a [[Spartan hegemony]], in which [[Sparta]] was pre-eminent but not all-powerful. Spartan hegemony was succeeded by a [[Theban hegemony]] after the [[Battle of Leuctra]] (371&nbsp;BC), but after the [[Battle of Mantinea (362&nbsp;BC)]], all of Greece was so weakened that no one state could claim pre-eminence. It was against this backdrop that the ascendancy of [[Macedon]] began, under king [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip&nbsp;II]]. Macedon was located at the periphery of the Greek world, and although its royal family claimed Greek descent, the Macedonians themselves were looked down upon as semi-barbaric by the rest of the Greeks. However, Macedon controlled a large area and had a relatively strong centralized government, in comparison to most Greek states.<ref>Bury, p. 684.</ref>
 
Philip&nbsp;II was a strong and expansionist king who took every opportunity to expand Macedonian territory. In 352&nbsp;BC he annexed [[Thessaly]] and [[Magnesia Prefecture|Magnesia]]. In 338&nbsp;BC, Philip defeated a combined Theban and Athenian army at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] after a decade of desultory conflict. In the aftermath, Philip formed the [[League of Corinth]], effectively bringing the majority of Greece under his direct sway. He was elected ''Hegemon'' of the league, and a campaign against the [[Achaemenid Empire]] of Persia was planned. However in 336 BC, while this campaign was in its early stages, he was assassinated.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age |publisher=Orion |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9 |location=London}}</ref>
 
[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|left|Alexander's empire at the time of its maximum expansion.]]
Succeeding his father, Alexander took over the Persian war himself. During a decade of campaigning, Alexander [[Wars of Alexander the Great|conquered the whole Persian Empire]], overthrowing the Persian king [[Darius&nbsp;III]]. The conquered lands included [[Asia Minor]], [[Assyria]], the [[Levant]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Medes|Media]], [[Persia]], and parts of modern-day [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], and the [[steppes]] of central Asia. The years of constant campaigning had taken their toll, however, and Alexander died in 323&nbsp;BC.
 
After his death, the huge territories Alexander had conquered became subject to a strong Greek influence ([[Hellenization]]) for the next two or three centuries, until the rise of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] in the west, and of [[Parthian Empire|Parthia]] in the east. As the Greek and Levantine cultures mingled, the development of a hybrid Hellenistic culture began, and persisted even when isolated from the main centres of Greek culture (for instance, in the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]]).
 
It can be argued that some of the changes across the [[Macedonian Empire]] after Alexander's conquests and during the rule of the [[Diadochi]] would have occurred without the influence of Greek rule. As mentioned by [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]], numerous factors of conquest have been merged under the term ''Hellenistic period''. Specific areas conquered by Alexander's invading army, including Egypt and areas of [[Asia Minor]] and [[Mesopotamia]] "fell" willingly to conquest and viewed Alexander as more of a liberator than a conqueror.<ref name="autogenerated2007" />
 
In addition, much of the area conquered would continue to be ruled by the [[Diadochi]], Alexander's generals and successors. Initially the whole empire was divided among them; however, some territories were lost relatively quickly, or only remained nominally under Macedonian rule. After 200 years, only much reduced and rather degenerate states remained,<ref name="ReferenceC" /> until the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt by Rome.
 
== The Diadochi ==
{{Main|Diadochi|Wars of the Diadochi|Partition of Babylon}}
{{further|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
[[File:Diadochi satraps babylon.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The distribution of [[satrap]]ies in the [[Macedonian Empire]] after the [[Partition of Babylon|Settlement in Babylon (323&nbsp;BC)]].]]
 
When Alexander the Great died (10 June 323&nbsp;BC), he left behind a sprawling empire which was composed of many essentially autonomous territories called [[satrap]]s. Without a chosen successor there were immediate disputes among his generals as to who should be king of Macedon. These generals became known as the Diadochi ({{lang-grc-gre|Διάδοχοι}}, ''Diadokhoi'', meaning "Successors").
 
[[Meleager (general)|Meleager]] and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, [[Philip III of Macedon|Philip Arrhidaeus]], while [[Perdiccas]], the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's child by [[Roxana]]. After the infantry stormed the palace of [[Babylon]], a compromise was arranged – [[Arrhidaeus]] (as Philip&nbsp;III) should become king and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was, becoming [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander&nbsp;IV]]). Perdiccas himself would become regent (''epimeletes'') of the empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered and assumed full control.<ref>Green, Peter (1990); Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age. University of California Press. pp. 7–8.</ref> The generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the [[partition of Babylon]] by becoming [[satrap]]s of the various parts of the empire, but Perdiccas' position was shaky, because, as [[Arrian]] writes, "everyone was suspicious of him, and he of them".<ref>Green, p. 9.</ref>
 
The first of the [[Diadochi wars]] broke out when [[Perdiccas]] planned to marry Alexander's sister [[Cleopatra of Macedonia|Cleopatra]] and began to question [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]]' leadership in [[Asia Minor]]. Antigonus fled for Greece, and then, together with [[Antipater]] and [[Craterus]] (the satrap of [[Cilicia]] who had been in Greece fighting the [[Lamian war]]) invaded [[Anatolia]]. The rebels were supported by [[Lysimachus]], the satrap of [[Thrace]] and Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt. Although [[Eumenes]], satrap of [[Cappadocia]], defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals [[Peithon]], [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]], and [[Antigenes (general)|Antigenes]] (possibly with Ptolemy's aid) during his invasion of Egypt ({{circa|21 May}} to 19 June, 320&nbsp;BC).<ref>Green, p. 14.</ref> Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and [[Arrhidaeus]] regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the [[Treaty of Triparadisus]]. Antipater was made regent of the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus remained in charge of Asia Minor, Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace and [[Seleucus&nbsp;I]] controlled [[Babylon]].
[[File:Diadoch.png|upright=1.15|thumb|right|The Kingdoms of Antigonos and his rivals {{circa|303&nbsp;BC}}.]]
 
The second Diadochi war began following the death of [[Antipater]] in 319&nbsp;BC. Passing over his own son, [[Cassander]], Antipater had declared [[Polyperchon]] his successor as [[Regent]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=Gabriele |title=Armies of the Hellenistic states 323 BC to AD 30: history, organization & equipment |date=2019 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |isbn=978-1-5267-3029-9 |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire}}</ref> Cassander rose in revolt against Polyperchon (who was joined by Eumenes) and was supported by Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy. In 317&nbsp;BC, [[Cassander]] invaded Macedonia, attaining control of Macedon, sentencing [[Olympias]] to death and capturing the boy king [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander&nbsp;IV]], and his mother. In Asia, [[Eumenes]] was betrayed by his own men after years of campaign and was given up to Antigonus who had him executed.
 
The third war of the Diadochi broke out because of the growing power and ambition of Antigonus. He began removing and appointing satraps as if he were king and also raided the royal treasuries in [[Ecbatana]], [[Persepolis]] and [[Susa]], making off with 25,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]].<ref name="Green, p. 21" /> Seleucus was forced to flee to Egypt and Antigonus was soon at war with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. He then invaded [[Phoenicia]], laid siege to [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], stormed [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and began building a fleet. Ptolemy invaded Syria and defeated Antigonus' son, [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius Poliorcetes]], in the [[Battle of Gaza (312 BC)|Battle of Gaza]] of 312&nbsp;BC which allowed [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] to secure control of [[Babylonia]], and the eastern satrapies. In 310&nbsp;BC, Cassander had young King Alexander&nbsp;IV and his mother [[Roxana]] murdered, ending the [[Argead Dynasty]] which had ruled Macedon for several centuries.
[[File:Diadochen1.png|thumb|right|
Kingdoms of the Diadochi after the battle of Ipsus, {{circa|301&nbsp;BC}}.
{{legend|#787CAD|Kingdom of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;I Soter]]}}
{{legend|#50A249|Kingdom of [[Cassander]]}}
{{legend|#C38833|Kingdom of [[Lysimachus]]}}
{{legend|#C3B933|Kingdom of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]}}
]]
[[File:Diadokhoi240nbc.jpg|thumb|The major Hellenistic kingdoms in 240 BC, including territories controlled by the [[Seleucid dynasty]], the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], the [[Attalid dynasty]], the [[Antigonid dynasty]], and independent [[poleis]] of [[Hellenistic Greece]]]]
 
Antigonus then sent his son [[Demetrius I Poliorcetes|Demetrius]] to regain control of Greece. In 307&nbsp;BC he took Athens, expelling [[Demetrius of Phaleron]], Cassander's governor, and proclaiming the city free again. Demetrius now turned his attention to Ptolemy, defeating his fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis in Cyprus (306 BC)|Battle of Salamis]] and taking control of Cyprus.<ref name=":1" /> In the aftermath of this victory, Antigonus took the title of king (''[[basileus]]'') and bestowed it on his son [[Demetrius Poliorcetes]], the rest of the Diadochi soon followed suit.<ref>Green, pp. 30–31.</ref> Demetrius continued his campaigns by [[Siege of Rhodes (305 BC)|laying siege to Rhodes]] and conquering most of Greece in 302&nbsp;BC, creating a league against Cassander's Macedon.
 
The decisive engagement of the war came when Lysimachus invaded and overran much of western Anatolia, but was soon isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus in [[Phrygia]]. Seleucus arrived in time to save Lysimachus and utterly crushed Antigonus at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301&nbsp;BC. Seleucus' war elephants proved decisive, Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve the remnants of his rule there by recapturing a rebellious Athens. Meanwhile, Lysimachus took over [[Ionia]], Seleucus took [[Cilicia]], and Ptolemy captured [[Cyprus]].
 
After Cassander's death in {{circa|298&nbsp;BC}}, however, Demetrius, who still maintained a sizable loyal army and fleet, invaded Macedon, seized the Macedonian throne (294&nbsp;BC) and conquered [[Thessaly]] and most of central Greece (293–291&nbsp;BC).<ref>Green, p. 126.</ref> He was defeated in 288&nbsp;BC when [[Lysimachus]] [[Thrace|of Thrace]] and [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] invaded Macedon on two fronts, and quickly carved up the kingdom for themselves. Demetrius fled to central Greece with his mercenaries and began to build support there and in the northern Peloponnese. He once again laid siege to Athens after they turned on him, but then struck a treaty with the Athenians and Ptolemy, which allowed him to cross over to Asia Minor and wage war on Lysimachus' holdings in [[Ionia]], leaving his son [[Antigonus Gonatas]] in Greece. After initial successes, he was forced to surrender to Seleucus in 285&nbsp;BC and later died in captivity.<ref>Green, p. 129.</ref> Lysimachus, who had seized Macedon and Thessaly for himself, was forced into war when Seleucus invaded his territories in Asia Minor and was defeated and killed in 281&nbsp;BC at the [[Battle of Corupedium]], near [[Sardis]]. Seleucus then attempted to conquer Lysimachus' European territories in Thrace and Macedon, but he was assassinated by [[Ptolemy Ceraunus]] ("the thunderbolt"), who had taken refuge at the Seleucid court and then had himself acclaimed as king of Macedon. Ptolemy was killed when Macedon was [[Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe#Invasions of Greece|invaded by Gauls in 279&nbsp;BC]]—his head stuck on a spear—and the country fell into anarchy. Antigonus II Gonatas invaded Thrace in the summer of 277 and defeated a large force of 18,000 Gauls. He was quickly hailed as king of Macedon and went on to rule for 35 years.<ref>Green, p. 134.</ref>
 
At this point the tripartite territorial division of the Hellenistic age was in place, with the main Hellenistic powers being [[Macedon]] under Demetrius's son [[Antigonus&nbsp;II Gonatas]], the [[Ptolemaic kingdom]] under the aged [[Ptolemy&nbsp;I]] and the [[Seleucid empire]] under Seleucus' son [[Antiochus&nbsp;I Soter]].
 
== Southern Europe ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
 
=== Kingdom of Epirus ===
{{Main|Epirus (ancient state)}}
[[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] was a [[Doric Greek#Northwest Doric|northwestern Greek]] kingdom in the western [[Balkans]] ruled by the [[Molossian]] [[Aeacidae]] dynasty. Epirus was an ally of [[Macedon]] during the reigns of Philip&nbsp;II and Alexander.
 
In 281 [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] (nicknamed "the eagle", ''aetos'') invaded southern Italy to aid the city state of [[History of Taranto|Tarentum]]. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in the [[Battle of Heraclea]] and at the [[Battle of Asculum]]. Though victorious, he was forced to retreat due to heavy losses, hence the term "[[Pyrrhic victory]]". Pyrrhus then turned south and invaded Sicily but was unsuccessful and returned to Italy. After the [[Battle of Beneventum (275 BC)|Battle of Beneventum]] (275&nbsp;BC) Pyrrhus lost all his Italian holdings and left for Epirus.
 
[[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] then went to war with Macedonia in 275&nbsp;BC, deposing [[Antigonus&nbsp;II Gonatas]] and briefly ruling over Macedonia and [[Thessaly]] until 272. Afterwards he invaded southern Greece, and was killed in battle against [[Ancient Argos|Argos]] in 272&nbsp;BC. After the death of Pyrrhus, Epirus remained a minor power. In 233&nbsp;BC the Aeacid royal family was deposed and a federal state was set up called the [[Epirote League]]. The league was conquered by Rome in the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168&nbsp;BC).
 
=== Kingdom of Macedon ===
{{Main|Antigonid dynasty}}
[[File:Philip V of Macedon.jpg|thumb|right|[[Philip V of Macedon|Philip&nbsp;V]], "''the darling of Hellas''", wearing the [[Monarchy|royal]] [[diadem (personal wear)|diadem]].]]
[[Antigonus&nbsp;II]], a student of [[Zeno of Citium]], spent most of his rule defending Macedon against [[Epirus]] and cementing Macedonian power in Greece, first against the Athenians in the [[Chremonidean War]], and then against the [[Achaean League]] of [[Aratus of Sicyon]]. Under the Antigonids, Macedonia was often short on funds, the [[Pangaion Hills|Pangaeum mines]] were no longer as productive as under Philip&nbsp;II, the wealth from Alexander's campaigns had been used up and the countryside pillaged by the [[Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe#Invasions of Greece|Gallic invasion]].<ref>Green, p. 199</ref> A large number of the Macedonian population had also been resettled abroad by Alexander or had chosen to emigrate to the new eastern Greek cities. Up to two-thirds of the population emigrated, and the Macedonian army could only count on a levy of 25,000 men, a significantly smaller force than under Philip&nbsp;II.<ref>Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 35</ref>
 
Antigonus&nbsp;II ruled until his death in 239&nbsp;BC. His son [[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius&nbsp;II]] soon died in 229&nbsp;BC, leaving a child (Philip&nbsp;V) as king, with the general [[Antigonus Doson]] as regent. Doson led Macedon to victory in the war against the Spartan king [[Cleomenes III]], and occupied [[Sparta]].
 
[[Philip V of Macedon|Philip&nbsp;V]], who came to power when Doson died in 221&nbsp;BC, was the last Macedonian ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the "cloud rising in the west": the ever-increasing power of Rome. He was known as "the darling of Hellas". Under his auspices the Peace of Naupactus (217&nbsp;BC) brought the latest war between Macedon and the Greek leagues ([[Social War (220–217 BC)|the Social War]] of 220–217&nbsp;BC) to an end, and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum.
 
In 215&nbsp;BC Philip, with his eye on [[Illyria]], formed an alliance with Rome's enemy [[Hannibal]] of [[Carthage]], which led to Roman alliances with the [[Achaean League]], Rhodes and Pergamum. The [[First Macedonian War]] broke out in 212&nbsp;BC, and ended inconclusively in 205&nbsp;BC. Philip continued to wage war against Pergamum and Rhodes for control of the Aegean (204–200&nbsp;BC) and ignored Roman demands for non-intervention in Greece by invading Attica. In 198&nbsp;BC, during the [[Second Macedonian War]] Philip was decisively defeated at [[Battle of Cynoscephalae|Cynoscephalae]] by the Roman proconsul [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus]] and Macedon lost all its territories in Greece proper. Southern Greece was now thoroughly brought into the Roman [[sphere of influence]], though it retained nominal autonomy. The end of Antigonid Macedon came when Philip&nbsp;V's son, Perseus, was defeated and captured by the Romans in the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168&nbsp;BC).
 
=== Rest of Greece ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Greece}}
[[File:Macedonia and the Aegean World c.200.png|upright=1.15|thumb|Greece and the Aegean World {{circa|200&nbsp;BC}}.]]
During the Hellenistic period the importance of [[Greek peninsula|Greece proper]] within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centers of [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic culture]] were [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]], capitals of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid Syria]] respectively. The conquests of Alexander greatly widened the horizons of the Greek world, making the endless conflicts between the cities which had marked the 5th and 4th centuries BC seem petty and unimportant. It led to a steady emigration, particularly of the young and ambitious, to the new Greek empires in the east. Many Greeks migrated to [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as modern [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]].
 
Independent city states were unable to compete with Hellenistic kingdoms and were usually forced to ally themselves to one of them for defense, giving honors to Hellenistic rulers in return for protection. One example is [[Athens]], which had been decisively defeated by [[Antipater]] in the [[Lamian war]] (323–322&nbsp;BC) and had its port in the [[Piraeus]] garrisoned by Macedonian troops who supported a conservative [[oligarchy]].<ref>Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 11.</ref> After [[Demetrius Poliorcetes]] captured Athens in 307&nbsp;BC and restored the [[Athenian democracy|democracy]], the Athenians honored him and his father Antigonus by placing gold statues of them on the [[agora]] and granting them the title of king. Athens later allied itself to [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] to throw off Macedonian rule, eventually setting up a religious cult for the Ptolemaic kings and naming one of the city's [[phyle]]s in honour of Ptolemy for his aid against Macedon. In spite of the Ptolemaic monies and fleets backing their endeavors, [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] were defeated by [[Antigonus&nbsp;II]] during the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261&nbsp;BC). Athens was then occupied by Macedonian troops, and run by Macedonian officials.
 
[[Sparta]] remained independent, but it was no longer the leading military power in the [[Peloponnese]]. The Spartan king [[Cleomenes&nbsp;III]] (235–222&nbsp;BC) staged a military coup against the conservative [[ephors]] and pushed through radical social and land reforms in order to increase the size of the shrinking Spartan citizenry able to provide military service and restore Spartan power. Sparta's bid for supremacy was crushed at the [[Battle of Sellasia]] (222&nbsp;BC) by the Achaean league and Macedon, who restored the power of the [[ephors]].
 
Other [[city states]] formed [[federated states]] in self-defense, such as the [[Aetolian League]] ({{abbr|est.|established}} 370&nbsp;BC), the [[Achaean League]] ({{abbr|est.|established}} 280&nbsp;BC), the [[Boeotian league]], the "Northern League" ([[Byzantium]], [[Chalcedon]], [[Heraclea Pontica]] and [[Tium]])<ref>McGing, BC. The Foreign Policy of Mithridates&nbsp;VI Eupator, King of Pontus, p. 17.</ref> and the "[[Nesiotic League]]" of the [[Cyclades]]. These [[federations]] involved a central government which controlled [[foreign policy]] and military affairs, while leaving most of the local governing to the city states, a system termed [[Sympoliteia (treaty)|sympoliteia]]. In states such as the Achaean league, this also involved the admission of other ethnic groups into the federation with equal rights, in this case, non-[[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]].<ref>Green, p. 139.</ref> The Achean league was able to drive out the Macedonians from the Peloponnese and free Corinth, which duly joined the league.
 
One of the few city states who managed to maintain full independence from the control of any Hellenistic kingdom was [[Rhodes]]. With a skilled navy to protect its trade fleets from pirates and an ideal strategic position covering the routes from the east into the Aegean, Rhodes prospered during the Hellenistic period. It became a center of culture and commerce, its coins were widely circulated and its philosophical schools became one of the best in the Mediterranean. After holding out for [[Siege of Rhodes (305 BC)|one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes]] (305–304&nbsp;BC), the Rhodians built the [[Colossus of Rhodes]] to commemorate their victory. They retained their independence by the maintenance of a powerful navy, by maintaining a carefully neutral posture and acting to preserve the balance of power between the major Hellenistic kingdoms.<ref>[[Richard Berthold|Berthold, Richard M.]], ''Rhodes in the Hellenistic Age'', Cornell University Press, 1984, p. 12.</ref>
 
Initially Rhodes had very close ties with the Ptolemaic kingdom. Rhodes later became a Roman ally against the Seleucids, receiving some territory in [[Caria]] for their role in the [[Roman–Seleucid War]] (192–188&nbsp;BC). Rome eventually turned on Rhodes and annexed the island as a Roman province.
 
=== Balkans ===
[[File:Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak.jpg|thumb|Painting of a groom and bride from the Hellenistic [[Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak]], near the ancient city of [[Seuthopolis]], 4th century BC.]]
The west [[Balkan]] coast was inhabited by various [[List of ancient tribes in Illyria|Illyrian]] tribes and kingdoms such as the kingdom of the [[Dalmatae]] and of the [[Ardiaei]], who often engaged in [[piracy]] under [[Queen Teuta]] (reigned 231–227&nbsp;BC). Further inland was the Illyrian [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian Kingdom]] and the tribe of the [[Agrianes]]. Illyrians on the coast of the [[Adriatic]] were under the effects and influence of [[Hellenisation]] and some tribes adopted Greek, becoming bilingual<ref>Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, and Sarah B. Pomeroy. A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society, and Culture. Oxford University Press p. 255</ref><ref>The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 6: The Fourth Century BC by D. M. Lewis (Editor), John Boardman (Editor), Simon Hornblower (Editor), M. Ostwald (Editor), {{ISBN|0-521-23348-8}}, 1994, p. 423, "Through contact with their Greek neighbors some Illyrian tribe became bilingual (Strabo Vii.7.8.Diglottoi) in particular the Bylliones and the Taulantian tribes close to Epidamnus"</ref><ref name="Dalmatia 2006, page 21">Dalmatia: research in the Roman province 1970–2001 : papers in honour of J.J by David Davison, Vincent L. Gaffney, J. J. Wilkes, Emilio Marin, 2006, p. 21, "...completely Hellenised town..."</ref> due to their proximity to the [[List of ancient cities in Illyria#Greek|Greek colonies]] in Illyria. Illyrians imported weapons and armor from the [[ancient Greeks]] (such as the [[Illyrian type helmet]], originally a Greek type) and also adopted the ornamentation of ancient [[Macedon]] on their shields<ref>The Illyrians: history and culture, History and Culture Series, The Illyrians: History and Culture, Aleksandar Stipčević, {{ISBN|0-8155-5052-9}}, 1977, p. 174</ref> and their war belts<ref>The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996, pp. 233, 236. "The Illyrians liked decorated belt-buckles or clasps (see figure 29). Some of gold and silver with openwork designs of stylised birds have a similar distribution to the Mramorac bracelets and may also have been produced under Greek influence."</ref> (a single one has been found, dated 3rd century BC at modern [[Selce e Poshtme]], a part of [[Macedon]] at the time under [[Philip&nbsp;V of Macedon]]<ref>Carte de la Macédoine et du monde égéen vers 200 av. J.-C.</ref>).
 
The [[Odrysian Kingdom]] was a union of [[Thracian]] tribes under the kings of the powerful Odrysian tribe. Various parts of Thrace were under Macedonian rule under [[Philip&nbsp;II of Macedon]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Ptolemy&nbsp;II]], and Philip&nbsp;V but were also often ruled by their own kings. The [[Thracians]] and [[Agrianes]] were widely used by Alexander as [[peltasts]] and [[light cavalry]], forming about one fifth of his army.<ref>Webber, Christopher; Odyrsian arms equipment and tactics.</ref> The Diadochi also used Thracian mercenaries in their armies and they were also used as colonists. The Odrysians used [[Greek language|Greek]] as the language of administration<ref>The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace: Orpheus Unmasked (Oxford Monographs on Classical Archaeology) by Z. H. Archibald, 1998, {{ISBN|0-19-815047-4}}, p. 3</ref> and of the nobility. The nobility also adopted [[Greek clothing|Greek fashions in dress]], ornament and military equipment, spreading it to the other tribes.<ref>The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace: Orpheus Unmasked (Oxford Monographs on Classical Archaeology) by Z. H. Archibald, 1998, {{ISBN|0-19-815047-4}}, p. 5</ref> Thracian kings were among the first to be [[Hellenized]].<ref>The Peloponnesian War: A Military Study (Warfare and History) by J. F. Lazenby, 2003, p. 224, "... number of strongholds, and he made himself useful fighting 'the Thracians without a king' on behalf of the more Hellenized Thracian kings and their Greek neighbours (Nepos, Alc. ...</ref>
 
After 278&nbsp;BC the Odrysians had a strong competitor in the [[Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe|Celtic]] [[Tylis|Kingdom of Tylis]] ruled by the kings [[Comontorius]] and [[Cavarus]], but in 212&nbsp;BC they conquered their enemies and destroyed their capital.
 
=== Western Mediterranean ===
{{further|Colonies in antiquity|Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily}}
[[File:Massalia large coin 5th 1st century BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A silver [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] from Massalia (modern [[Marseille]], France), dated 375–200&nbsp;BC, with the head of the goddess [[Artemis]] on the [[obverse]] and a lion on the reverse]]
[[Southern Italy]] ([[Magna Graecia]]) and south-eastern [[Sicily]] had been colonized by the Greeks during the 8th century BC. In 4th-century BC Sicily the leading Greek city and [[hegemon]] was [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]]. During the Hellenistic period the leading figure in Sicily was [[Agathocles of Syracuse]] (361–289&nbsp;BC) who seized the city with an army of mercenaries in 317&nbsp;BC. Agathocles extended his power throughout most of the Greek cities in Sicily, fought a long war with the [[Carthaginians]], at one point invading [[Tunisia]] in 310&nbsp;BC and defeating a Carthaginian army there. This was the first time a European force had invaded the region. After this war he controlled most of south-east Sicily and had himself proclaimed king, in imitation of the Hellenistic monarchs of the east.<ref>Walbank et al. (2008), p. 394.</ref> Agathocles then invaded Italy ({{circa|300&nbsp;BC}}) in defense of [[Italy|Tarentum]] against the Bruttians and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], but was unsuccessful.
 
[[File:Dédicace de Segomaros (inscription gallo-grecque).png|thumb|upright=1.15|Gallo-Greek inscription: "Segomaros, son of Uillū, citizen (''toutious'') of [[Nîmes|Namausos]], dedicated this [[nemeton|sanctuary]] to Belesama"]]
[[Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul]] were mostly limited to the [[Mediterranean]] coast of [[Provence]], [[History of France|France]]. The first Greek colony in the region was [[Marseille|Massalia]], which became one of the largest trading ports of Mediterranean by the 4th century BC with 6,000 inhabitants. Massalia was also the local [[hegemon]], controlling various coastal Greek cities like [[Nice]] and [[Agde]]. The coins minted in Massalia have been found in all parts of Liguro-Celtic Gaul. [[Celtic coinage]] was influenced by Greek designs,<ref>Boardman, John (1993), ''The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity'', Princeton University Press, p. 308.</ref> and Greek letters can be found on various Celtic coins, especially those of [[Southern France]].<ref name="Beale">''Celtic Inscriptions on Gaulish and British Coins'' by Beale Poste p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uRDIXDw5dekC&pg=PA135 135]</ref> Traders from Massalia ventured inland deep into France on the Rivers [[Durance]] and [[Rhône]], and established overland trade routes deep into [[Gaul]], and to [[Switzerland]] and [[Burgundy]]. The Hellenistic period saw the Greek alphabet spread into southern Gaul from Massalia (3rd and 2nd centuries BC) and according to [[Strabo]], Massalia was also a center of education, where [[Celts]] went to learn Greek.<ref>Momigliano, Arnaldo. Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization, pp. 54–55.</ref> A staunch ally of Rome, Massalia retained its independence until it sided with [[Pompey]] in 49&nbsp;BC and was then [[Siege of Massilia|taken by Caesar's forces]].
 
The city of [[Emporion]] (modern [[Empúries]]), originally founded by [[Archaic Greece|Archaic-period]] settlers from [[Phocaea]] and Massalia in the 6th century BC near the village of [[Sant Martí d'Empúries]] (located on an offshore island that forms part of [[L'Escala]], [[Catalonia]], [[History of Spain|Spain]]),<ref>{{citation|last=Tang|first=Birgit|title=Delos, Carthage, Ampurias: the Housing of Three Mediterranean Trading Centres|year=2005|location=Rome|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider (Accademia di Danimarca)|isbn=8882653056|pages=15–16}}</ref> was reestablished in the 5th century BC with a new city (''neapolis'') on the [[Iberian peninsula|Iberian mainland]].<ref>Lapunzina, Alejandro (2005), ''Architecture of Spain'', London: Greenwoood Press, {{ISBN|0-313-31963-4}}, pp. 69–71.</ref> Emporion contained a mixed population of Greek colonists and Iberian natives, and although [[Livy]] and [[Strabo]] assert that they lived in different [[Quarter (urban subdivision)|quarters]], these two groups were eventually integrated.<ref>{{citation|last=Tang|first=Birgit|title=Delos, Carthage, Ampurias: the Housing of Three Mediterranean Trading Centres|year=2005|location=Rome|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider (Accademia di Danimarca)|isbn=8882653056|pages=17–18}}</ref> The city became a dominant trading hub and center of Hellenistic civilization in Iberia, eventually siding with the [[Roman Republic]] against the [[Carthaginian Empire]] during the [[Second Punic War]] (218–201&nbsp;BC).<ref>Lapunzina, Alejandro (2005), ''Architecture of Spain'', London: Greenwoood Press, {{ISBN|0-313-31963-4}}, p. 70.</ref> However, Emporion lost its political independence around 195 BC with the establishment of the [[Roman province]] of [[Hispania Citerior]] and by the 1st century BC had become fully [[Romanized]] in culture.<ref>Lapunzina, Alejandro (2005), ''Architecture of Spain'', London: Greenwoood Press, {{ISBN|0-313-31963-4}}, pp. 70–71.</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Tang|first=Birgit|title=Delos, Carthage, Ampurias: the Housing of Three Mediterranean Trading Centres|year=2005|location=Rome|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider (Accademia di Danimarca)|isbn=8882653056|pages=16–17}}</ref>
 
== Hellenistic Near East ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
The Hellenistic states of Asia and Egypt were run by an occupying imperial elite of Greco-Macedonian administrators and governors propped up by a standing army of mercenaries and a small core of Greco-Macedonian settlers.<ref>Green, p. 187</ref> Promotion of immigration from Greece was important in the establishment of this system. Hellenistic monarchs ran their kingdoms as royal estates and most of the heavy tax revenues went into the military and paramilitary forces which preserved their rule from any kind of revolution. Macedonian and Hellenistic monarchs were expected to lead their armies on the field, along with a group of privileged aristocratic companions or friends (''hetairoi'', ''philoi'') which dined and drank with the king and acted as his advisory council.<ref>Green, p. 190</ref> The monarch was also expected to serve as a charitable patron of the people; this public philanthropy could mean building projects and handing out gifts but also promotion of [[Greek culture]] and religion.
 
=== Ptolemaic Kingdom ===
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom}}
{{Multiple image
|total_width=350
|image1=Ptolemy I Soter Louvre Ma849.jpg
|image2=Ring with engraved portrait of Ptolemy VI Philometor (3rd–2nd century BCE) - 20110309.jpg
|footer=Bust of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;I Soter]] (left) wearing a [[diadem]], a symbol of Hellenistic kingship. Ring of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;VI Philometor]] (right) as Egyptian [[pharaoh]]. Both pieces in the [[Louvre Museum]].
}}
[[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], a [[somatophylax]], one of the seven [[bodyguard]]s who served as [[Alexander the Great]]'s generals and deputies, was appointed [[satrap]] of [[Egypt]] after Alexander's death in 323&nbsp;BC. In 305&nbsp;BC, he declared himself King Ptolemy&nbsp;I, later known as "Soter" (saviour) for his role in helping the Rhodians during the [[Siege of Rhodes (305 BC)|siege of Rhodes]]. Ptolemy built new cities such as [[Ptolemais Hermiou]] in [[upper Egypt]] and settled his veterans throughout the country, especially in the region of the [[Faiyum]]. [[Alexandria]], a major center of Greek culture and trade, became his capital city. As Egypt's first port city, it became the main grain exporter in the Mediterranean.
 
The [[Egyptians]] begrudgingly accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the [[pharaoh]]s of independent Egypt, though the kingdom went through several native revolts. Ptolemy I began to order monetary contributions from the people, and as a result rewarded cities with high contribution with royal benefaction. This often resulted in the formation of a royal cult within the city. Reservations about this activity slowly dissipated as this worship of mortals was justified by the precedent of the worshipping of Greek heroes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Price |first=S. R. F. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10020504 |title=Rituals and power : the Roman imperial cult in Asia Minor |date=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-25903-7 |location=Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] |oclc=10020504}}</ref> The Ptolemies took on the traditions of the Egyptian [[Pharaohs]], such as marrying their siblings ([[Ptolemy&nbsp;II]] was the first to adopt this custom), having themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participating in Egyptian religious life. The Ptolemaic ruler cult portrayed the Ptolemies as gods, and temples to the Ptolemies were erected throughout the kingdom. Ptolemy I even created a new god, [[Serapis]], who was a combination of two Egyptian gods: Apis and Osiris, with attributes of [[Greek gods]]. Ptolemaic administration was, like the ancient Egyptian bureaucracy, highly centralized and focused on squeezing as much revenue out of the population as possible through tariffs, excise duties, fines, taxes, and so forth. A whole class of petty officials, tax farmers, clerks, and overseers made this possible. The Egyptian countryside was directly administered by this royal bureaucracy.<ref>Green, p. 193.</ref> External possessions such as Cyprus and Cyrene were run by ''strategoi'', military commanders appointed by the crown.
 
Under [[Ptolemy&nbsp;II]], [[Callimachus]], [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], [[Theocritus]], and a host of other poets including the [[Alexandrian Pleiad]] made the city a center of Hellenistic literature. Ptolemy himself was eager to patronise the library, scientific research and individual scholars who lived on the grounds of the library. He and his successors also fought a series of wars with the Seleucids, known as the [[Syrian wars]], over the region of [[Coele-Syria]]. [[Ptolemy&nbsp;IV]] won the great [[battle of Raphia]] (217&nbsp;BC) against the Seleucids, using native Egyptians trained as [[phalangites]]. However these Egyptian soldiers revolted, eventually setting up a native breakaway Egyptian state in the [[Thebaid]] between 205 and 186/185&nbsp;BC, severely weakening the Ptolemaic state.<ref>Green, p. 291.</ref>
 
Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the [[Rome|Roman]] conquest of 30&nbsp;BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe, or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VII]], known for her role in the Roman political battles between [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Pompey]], and later between [[Augustus Caesar|Octavian]] and [[Mark Antony]]. Her suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt, though Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods until the Muslim conquest.
 
=== Seleucid Empire ===
{{Main|Seleucid Empire}}
[[File:Seleuco I Nicatore.JPG|right|thumb|upright=0.80|[[Seleucus&nbsp;I Nicator]] founded the [[Seleucid Empire]].]]
Following division of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]'s empire, [[Seleucus&nbsp;I Nicator]] received [[Babylonia]]. From there, he created a new empire which expanded to include much of Alexander's [[near east]]ern territories.<ref name="Jones, Kenneth Raymond 2006 174">{{cite book|author=Jones, Kenneth Raymond|title=Provincial reactions to Roman imperialism: the aftermath of the Jewish revolt, A.D. 66-70, Parts 66-70|publisher= University of California, Berkeley|year=2006|page=174|isbn= 978-0-542-82473-9
|quote=... and the Greeks, or at least the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, replace the Persians as the Easterners. }}</ref><ref name="Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) 1993 211">{{cite book|author=Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England)|title=The Journal of Hellenic studies, Volumes 113-114|publisher= Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies
|year=1993|page=211|quote= The Seleucid kingdom has traditionally been regarded as basically a Greco-Macedonian state and its rulers thought of as successors to Alexander. }}</ref><ref name="Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth 2010 37">{{cite book|author1=Baskin, Judith R. |author2=Seeskin, Kenneth |title=The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture|publisher= Cambridge University Press
|year= 2010|page=37|isbn= 978-0-521-68974-8|quote=The wars between the two most prominent Greek dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel.... As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids. }}</ref><ref name="Glubb, Sir John Bagot 1967 34">{{cite book|author= Glubb, John Bagot|title=Syria, Lebanon, Jordan|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=1967|page=34|oclc=585939|quote=In addition to the court and the army, Syrian cities were full of Greek businessmen, many of them pure Greeks from Greece. The senior posts in the civil service were also held by Greeks. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population. }}</ref> At the height of its power, it included central [[Anatolia]], the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], today's [[Turkmenistan]], [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]], and parts of [[Pakistan]]. It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people.<ref>Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 43.</ref>
Under [[Antiochus&nbsp;I]] ({{circa|324/323}} – 261&nbsp;BC), however, the unwieldy empire was already beginning to shed territories. [[Pergamum]] broke away under [[Eumenes&nbsp;I]] who defeated a Seleucid army sent against him. The kingdoms of Cappadocia, Bithynia and Pontus were all practically independent by this time as well. Like the Ptolemies, [[Antiochus&nbsp;I]] established a dynastic religious cult, deifying his father [[Seleucus&nbsp;I]]. Seleucus, officially said to be descended from Apollo, had his own priests and monthly sacrifices. The erosion of the empire continued under [[Seleucus&nbsp;II]], who was forced to fight a civil war (239–236&nbsp;BC) against his brother [[Antiochus Hierax]] and was unable to keep [[Bactria]], [[Sogdiana]] and [[Parthia]] from breaking away. Hierax carved off most of Seleucid Anatolia for himself, but was defeated, along with his Galatian allies, by [[Attalus&nbsp;I]] of Pergamon who now also claimed kingship.
 
The vast Seleucid Empire was, like Egypt, mostly dominated by a Greco-Macedonian political elite.<ref name="Glubb, Sir John Bagot 1967 34" /><ref name="Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby 2004 76">{{cite book |author1=Steven C. Hause |author2=William S. Maltby |title=Western civilization: a history of European society |url=https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat00haus |url-access=limited |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat00haus/page/n76 76] |isbn= 978-0-534-62164-3 |quote= The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by emigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite. }}</ref><ref name="Victor, Royce M. 2010 55">{{cite book |author=Victor, Royce M. |title=Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading |publisher= Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2010 |page=55 |isbn= 978-0-567-24719-3 |quote=Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed. }}</ref><ref name=Brit>'''Britannica''','' Seleucid kingdom'', 2008, O.Ed.</ref> The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from [[Ancient Greece|Greece]].<ref name="Glubb, Sir John Bagot 1967 34" /><ref name="Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby 2004 76" /> These cities included newly founded colonies such as [[Antioch]], the other cities of the [[Syrian tetrapolis]], [[Seleucia]] (north of [[Babylon]]) and [[Dura-Europos]] on the [[Euphrates]]. These cities retained traditional Greek city state institutions such as assemblies, councils and elected magistrates, but this was a facade for they were always controlled by the royal Seleucid officials. Apart from these cities, there were also a large number of Seleucid garrisons (''choria''), military colonies (''katoikiai'') and Greek villages (''komai'') which the Seleucids planted throughout the empire to cement their rule. This 'Greco-Macedonian' population (which also included the sons of settlers who had married local women) could make up a phalanx of 35,000 men (out of a total Seleucid army of 80,000) during the reign of [[Antiochus&nbsp;III]]. The rest of the army was made up of native troops.<ref>Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007, p. 44.</ref>
[[Antiochus&nbsp;III]] ("the Great") conducted several vigorous campaigns to retake all the lost provinces of the empire since the death of Seleucus&nbsp;I. After being defeated by [[Ptolemy&nbsp;IV]]'s forces [[Battle of Raphia|at Raphia]] (217&nbsp;BC), Antiochus&nbsp;III led a long campaign to the east to subdue the far eastern breakaway provinces (212–205&nbsp;BC) including [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]], [[Ariana]], [[Sogdiana]], [[Gedrosia]] and [[Drangiana]]. He was successful, bringing back most of these provinces into at least nominal [[vassalage]] and receiving tribute from their rulers.<ref>Green, pp. 293-295.</ref> After the death of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;IV]] (204&nbsp;BC), Antiochus took advantage of the weakness of Egypt to conquer Coele-Syria in the [[Syrian Wars|fifth Syrian war]] (202–195&nbsp;BC).<ref>Green, p. 304.</ref> He then began expanding his influence into Pergamene territory in Asia and crossed into Europe, fortifying [[Lysimachia (Thrace)|Lysimachia]] on the [[Hellespont]], but his expansion into [[Anatolia]] and Greece was abruptly halted after a decisive defeat at the [[Battle of Magnesia]] (190&nbsp;BC). In the [[Treaty of Apamea]] which ended the war, Antiochus lost all of his territories in Anatolia west of the Taurus and was forced to pay a large indemnity of 15,000 talents.<ref>Green, p. 421.</ref>
 
Much of the eastern part of the empire was then conquered by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] under [[Mithridates&nbsp;I of Parthia]] in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a [[rump state]] from [[Syria]] until the invasion by the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenian]] king [[Tigranes the Great]] and their ultimate overthrow by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] general [[Pompey]].
 
=== Attalid Pergamum ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Pergamon}}
{{external media | width = 210px | align = right
| headerimage= [[File:Athena and Nike fight Alkyoneus, Gaia rises up from the ground (5336871341).jpg|210px]] | video1 = [http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/the-pergamon-altar1.html The Pergamon Altar], [[Smarthistory]]<ref name="smarth">{{cite web | title =The Pergamon Altar | publisher =[[Smarthistory]] at [[Khan Academy]] | url =http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/the-pergamon-altar1.html | access-date =April 5, 2013 }}</ref> }}
After the death of [[Lysimachus]], one of his officers, [[Philetaerus]], took control of the city of [[Pergamum]] in 282&nbsp;BC along with Lysimachus' war chest of 9,000 talents and declared himself loyal to [[Seleucus&nbsp;I]] while remaining [[de facto]] independent. His descendant, [[Attalus&nbsp;I]], defeated the invading [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]] and proclaimed himself an independent king. [[Attalus&nbsp;I]] (241–197&nbsp;BC), was a staunch ally of Rome against [[Philip&nbsp;V of Macedon]] during the [[First Macedonian War|first]] and [[Second Macedonian War|second]] [[Macedonian Wars]]. For his support against the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]] in 190&nbsp;BC, [[Eumenes&nbsp;II]] was rewarded with all the former Seleucid domains in [[Asia Minor]]. Eumenes&nbsp;II turned Pergamon into a centre of culture and science by establishing the [[Library of Pergamum]] which was said to be second only to the [[Library of Alexandria]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Pergamum|website=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, 1.}}</ref> with 200,000 volumes according to [[Plutarch]]. It included a reading room and a collection of paintings. Eumenes&nbsp;II also constructed the [[Pergamon Altar|Pergamum Altar]] with friezes depicting the [[Gigantomachy]] on the [[acropolis]] of the city. [[Pergamum]] was also a center of [[parchment]] (''charta pergamena'') production. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until [[Attalus&nbsp;III]] bequeathed the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] to the [[Roman Republic]] in 133&nbsp;BC<ref>Shipley (2000) pp. 318–319.</ref> to avoid a likely succession crisis.
 
=== Galatia ===
{{Main|Galatia}}
The [[Celts]] who settled in [[Galatia]] came through [[Thrace]] under the leadership of Leotarios and [[Leonnorius|Leonnorios]] {{circa|270&nbsp;BC}}. They were defeated by [[Seleucus&nbsp;I]] in the 'battle of the Elephants', but were still able to establish a [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|Celtic territory]] in central [[Anatolia]]. The [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]] were well respected as warriors and were widely used as mercenaries in the armies of the successor states. They continued to attack neighboring kingdoms such as [[Kingdom of Bithynia|Bithynia]] and [[Kingdom of Pergamon|Pergamon]], plundering and extracting tribute. This came to an end when they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince [[Antiochus Hierax]] who tried to defeat [[Attalus I|Attalus]], the ruler of [[Pergamon]] (241–197&nbsp;BC). Attalus severely defeated the Gauls, forcing them to confine themselves to Galatia. The theme of the ''[[Dying Gaul]]'' (a famous statue displayed in [[Pergamon]]) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation signifying the victory of the Greeks over a noble enemy. In the early 2nd century BC, the Galatians became allies of [[Antiochus III|Antiochus the Great]], the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainty over Asia Minor. In 189&nbsp;BC, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] sent [[Gnaeus Manlius Vulso (consul 189 BC)|Gnaeus Manlius Vulso]] on an expedition against the Galatians. Galatia was henceforth dominated by Rome through regional rulers from 189 BC onward.
 
After their defeats by Pergamon and Rome the Galatians slowly became [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] and they were called "Gallo-Graeci" by the historian [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]<ref>Justin, ''Epitome of Pompeius Trogus'', 25.2 and 26.2; the related subject of copulative compounds, where both are of equal weight, is exhaustively treated in Anna Granville Hatcher, ''Modern English Word-Formation and Neo-Latin: A Study of the Origins of English'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University), 1951.</ref> as well as {{lang|grc|Ἑλληνογαλάται}} (''Hellēnogalátai'') by [[Diodorus Siculus]] in his ''Bibliotheca historica'' v.32.5, who wrote that they were "called Helleno-Galatians because of their connection with the Greeks."<ref>This distinction is remarked upon in William M. Ramsay (revised by Mark W. Wilson), '' Historical Commentary on Galatians'' 1997:302; Ramsay notes the 4th century AD Paphlagonian [[Themistius]]' usage {{lang|grc|Γαλατίᾳ τῇ Ἑλληνίδι}}.</ref>
 
=== Bithynia ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Bithynia}}
The Bithynians were a Thracian people living in northwest Anatolia. After Alexander's conquests the region of [[Bithynia]] came under the rule of the native king [[Bas of Bithynia|Bas]], who defeated [[Calas (general)|Calas]], a general of Alexander the Great, and maintained the independence of Bithynia. His son, [[Zipoetes&nbsp;I of Bithynia]] maintained this autonomy against [[Lysimachus]] and [[Seleucus&nbsp;I]], and assumed the title of [[List of rulers of Bithynia|king]] (''basileus'') in 297&nbsp;BC. His son and successor, [[Nicomedes&nbsp;I]], founded [[Nicomedia]], which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign ({{circa|278|255&nbsp;BC}}), as well as those of his successors, the [[Kingdom of Bithynia]] held a considerable place among the minor monarchies of Anatolia. Nicomedes also invited the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|Celtic]] [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]] into Anatolia as mercenaries, and they later turned on his son [[Prusias I of Bithynia|Prusias I]], who defeated them in battle. Their last king, [[Nicomedes IV of Bithynia|Nicomedes IV]], was unable to maintain himself against [[Mithridates VI Eupator|Mithridates VI]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]], and, after being restored to his throne by the [[Roman Senate]], he bequeathed his kingdom by will to the [[Roman Republic]] (74&nbsp;BC).
 
=== Nabatean Kingdom ===
{{Main|Nabatean Kingdom}}
[[File:Petra Jordan BW 21.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Al-Khazneh]] in [[Petra]] shows the Hellenistic influences on the Nabatean capital city]]
The [[Nabatean Kingdom]] was an [[Arab]] state located between the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Its capital was the city of [[Petra]], an important trading city on the [[incense route]]. The Nabateans resisted the attacks of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] and were allies of the Hasmoneans in their struggle against the [[Seleucids]], but later fought against [[Herod the Great]]. The hellenization of the Nabateans occurred relatively late in comparison to the surrounding regions. Nabatean [[material culture]] does not show any Greek influence until the reign of [[Aretas&nbsp;III]] Philhellene in the 1st century BC.<ref>Bedal, Leigh-Ann; The Petra Pool-complex: A Hellenistic Paradeisos in the Nabataean Capital, p. 178.</ref> Aretas captured [[Damascus]] and built the Petra pool complex and gardens in the Hellenistic style. Though the Nabateans originally worshipped their traditional gods in symbolic form such as stone blocks or pillars, during the Hellenistic period they began to identify their gods with Greek gods and depict them in figurative forms influenced by Greek sculpture.<ref>{{cite web|website = nabataea.net|url = http://nabataea.net/gods.html|title = Gods and Worship}}</ref> Nabatean art shows Greek influences, and paintings have been found depicting [[Dionysus|Dionysian]] scenes.<ref>{{cite web |last1= Alberge |first1=Dalya |title=Discovery of ancient cave paintings in Petra stuns art scholars |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/aug/22/hellenistic-wall-paintings-petra |website=Theguardian |date=21 August 2010}}</ref> They also slowly adopted Greek as a language of commerce along with Aramaic and Arabic.
 
=== Cappadocia ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Cappadocia}}
[[Cappadocia]], a mountainous region situated between Pontus and the Taurus mountains, was ruled by a Persian dynasty. [[Ariarathes&nbsp;I]] (332–322&nbsp;BC) was the [[Cappadocia (satrapy)|satrap of Cappadocia]] under the Persians and after the conquests of Alexander he retained his post. After Alexander's death he was defeated by Eumenes and [[crucifixion|crucified]] in 322&nbsp;BC, but his son, Ariarathes&nbsp;II managed to regain the throne and maintain his autonomy against the warring Diadochi.
 
In 255&nbsp;BC, Ariarathes&nbsp;III took the title of king and married Stratonice, a daughter of Antiochus&nbsp;II, remaining an ally of the Seleucid kingdom. Under Ariarathes&nbsp;IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of [[Antiochus the Great]], then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon and finally in a war against the Seleucids. Ariarathes&nbsp;V also waged war with Rome against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated in 130&nbsp;BC. This defeat allowed Pontus to invade and conquer the kingdom.
 
=== Armenia ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)}}
[[Orontid Dynasty|Orontid Armenia]] formally passed to the empire of Alexander the Great following his conquest of Persia. Alexander appointed an Orontid named Mithranes to govern Armenia. Armenia later became a vassal state of the [[Seleucid Empire]], but it maintained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its native rulers. Towards the end 212&nbsp;BC the country was divided into two kingdoms, Greater Armenia and Armenia [[Sophene]], including [[Commagene]] or Armenia Minor. The kingdoms became so independent from Seleucid control that [[Antiochus&nbsp;III the Great]] waged war on them during his reign and replaced their rulers.
 
After the Seleucid defeat at the [[Battle of Magnesia]] in 190&nbsp;BC, the kings of [[Sophene]] and Greater Armenia revolted and declared their independence, with [[Artaxias I|Artaxias]] becoming the first king of the [[Artaxiad dynasty]] of Armenia in 188&nbsp;BC. During the reign of the Artaxiads, Armenia went through a period of [[hellenization]]. [[Numismatic]] evidence shows Greek artistic styles and the use of the Greek language. Some coins describe the Armenian kings as "[[Philhellenes]]". During the reign of [[Tigranes the Great]] (95–55&nbsp;BC), the kingdom of Armenia reached its greatest extent, containing many Greek cities, including the entire [[Syrian tetrapolis]]. [[Cleopatra of Pontus|Cleopatra]], the wife of [[Tigranes the Great]], invited Greeks such as the [[Rhetoric|rhetor]] Amphicrates and the historian [[Metrodorus of Scepsis]] to the Armenian court, and—according to Plutarch—when the Roman general Lucullus seized the Armenian capital, Tigranocerta, he found a troupe of Greek actors who had arrived to perform plays for Tigranes.<ref>{{citation |author=René Grousset |title=Histoire de l'Arménie |location=Paris |year=1946 |pages=90–91 |language=fr |quote=}}</ref> Tigranes' successor [[Artavasdes&nbsp;II]] even composed Greek tragedies himself.
 
=== Parthia ===
{{see also|Parthian Empire}}
[[File:Sarbaz Nysa.jpg|thumb|150px|A sculpted head of a Parthian wearing a [[Hellenistic armies|Hellenistic-style helmet]], from [[Nisa, Turkmenistan]], 2nd century BC]]
 
[[Parthia]] was a north-eastern Iranian [[satrapy]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] which later passed on to Alexander's empire. Under the Seleucids, Parthia was governed by various Greek [[satraps]] such as [[Nicanor (satrap)|Nicanor]] and [[Philip (satrap)|Philip]]. In 247&nbsp;BC, following the death of [[Antiochus&nbsp;II Theos]], [[Andragoras (Seleucid satrap)|Andragoras]], the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting coins showing himself wearing a royal diadem and claiming kingship. He ruled until 238&nbsp;BC when [[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces]], the leader of the [[Parni]] tribe conquered Parthia, killing Andragoras and inaugurating the [[Parthian Empire|Arsacid Dynasty]]. [[Antiochus&nbsp;III]] recaptured Arsacid controlled territory in 209&nbsp;BC from [[Arsaces&nbsp;II]]. Arsaces&nbsp;II sued for peace and became a vassal of the Seleucids. It was not until the reign of [[Phraates&nbsp;I]] ({{circa|176–171&nbsp;BC}}), that the Arsacids would again begin to assert their independence.<ref>Bivar, A.D.H. (1983), "The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan, Cambridge History of Iran 3.1, Cambridge UP, pp. 21–99.</ref>
 
During the reign of [[Mithridates&nbsp;I of Parthia]], Arsacid control expanded to include [[Herat]] (in 167&nbsp;BC), [[Babylonia]] (in 144&nbsp;BC), [[Media (region)|Media]] (in 141&nbsp;BC), [[Persis|Persia]] (in 139&nbsp;BC), and large parts of [[Syria (region)|Syria]] (in the 110s&nbsp;BC). The [[Seleucid–Parthian wars]] continued as the Seleucids invaded Mesopotamia under [[Antiochus&nbsp;VII Sidetes]] (reigned&nbsp;138–129&nbsp;BC), but he was eventually killed by a Parthian counterattack. After the fall of the Seleucid dynasty, the Parthians fought frequently against neighbouring Rome in the [[Roman–Parthian Wars]] (66&nbsp;BC&nbsp;– AD&nbsp;217). Abundant traces of Hellenism continued under the Parthian empire. The Parthians used Greek as well as their own [[Parthian language]] (though lesser than Greek) as languages of administration and also used Greek [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]s as coinage. They enjoyed [[Greek theater]], and [[Greek art]] influenced [[Parthian art]]. The Parthians continued worshipping Greek gods [[Syncretism#Religious syncretism|syncretized]] together with Iranian deities. Their rulers established ruler cults in the manner of Hellenistic kings and often used Hellenistic royal [[epithets]].
 
The Hellenistic influence in Iran was significant in terms of scope, but not depth and durability—unlike the Near East, the Iranian–[[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] ideas and ideals remained the main source of inspiration in mainland Iran, and was soon revived in late Parthian and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] periods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yarshater |first1=Ehsan |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |date=1983 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20092-9 |page=1xi }}</ref>
 
=== Judea ===
{{Main|Coele-Syria}}
{{further|Hellenistic Judaism|Hasmonean dynasty}}
During the Hellenistic period, [[Judea]] became a frontier region between the [[Seleucid Empire]] and [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and therefore was often the frontline of the Syrian wars, changing hands several times during these conflicts.<ref>Green, p. 499.</ref> Under the Hellenistic kingdoms, Judea was ruled by the hereditary office of the [[High Priest of Israel]] as a Hellenistic vassal. This period also saw the rise of a [[Hellenistic Judaism]], which first developed in the Jewish diaspora of Alexandria and Antioch, and then spread to Judea. The major literary product of this cultural syncretism is the [[Septuagint]] translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]] from [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic]] to [[Koiné Greek]]. The reason for the production of this translation seems to be that many of the [[History of the Jews in Alexandria|Alexandrian Jews]] had lost the ability to speak Hebrew and Aramaic.<ref>Green, p. 501.</ref>
 
Between 301 and 219&nbsp;BC the Ptolemies ruled Judea in relative peace, and Jews often found themselves working in the Ptolemaic administration and army, which led to the rise of a Hellenized Jewish elite class (e.g. the [[Tobiads]]). The wars of [[Antiochus&nbsp;III]] brought the region into the Seleucid empire; Jerusalem fell to his control in 198&nbsp;BC and the Temple was repaired and provided with money and tribute.<ref>Green, p. 504.</ref> [[Antiochus&nbsp;IV Epiphanes]] sacked Jerusalem and looted the Temple in 169&nbsp;BC after disturbances in Judea during his abortive invasion of Egypt. Antiochus then banned key [[Judaism|Jewish religious rites and traditions]] in Judea. He may have been attempting to Hellenize the region and unify his empire and the Jewish resistance to this eventually led to an escalation of violence. Whatever the case, tensions between pro- and anti-Seleucid Jewish factions led to the 174–135&nbsp;BC [[Maccabean Revolt]] of [[Judas Maccabeus]] (whose victory is celebrated in the Jewish festival of [[Hanukkah]]).{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
 
Modern interpretations see this period as a civil war between Hellenized and orthodox forms of Judaism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/faithbased/2005/12/the_maccabees_and_the_hellenists.html |title=The Maccabees and the Hellenists |last=Ponet |first=James |date=22 December 2005 |work=Faith-based |publisher=Slate |access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="simpletoremember">{{cite web |url=http://www.simpletoremember.com/articles/a/the_revolt_of_the_maccabees/ |title=The Revolt of the Maccabees |publisher=Simpletoremember.com |access-date=2012-08-13}}</ref> Out of this revolt was formed an independent Jewish kingdom known as the [[Hasmonaean Dynasty]], which lasted from 165&nbsp;BC to 63&nbsp;BC. The Hasmonean Dynasty eventually disintegrated in [[Hyrcanus II#Deposition|a civil war]], which [[Hyrcanus II#Roman intervention|coincided with civil wars in Rome]]. The last Hasmonean ruler, [[Antigonus&nbsp;II Mattathias]], was captured by Herod and executed in 37&nbsp;BC. In spite of originally being a revolt against Greek overlordship, the Hasmonean kingdom and also the [[Herodian kingdom]] which followed gradually became more and more hellenized. From 37&nbsp;BC to 4&nbsp;BC, [[Herod the Great]] ruled as a Jewish-Roman client king appointed by the [[Roman Senate]]. He considerably enlarged the Temple (see [[Herod's Temple]]), making it one of the largest religious structures in the world. The style of the enlarged temple and other [[Herodian architecture]] shows significant Hellenistic architectural influence. His son, [[Herod Archelaus]], ruled from 4&nbsp;BC to AD&nbsp;6 when he was deposed for the formation of [[Roman Judea]].{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
 
=== Kingdom of Pontus ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Pontus}}
[[File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Bust of [[Mithridates&nbsp;VI]] depicted as [[Herakles]].]]
The [[Kingdom of Pontus]] was a Hellenistic kingdom on the southern coast of the [[Black Sea]]. It was founded by [[Mithridates I of Pontus|Mithridates&nbsp;I]] in 291&nbsp;BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63&nbsp;BC. Despite being ruled by a dynasty which was a descendant of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] it became hellenized due to the influence of the Greek cities on the Black Sea and its neighboring kingdoms. Pontic culture was a mix of Greek and Iranian elements; the most hellenized parts of the kingdom were on the coast, populated by Greek colonies such as [[Trapezus, Arcadia|Trapezus]] and [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]], the latter of which became the capital of the kingdom. Epigraphic evidence also shows extensive Hellenistic influence in the interior. During the reign of Mithridates&nbsp;II, Pontus was allied with the Seleucids through dynastic marriages. By the time of Mithridates&nbsp;VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the kingdom, though Anatolian languages continued to be spoken.
 
The kingdom grew to its largest extent under [[Mithridates&nbsp;VI]], who conquered [[Colchis]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Paphlagonia]], [[Bithynia]], Lesser Armenia, the [[Bosporan Kingdom]], the Greek colonies of the Tauric [[Chersonesus|Chersonesos]] and, for a brief time, the Roman province of Asia. Mithridates, himself of mixed Persian and Greek ancestry, presented himself as the protector of the Greeks against the 'barbarians' of Rome styling himself as "King Mithridates Eupator Dionysus"<ref name="The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus">{{cite book | last = McGing | first = B. C. | title = The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus | publisher = E. J. Brill | year= 1986 | location = Leiden, The Netherlands | pages = 91–92}}</ref> and as the "great liberator". Mithridates also depicted himself with the ''anastole'' hairstyle of Alexander and used the symbolism of [[Herakles]], from whom the Macedonian kings claimed descent. After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic wars, Pontus was defeated; part of it was incorporated into the Roman Republic as the province of Bithynia, while Pontus' eastern half survived as a client kingdom.
 
== Other realms==
=== Greco-Bactrians ===
{{Main|Greco-Bactrian kingdom}}{{See also|Hellenistic influence on Indian art}}
[[File:Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg|thumb|right|The Greco-Bactrian kingdom at its maximum extent ({{circa|180&nbsp;BC}}).]]
The Greek kingdom of Bactria began as a breakaway satrapy of the Seleucid empire, which, because of the size of the empire, had significant freedom from central control. Between 255 and 246&nbsp;BC, the governor of [[Bactria]], [[Sogdiana]] and [[Margiana]] (most of present-day [[Afghanistan]]), one [[Diodotus I|Diodotus]], took this process to its logical extreme and declared himself king. Diodotus&nbsp;II, son of Diodotus, was overthrown in about 230&nbsp;BC by [[Euthydemus I|Euthydemus]], possibly the satrap of Sogdiana, who then started his own dynasty. In {{circa|210&nbsp;BC}}, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was invaded by a resurgent Seleucid empire under [[Antiochus&nbsp;III]]. While victorious in the field, it seems Antiochus came to realise that there were advantages in the status quo (perhaps sensing that Bactria could not be governed from Syria), and married one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son, thus legitimizing the Greco-Bactrian dynasty. Soon afterwards the Greco-Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded, possibly taking advantage of the defeat of the Parthian king [[Arsaces II of Parthia|Arsaces&nbsp;II]] by Antiochus.
 
According to [[Strabo]], the Greco-Bactrians seem to have had contacts with China through the [[silk road]] trade routes (Strabo, XI.11.1). Indian sources also maintain religious contact between Buddhist monks and the Greeks, and some Greco-Bactrians did convert to [[Buddhism]]. [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]], son and successor of Euthydemus, invaded north-western India in 180&nbsp;BC, after the destruction of the Mauryan Empire there; the Mauryans were probably allies of the Bactrians (and Seleucids). The exact justification for the invasion remains unclear, but by about 175&nbsp;BC, the Greeks ruled over parts of northwestern India. This period also marks the beginning of the obfuscation of Greco-Bactrian history. Demetrius possibly died about 180&nbsp;BC; numismatic evidence suggests the existence of several other kings shortly thereafter. It is probable that at this point the Greco-Bactrian kingdom split into several semi-independent regions for some years, often warring amongst themselves. Heliocles was the last Greek to clearly rule Bactria, his power collapsing in the face of central Asian tribal invasions ([[Scythian]] and [[Yuezhi]]), by about 130&nbsp;BC. However, Greek urban civilisation seems to have continued in Bactria after the fall of the kingdom, having a hellenising effect on the tribes which had displaced Greek rule. The [[Kushan Empire]] which followed continued to use Greek on their coinage and Greeks continued being influential in the empire.
 
=== Indo-Greek kingdoms ===
{{Main|Indo-Greeks}}
{{See also|Indo-Greek religions}}
[[File:Indo-Greeks 100bc.jpg|thumb|right|Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100&nbsp;BC.]]
The separation of the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] from the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] resulted in an even more isolated position, and thus the details of the Indo-Greek kingdom are even more obscure than for Bactria. Many supposed kings in India are known only because of coins bearing their name. The numismatic evidence together with archaeological finds and the scant historical records suggest that the fusion of eastern and western cultures reached its peak in the Indo-Greek kingdom.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
 
After Demetrius' death, civil wars between Bactrian kings in India allowed [[Apollodotus&nbsp;I]] (from {{circa|180/175&nbsp;BC}}) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who did not rule from Bactria). Large numbers of his coins have been found in India, and he seems to have reigned in [[Gandhara]] as well as western [[Punjab]]. Apollodotus&nbsp;I was succeeded by or ruled alongside [[Antimachus&nbsp;II]], likely the son of the Bactrian king [[Antimachus&nbsp;I]].<ref>{{cite book|page =63
| last = Bopearachchi
| first = Osmund
| author-link = Bopearachchi
| title = Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné
| year = 1991
| language = fr
| publisher = Bibliothèque Nationale de France
| isbn = 978-2-7177-1825-6
}}</ref> In about 155 (or 165) BC he seems to have been succeeded by the most successful of the Indo-Greek kings, [[Menander&nbsp;I]]. Menander converted to [[Buddhism]], and seems to have been a great patron of the religion; he is remembered in some Buddhist texts as 'Milinda'. He also expanded the kingdom further east into Punjab, though these conquests were rather ephemeral.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
 
After the death of Menander ({{circa|130&nbsp;BC}}), the Kingdom appears to have fragmented, with several 'kings' attested contemporaneously in different regions. This inevitably weakened the Greek position, and territory seems to have been lost progressively. Around 70&nbsp;BC, the western regions of [[Arachosia]] and [[Paropamisadae]] were lost to tribal invasions, presumably by those tribes responsible for the end of the Bactrian kingdom. The resulting [[Indo-Scythians|Indo-Scythian]] kingdom seems to have gradually pushed the remaining Indo-Greek kingdom towards the east. The Indo-Greek kingdom appears to have lingered on in western Punjab until about AD&nbsp;10, at which time it was finally ended by the Indo-Scythians.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} [[Strato III]] was the last of the dynasty of Diodotus was the last of the line of [[Diodotus I|Diodotus]] and independent Hellenistic king to rule at his death in 10 AD.<ref name="Rosenfield">The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1967, p.135 [https://books.google.com/books?id=udnBkQhzHH4C&pg=PA135]</ref><ref>R.C. Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV''. The Greek legend clearly implies that the two kings were father and son, and Senior dismisses the older reading "grandson" on the Kharosthi legend.</ref>
 
After conquering the Indo-Greeks, the [[Kushan empire]] took over [[Greco-Buddhism]], the Greek language, [[Greek script]], Greek coinage and artistic styles. Greeks continued being an important part of the cultural world of India for generations. The depictions of the Buddha appear to have been influenced by Greek culture: Buddha representations in the Ghandara period often showed Buddha under the protection of Herakles.<ref name="sanujit">Ghose, Sanujit (2011). [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/208/ "Cultural links between India and the Greco-Roman world"]. Ancient History Encyclopedia.</ref>
 
Several references in Indian literature praise the knowledge of the [[Yavanas]] or the Greeks. The [[Mahabharata]] compliments them as "the all-knowing Yavanas" (''sarvajñā yavanā''); e.g., "The Yavanas, O king, are all-knowing; the Suras are particularly so. The [[mleccha]]s are wedded to the creations of their own fancy",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chap029.html|title=Chapter XXIX|website=lakdiva.org}}</ref> such as flying machines that are generally called [[vimanas]]. The "Brihat-Samhita" of the mathematician [[Varahamihira]] says: "The [[Greeks]], though impure, must be honored since they were trained in sciences and therein, excelled others...".<ref>Mahabharata 3.188.34-36.</ref>
 
== Rise of Rome ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
[[File:Jean-François-Pierre Peyron 001.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|''King Perseus of Macedon in front of Aemilius Paulus'' by [[Jean-François Pierre Peyron]] from 1802 ([[Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)|Museum of Fine Arts]], [[Budapest]]).]]
Widespread Roman interference in the Greek world was probably inevitable given the general manner of the ascendancy of the [[Roman Republic]]. This Roman-Greek interaction began as a consequence of the Greek city-states located along the coast of southern Italy. Rome had come to dominate the Italian peninsula, and desired the submission of the Greek cities to its rule. Although they initially resisted, allying themselves with [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], and defeating the Romans at several battles, the Greek cities were unable to maintain this position and were absorbed by the Roman republic. Shortly afterward, Rome became involved in Sicily, fighting against the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] in the [[First Punic War]]. The result was the complete conquest of Sicily, including its previously powerful Greek cities, by the Romans.
 
After the [[Second Punic War]], the Romans looked to re-assert their influence in the Balkans, and to curb the expansion of [[Philip V of Macedon]]. A pretext for war was provided by Philip's refusal to end his [[Cretan War (205–200 BC)|war]] with [[Attalid dynasty|Attalid]] [[Pergamum]] and [[Rhodes]], both Roman allies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=P |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreathe00gree_078 |title=Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreathe00gree_078/page/n140 102]–103 |publisher=Phoenix |url-access=limited}}</ref> The Romans, also allied with the [[Aetolian League]] of Greek city-states (which resented Philip's power), thus declared war on Macedon in 200 BC, starting the [[Second Macedonian War]]. This ended with a decisive Roman victory at the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]] (197&nbsp;BC). Like most Roman peace treaties of the period, the resultant 'Peace of Flaminius' was designed utterly to crush the power of the defeated party; a massive indemnity was levied, Philip's fleet was surrendered to Rome, and Macedon was effectively returned to its ancient boundaries, losing influence over the city-states of southern Greece, and land in Thrace and Asia Minor. The result was the end of Macedon as a major power in the Mediterranean.
 
In less than twenty years, Rome had destroyed the power of one of the successor states, crippled another, and firmly entrenched its influence over Greece. This was primarily a result of the over-ambition of the Macedonian kings, and their unintended provocation of Rome, though Rome was quick to exploit the situation. In another twenty years, the Macedonian kingdom was no more. Seeking to re-assert Macedonian power and Greek independence, Philip V's son [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] incurred the wrath of the Romans, resulting in the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168&nbsp;BC). Victorious, the Romans abolished the Macedonian kingdom, replacing it with four puppet republics until it was formally annexed as a Roman province after yet another rebellion under [[Andriscus]]. Rome now demanded that the [[Achaean League]], the last stronghold of Greek independence, be dissolved. The Achaeans refused and declared war on Rome. Most of the Greek cities rallied to the Achaeans' side, even slaves were freed to fight for Greek independence. The Roman consul [[Lucius Mummius]] advanced from Macedonia and defeated the Greeks at [[Corinth]], which was razed to the ground. In 146&nbsp;BC, the Greek peninsula, though not the islands, became a Roman protectorate. Roman taxes were imposed, except in Athens and Sparta, and all the cities had to accept rule by Rome's local allies.
[[File:East-Hem 100bc.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Roman Republic]] and contemporary polities in 100 BC]]
The Attalid dynasty of Pergamum lasted little longer; a Roman ally until the end, its final king [[Attalus&nbsp;III]] died in 133&nbsp;BC without an heir, and taking the alliance to its natural conclusion, willed Pergamum to the Roman Republic.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last=Holland |first=T |title=Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic |year=2004 |publisher=Abacus |isbn=978-0-349-11563-4}}</ref> The final Greek resistance came in 88&nbsp;BC, when King [[Mithridates VI of Pontus|Mithridates]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] rebelled against Rome, captured Roman held Anatolia, and massacred up to 100,000 Romans and Roman allies across Asia Minor. Many Greek cities, including Athens, overthrew their Roman puppet rulers and joined him in the [[Mithridatic wars]]. When he was driven out of Greece by the Roman general [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], the latter laid siege to Athens and razed the city. Mithridates was finally defeated by [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey the Great) in 65 BC. Further ruin was brought to Greece by the Roman civil wars, which were partly fought in Greece. Finally, in 27&nbsp;BC, [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] directly annexed Greece to the new [[Roman Empire]] as the [[Achaea Province, Roman Empire|province of Achaea]]. The struggles with Rome had left Greece depopulated and demoralised. Nevertheless, Roman rule at least brought an end to warfare, and cities such as Athens, Corinth, Thessaloniki and [[Patras]] soon recovered their prosperity.
 
Eventually, instability in the near east resulting from the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Seleucid Empire caused the Roman [[proconsul]] [[Pompey the Great]] to abolish the Seleucid rump state, absorbing much of Syria into the Roman Republic.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> Famously, the end of Ptolemaic Egypt came as the final act in the republican civil war between the Roman triumvirs [[Mark Antony|Mark Anthony]] and [[Augustus Caesar]]. After the defeat of Anthony and his lover, the last Ptolemaic monarch, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VII]], at the [[Battle of Actium]], Augustus invaded Egypt and took it as his own personal fiefdom.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> He thereby completed the destruction of the Hellenistic kingdoms and transformed the Roman Republic into a monarchy, ending (in hindsight) the Hellenistic era.
 
== Hellenistic culture ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
 
=== Spread ===
[[File:Colchis-Nike.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|Statuette of [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], Greek goddess of victory, from [[Vani]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].]]Greek culture was at its height of world influence in the Hellenistic period. Hellenism or at least [[Philhellenism]] reached most regions on the frontiers of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Though some of these regions were not ruled by Greeks or even Greek speaking elites, Hellenistic influence can be seen in the historical record and [[material culture]] of these regions. Other regions had established contact with Greek colonies before this period, and simply saw a continued process of [[Hellenization]] and intermixing.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Early State |date=1978 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-90-279-7904-9 |editor1-last=Claessen |editor1-first=Henri J. M. |page=428 |doi=10.1515/9783110813326 |editor2-last=Skalník |editor2-first=Peter }}</ref><ref>Gent, John. The Scythie nations, down to the fall of the Western empire, p. 4.</ref>
 
The spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of newly founded cities and deliberate [[Colonies in antiquity|colonization]] policies by the successor states, which in turn was necessary for maintaining their military forces. Settlements such as [[Ai-Khanoum]], on trade routes, allowed Greek culture to mix and spread. The language of Philip&nbsp;II's and Alexander's court and army (which was made up of various Greek and non-Greek speaking peoples) was a version of [[Attic Greek]], and over time this language developed into [[Koine]], the [[lingua franca]] of the successor states. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through [[ancient Greek coinage]]. Portraits became more realistic, and the obverse of the coin was often used to display a propagandistic image, commemorating an event or displaying the image of a favored god. The use of Greek-style portraits and Greek language continued under the Roman, [[Parthian empire|Parthian]], and [[Kushan empire]]s, even as the use of Greek was in decline.<ref>Prag & Quinn (editors). The Hellenistic West, pp. 229–237.</ref><ref>Pârvan, Vasile. Dacia, p. 100.</ref>
 
=== Institutions ===
In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories.<ref>Green (1990), pp. xx, 68–69.</ref> The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature (including the works of the three great classical tragedians, [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]]) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks. The museum and library of Alexandria was the center of this conservationist activity. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there. They were scholar poets, writing not only poetry but treatises on Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature.<ref>Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 190.</ref>
 
[[Athens]] retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries and philosophical schools.<ref name=mcleod>{{cite book |author=Roy M. MacLeod |title=The Library Of Alexandria: Centre Of Learning In The Ancient World |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2004 |isbn=1-85043-594-4}}</ref> Alexandria had the monumental museum (a research center) and [[Library of Alexandria]] which was estimated to have had 700,000 volumes.<ref name=mcleod /> The city of Pergamon also had a large library and became a major center of book production.<ref name=mcleod /> The island of Rhodes had a library and also boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. Libraries were also present in [[Antioch]], [[Pella]], and [[Kos]]. [[Cicero]] was educated in Athens and [[Mark Antony]] in Rhodes.<ref name=mcleod /> Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of [[Culture of Greece|Greek learning]] which retained its status into the era of [[Christianity]].<ref name=mcleod /> [[Seleucia]] replaced [[Babylon]] as the metropolis of the lower [[Tigris]].
 
The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities, a practice termed '{{Lang|la|[[Interpretatio graeca]]}}', stimulated the building of Greek-style temples, and Greek culture in the cities meant that buildings such as [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasia]] and [[Theatre of ancient Greece#Characteristics of the buildings|theaters]] became common. Many cities maintained nominal autonomy while under the rule of the local king or [[satrap]], and often had Greek-style institutions. Greek dedications, statues, architecture, and inscriptions have all been found. However, local cultures were not replaced, and mostly went on as before, but now with a new Greco-Macedonian or otherwise Hellenized elite. An example that shows the spread of Greek theater is [[Plutarch]]'s story of the death of [[Crassus]], in which his head was taken to the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] court and used as a prop in a performance of [[The Bacchae]]. Theaters have also been found: for example, in [[Ai-Khanoum]] on the edge of [[Bactria]], the theater has 35 rows – larger than the theater in [[Babylon]].
 
=== Hellenization and acculturation ===
{{Further|Hellenization}}
[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|One of the first representations of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and an example of [[Greco-Buddhist art]], 1st-2nd century AD, [[Gandhara]]: [[Standing Buddha (Tokyo National Museum)]].]]
 
The concept of Hellenization, meaning the adoption of Greek culture in non-Greek regions, has long been controversial. Undoubtedly Greek influence did spread through the Hellenistic realms, but to what extent, and whether this was a deliberate policy or mere cultural diffusion, have been hotly debated.
 
It seems likely that Alexander himself pursued policies which led to Hellenization, such as the foundations of new cities and Greek colonies. While it may have been a deliberate attempt to spread Greek culture (or as Arrian says, "to civilise the natives"), it is more likely that it was a series of pragmatic measures designed to aid in the rule of his enormous empire.<ref name="Green, p. 21">Green, p. 21.</ref> Cities and colonies were centers of administrative control and Macedonian power in a newly conquered region. Alexander also seems to have attempted to create a mixed Greco-Persian elite class as shown by the [[Susa weddings]] and his adoption of some forms of Persian dress and court culture. He also brought Persian and other non-Greek peoples into his military and even the elite cavalry units of the [[companion cavalry]]. Again, it is probably better to see these policies as a pragmatic response to the demands of ruling a large empire<ref name="Green, p. 21" /> than to any idealized attempt to bringing [[Greek culture]] to the '[[barbarians]]'. This approach was bitterly resented by the Macedonians and discarded by most of the Diadochi after Alexander's death. These policies can also be interpreted as the result of Alexander's possible [[wikt:megalomania|megalomania]]<ref>Green, p. 23.</ref> during his later years.
 
After Alexander's death in 323&nbsp;BC, the influx of Greek colonists into the new realms continued to spread Greek culture into Asia. The founding of new cities and military colonies continued to be a major part of the Successors' struggle for control of any particular region, and these continued to be centers of cultural diffusion. The spread of Greek culture under the Successors seems mostly to have occurred with the spreading of Greeks themselves, rather than as an active policy.
 
Throughout the Hellenistic world, these Greco-Macedonian colonists considered themselves by and large superior to the native "barbarians" and excluded most non-Greeks from the upper echelons of courtly and government life. Most of the native population was not Hellenized, had little access to Greek culture and often found themselves discriminated against by their Hellenic overlords.<ref>Green, p. 313.</ref> [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|Gymnasiums]] and their Greek education, for example, were for Greeks only. Greek cities and colonies may have exported Greek art and architecture as far as the [[Indus]], but these were mostly enclaves of Greek culture for the transplanted Greek [[elite]]. The degree of influence that Greek culture had throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms was therefore highly localized and based mostly on a few great cities like Alexandria and Antioch. Some natives did learn Greek and adopt Greek ways, but this was mostly limited to a few local elites who were allowed to retain their posts by the Diadochi and also to a small number of mid-level administrators who acted as intermediaries between the Greek speaking upper class and their subjects. In the Seleucid Empire, for example, this group amounted to only 2.5 percent of the [[official]] class.<ref>Green, p. 315.</ref>
 
[[Hellenistic art]] nevertheless had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent, [[Hellenistic influence on Indian art]] was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great.
 
Despite their initial reluctance, the Successors seem to have later deliberately naturalized themselves to their different regions, presumably in order to help maintain control of the population.<ref>Green, p. 22.</ref> In the Ptolemaic kingdom, we find some Egyptianized Greeks by the 2nd century onwards. In the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] we find kings who were converts to [[Buddhism]] (e.g., [[Menander I|Menander]]). The Greeks in the regions therefore gradually become 'localized', adopting local customs as appropriate. In this way, hybrid 'Hellenistic' cultures naturally emerged, at least among the upper echelons of society.
 
The trends of Hellenization were therefore accompanied by Greeks adopting native ways over time, but this was widely varied by place and by social class. The farther away from the Mediterranean and the lower in social status, the more likely that a colonist was to adopt local ways, while the Greco-Macedonian elites and royal families usually remained thoroughly Greek and viewed most non-Greeks with disdain. It was not until [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VII]] that a Ptolemaic ruler bothered to learn the [[Egyptian language]] of their subjects.
 
====Terracotta army====
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=
| image1  = Qin Terracotta Acrobat (9897907493).jpg
| caption1 =
| image2  = Qin acrobat, Pit K9901, Qin Mausoleum.jpg
| caption2 =
| footer  =''[[The Acrobats]]'', some of the most naturalistic statues of the Chinese [[Terracotta Army]] (210–209 BC)
}}
Since the time of their discovery, the figures of the Chinese [[Terracotta Army]] (210–209 BC) have been noted for their exceptional stylistic realism and individualism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Falkenhausen |first=Lothar |date=2008 |title=Action and Image in Early Chinese Art |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44171471 |journal=Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie |volume=17 |pages=51–91 |doi=10.3406/asie.2008.1272 |jstor=44171471 |issn=0766-1177 |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130043011/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44171471 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Yumin |date=2013 |title=Reflections on China's First Collection of Terracotta Acrobats (an exhibition review) |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1470357213498175 |journal=Visual Communication |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=497–502 |doi=10.1177/1470357213498175 |s2cid=147420437 |issn=1470-3572 |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130043016/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1470357213498175 |url-status=live }}</ref> The earliest note on this aspect was that of 20th century art historian German Hafner who, in 1986, was the first to speculate on a possible [[Hellenistic]] link to these sculptures due to the unusual display of naturalism relative to general Qin era sculpture: "the art of the terracotta army originated from Western contact, originated from knowledge of Alexander the Great and the splendor of Greek art".<ref name="Duan">{{Cite journal |last=Qingbo |first=Duan |date=2022 |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊 |volume=7 |language=en |pages=21–72 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25 |s2cid=251690411 |issn=2059-1632 |doi-access=free|quote=More than thirty-five years ago [1986], there was a European scholar (German Hafner, 1911–2008) who considered that the art of the terracotta army “originated from Western contact, originated from knowledge of Alexander the Great and the splendor of Greek art.” Lukas Nickel of SOAS has put forward a similar proposition.}}</ref> This idea was also generally supported by Duan Qingbo, director of the excavation team at the First Emperor's necropolis between 1998 to 2008,<ref name="Duan"/> or by Professor Lukas Nickel of [[SOAS University of London|SOAS]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/news/newsitem89619.html |title=Early links with West likely inspiration for Terracotta Warriors, argues SOAS scholar |website=School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London |access-date=28 December 2013 |archive-date=6 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006162216/https://www.soas.ac.uk/news/newsitem89619.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Li Xiuzhen, senior archaeologist from the Mausoleum Site Museum, acknowledged Western influence but insisted on Chinese authorship: "We now think the Terracotta Army, [[The Acrobats|the acrobats]] and the bronze sculptures found on site were inspired by ancient Greek sculptures and art",<ref>{{cite web |title=Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo, experts say |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-37624943 |website=BBC News |date=12 October 2016}}</ref> but although "the terracotta warriors may be inspired by Western culture, they were uniquely made by the Chinese" and "we found no Greek names on the backs of Terracotta Warriors, which supports my idea that there was no Greek artisan training the local sculptors".<ref name="Xinhua 新華網">{{cite news |title=Chinese archaeologist refutes BBC report on Terracotta Warriors |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-10/18/content_27097821.htm |access-date=9 June 2021 |work=China Daily 中國日報 |agency=www.chinadaily.com |publisher=Xinhua 新華網 |date=2016-10-18 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609130441/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-10/18/content_27097821.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Others have argued that such speculations rest on flawed and old "Eurocentric" ideas that assumed other civilizations were incapable of sophisticated artistry and thus foreign artistry must be seen through Western traditions.<ref name="han-sil">{{cite web |author1=Hanink, Johanna |author2=Silva, Felipe Rojas |date=20 November 2016 |title=Why China's Terracotta Warriors Are Stirring Controversy |url=https://www.livescience.com/56939-china-terracotta-warriors-stir-controversy.html |publisher=Live Science |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-date=5 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105042337/https://www.livescience.com/56939-china-terracotta-warriors-stir-controversy.html |url-status=live }} Originally published in {{cite news |last1=Hanink<!-- Associate Professor of Classics, Brown University --> |first1=Johanna |last2=Silva<!-- Assistant Professor of Archaeology and the Ancient World, Brown University --> |first2=Felipe Rojas |date=18 November 2016 |title=Why there's so much backlash to the theory that Greek art inspired China's Terracotta Army |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/why-theres-so-much-backlash-to-the-theory-that-greek-art-inspired-chinas-terracotta-army-67488 |access-date=22 February 2018 |archive-date=14 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200914140156/https://theconversation.com/why-theres-so-much-backlash-to-the-theory-that-greek-art-inspired-chinas-terracotta-army-67488 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Hellenistic religion}}
[[File:Zeus Ammon (Antikensammlung München).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Bust of [[Amun#Greece|Zeus-Ammon]], a deity with attributes from Greek and Egyptian gods.]]
In the Hellenistic period, there was much continuity in [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek religion]]: the [[Greek gods]] continued to be worshiped, and the same rites were practiced as before. However the socio-political changes brought on by the conquest of the Persian empire and Greek emigration abroad meant that change also came to religious practices. This varied greatly by location. Athens, Sparta and most cities in the Greek mainland did not see much religious change or new gods (with the exception of the Egyptian [[Isis]] in Athens),<ref>Bugh, pp. 206–210.</ref> while the multi-ethnic Alexandria had a very varied group of gods and religious practices, including Egyptian, Jewish and Greek. Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan. Non-Greeks also had more freedom to travel and trade throughout the Mediterranean and in this period we can see Egyptian gods such as [[Serapis]], and the [[Greater Syria|Syrian]] gods [[Atargatis]] and [[Hadad]], as well as a Jewish [[synagogue]], all coexisting on the island of [[Delos]] alongside classical Greek deities.<ref>Bugh, p. 209.</ref> A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon, [[Aphrodite]] Hagne (a Hellenized [[Atargatis]]) and [[Isis]]-[[Demeter]]. Greek emigres faced individual religious choices they had not faced on their home cities, where the gods they worshiped were dictated by tradition.
 
Hellenistic monarchies were closely associated with the religious life of the kingdoms they ruled. This had already been a feature of Macedonian kingship, which had priestly duties.<ref>Walbank et al. (2008), p. 84.</ref> Hellenistic kings adopted patron deities as protectors of their house and sometimes claimed descent from them. The Seleucids for example took on [[Apollo]] as patron, the Antigonids had [[Herakles]], and the Ptolemies claimed [[Dionysus]] among others.<ref>Walbank et al. (2008), p. 86.</ref>
 
The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] adopted earlier Pharaonic practice, and established themselves as [[god-kings]]. These cults were usually associated with a specific temple in honor of the ruler such as the ''Ptolemaieia'' at Alexandria and had their own festivals and theatrical performances. The setting up of ruler cults was more based on the systematized honors offered to the kings (sacrifice, [[proskynesis]], statues, altars, hymns) which put them on par with the gods (''isotheism'') than on actual belief of their divine nature. According to Peter Green, these cults did not produce genuine belief of the divinity of rulers among the Greeks and Macedonians.<ref>Green, p. 402.</ref> The worship of Alexander was also popular, as in the long lived cult at [[Erythrae]] and of course, at Alexandria, where his tomb was located.
 
The Hellenistic age also saw a rise in the disillusionment with traditional religion.<ref>Green, p. 396.</ref> The rise of philosophy and the sciences had removed the gods from many of their traditional domains such as their role in the movement of the heavenly bodies and natural disasters. The [[Sophists]] proclaimed the centrality of humanity and [[agnosticism]]; the belief in [[Euhemerism]] (the view that the gods were simply ancient kings and heroes), became popular. The popular philosopher [[Epicurus]] promoted a [[Epicureanism#Gods|view of disinterested gods]] living far away from the human realm in [[metakosmia]]. The [[apotheosis]] of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes.<ref>Green, p. 399.</ref>
 
[[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|Magic]] was practiced widely, and this, too, was a continuation from earlier times. Throughout the Hellenistic world, people would consult [[oracle]]s, and use [[Amulet|charms]] and figurines to deter misfortune or to cast spells. Also developed in this era was the complex system of [[Hellenistic astrology|astrology]], which sought to determine a person's character and future in the movements of the [[sun]], [[moon]], and [[planets]]. Astrology was widely associated with the cult of [[Tyche]] (luck, fortune), which grew in popularity during this period.
 
=== Literature ===
[[File:Relief with Menander and New Comedy Masks - Princeton Art Museum.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Relief with Menander and New Comedy Masks (Roman, AD&nbsp;40–60). The masks show three New Comedy stock characters: youth, false maiden, old man. [[Princeton University Art Museum]]]]
The Hellenistic period saw the rise of [[New Comedy]], the only few surviving representative texts being those of [[Menander]] (born 342/341&nbsp;BC). Only one play, ''[[Dyskolos]]'', survives in its entirety. The plots of this new Hellenistic [[comedy of manners]] were more domestic and formulaic, stereotypical low born characters such as slaves became more important, the language was colloquial and major motifs included [[escapism]], marriage, romance and luck ([[Tyche]]).<ref>Green, pp. 66-74.</ref> Though no Hellenistic tragedy remains intact, they were still widely produced during the period, yet it seems that there was no major breakthrough in style, remaining within the classical model. The ''Supplementum Hellenisticum'', a modern collection of extant fragments, contains the fragments of 150 authors.<ref>Green, p. 65.</ref>
[[File:Poet, fresco in House of Golden Bracelet, Pompeii.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|An ancient fresco depicting a poet (thought to be [[Euphorion of Chalcis|Euphorion]]) and a female reading a [[diptych]]]]
 
[[Hellenistic poetry|Hellenistic poets]] now sought patronage from kings, and wrote works in their honor. The scholars at the libraries in Alexandria and Pergamon focused on the collection, cataloging, and [[literary criticism]] of classical Athenian works and ancient Greek myths. The poet-critic [[Callimachus]], a staunch elitist, wrote hymns equating Ptolemy&nbsp;II to Zeus and Apollo. He promoted short poetic forms such as the [[epigram]], [[epyllion]] and the [[Iambus (genre)|iambic]] and attacked epic as base and common ("big book, big evil" was his doctrine).<ref>Green, p. 179.</ref> He also wrote a massive catalog of the holdings of the library of Alexandria, the famous [[Pinakes]]. Callimachus was extremely influential in his time and also for the development of [[Augustan poetry]]. Another poet, [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], attempted to revive the epic for the Hellenistic world with his [[Argonautica]]. He had been a student of Callimachus and later became chief librarian (''prostates'') of the library of Alexandria. Apollonius and Callimachus spent much of their careers feuding with each other. [[Pastoral poetry]] also thrived during the Hellenistic era, [[Theocritus]] was a major poet who popularized the genre.
 
This period also saw the rise of the [[ancient Greek novel]], such as [[Daphnis and Chloe]] and the [[Ephesian Tale]].
 
Around 240&nbsp;BC Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave from southern Italy, translated Homer's ''Odyssey'' into Latin. Greek literature would have a dominant effect on the development of the [[Latin literature]] of the Romans. The poetry of [[Virgil]], [[Horace]] and [[Ovid]] were all based on Hellenistic styles.
 
=== Philosophy ===
{{Main|Hellenistic philosophy}}
[[File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Napoli, 1969) - BEIC 6353768.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Zeno of Citium]] founded [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosophy.]]
 
During the Hellenistic period, many different schools of thought developed, and these schools of Hellenistic philosophy had a significant influence on the Greek and Roman ruling elite.
 
Athens, with its multiple philosophical schools, continued to remain the center of philosophical thought. However, Athens had now lost her political freedom, and Hellenistic philosophy is a reflection of this new difficult period. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as [[ataraxia]] (un-disturbedness), [[autarky]] (self-sufficiency), and [[apatheia]] (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or [[eudaimonia]] out of the most difficult turns of fortune. This occupation with the inner life, with personal inner liberty and with the pursuit of eudaimonia is what all Hellenistic philosophical schools have in common.<ref>Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 53.</ref>
 
The [[Epicureans]] and the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] eschewed public offices and civic service, which amounted to a rejection of the [[polis]] itself, the defining institution of the Greek world. [[Epicurus]] promoted [[atomism]] and an [[asceticism]] based on freedom from pain as its ultimate goal. The [[Cyrenaics]] and Epicureans embraced [[hedonism]], arguing that pleasure was the only true good. Cynics such as [[Diogenes of Sinope]] rejected all material possessions and social conventions (''nomos'') as unnatural and useless. [[Stoicism]], founded by [[Zeno of Citium]], taught that [[virtue]] was sufficient for eudaimonia as it would allow one to live in accordance with Nature or [[Logos]]. The philosophical schools of [[Aristotle]] (the [[Peripatetics]] of the [[Lyceum (classical)|Lyceum]]) and [[Plato]] ([[Platonism]] at the [[Platonic Academy|Academy]]) also remained influential. Against these [[dogma]]tic schools of philosophy the [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonist]] school embraced [[philosophical skepticism]], and, starting with [[Arcesilaus]], Plato's Academy also embraced skepticism in the form of [[Academic Skepticism]].
 
The spread of [[Christianity]] throughout the Roman world, followed by the [[spread of Islam]], ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of [[Medieval philosophy]] (often forcefully, as under [[Justinian I#Suppression of religions|Justinian&nbsp;I]]), which was dominated by the three [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] traditions: [[Jewish philosophy]], [[Christian philosophy]], and [[early Islamic philosophy]]. In spite of this shift, Hellenistic philosophy continued to influence these three religious traditions and the [[Renaissance]] thought which followed them.
 
=== Sciences ===
{{Further|Hellenistic astronomy|Hellenistic mathematics|Hellenistic geography}}
[[File:Oxyrhynchus papyrus with Euclid's Elements.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.05|One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's ''Elements'', found at [[Oxyrhynchus]] and dated to {{circa|AD&nbsp;100}} ([[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 29|P. Oxy. 29]]). The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html |title=One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid |author=Bill Casselman |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=2008-09-26|author-link=Bill Casselman (mathematician) }}</ref>]]
 
Science in the Hellenistic age differed from that of the previous era in at least two ways: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in older civilizations; secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's successors. The cultural competition among the Hellenistic kingdoms produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean, of which the most important was [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which became a major center of scholarship in the 3rd century BC. In their scientific investigations, Hellenistic scholars frequently employed the principles developed earlier in [[ancient Greece]]: the application of mathematics to natural phenomena and the undertaking of deliberate empirical research.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luce|first=J. V.|date=1988|title=Greek Science in its Hellenistic Phase|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23040930|journal=Hermathena|issue=145|pages=23–38|jstor=23040930|issn=0018-0750}}</ref><ref>Lloyd (1973), p. 177.</ref>
 
In [[Greek mathematics|mathematics]], Hellenistic geometers built upon the work of mathematicians from the previous generation such as [[Theodorus of Cyrene|Theodorus]], [[Archytas]], [[Theaetetus (mathematician)|Theaetetus]], and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]]. Euclid, whose ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' became the most important textbook in Western [[mathematics]] until the 19th century, presented proofs for the [[Pythagorean Theorem]], for the infinitude of primes, and for the five [[Platonic solids]].<ref>Bugh, p. 245.</ref> [[Archimedes]] made use of a technique dependent on [[proof by contradiction]] to solve problems with an arbitrary degree of accuracy. Known as the [[method of exhaustion]], Archimedes used it in several of his works, including to approximate the value of [[Pi|π]] (''[[Measurement of a Circle|Measurement of the Circle]]'') and to prove that the area enclosed by a [[parabola]] and a straight line is 4/3 times the area of a [[triangle]] with equal base and height (''[[Quadrature of the Parabola]]'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knorr |first=W. R. |date=1976 |title=Archimedes and the Measurement of the Circle: A New Interpretation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133444 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=115–140 |doi=10.1007/BF00348496 |jstor=41133444 |s2cid=120954547 |issn=0003-9519}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swain |first1=G. |last2=Dence |first2=T. |date=1998 |title=Archimedes' Quadrature of the Parabola Revisited |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2691014 |journal=Mathematics Magazine |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=123–130 |doi=10.2307/2691014 |jstor=2691014 |issn=0025-570X}}</ref> The most characteristic product of Hellenistic mathematics was the theory of [[conic section]]s, reaching its greatest achievement in the work of [[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius]]. It made no explicit use of either [[algebra]] or [[trigonometry]], the latter appearing around the time of [[Hipparchus]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toomer |first=G. J. |date=1974 |title=The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek Trigonometry |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0498.1974.tb00205.x |journal=Centaurus |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=6–28 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0498.1974.tb00205.x |bibcode=1974Cent...18....6T |issn=0008-8994}}</ref>
 
In the [[exact sciences]], [[Eratosthenes]] measured the [[Earth's circumference]] and calculated the [[Axial tilt#Obliquity of the ecliptic (Earth's axial tilt)|tilt of the Earth's axis]] with remarkable accuracy.<ref name="russo273277">{{cite book |last=Russo |first=Lucio |author-link=Lucio Russo |date=2004 |title=The Forgotten Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/forgottenrevolut00russ_217 |url-access=limited |location=Berlin |publisher=Springer|pages=[https://archive.org/details/forgottenrevolut00russ_217/page/n277 273]–277}}</ref> He might have also determined the distance from the Earth to the Sun and invented the [[leap day]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/06/dayintech_0619 |title=June 19, 240 B.C.E: The Earth Is Round, and It's This Big |first=Randy |last=Alfred |magazine=Wired |date=June 19, 2008 | access-date=2013-06-22}}</ref> Eratosthenes drew a [[Ancient world maps#Eratosthenes|map of the world]] incorporating [[Circle of latitude|parallels]] and [[Longitude|meridians]], based on the available geographical knowledge of the era. Another important figure is the astronomer [[Hipparchus]], who used [[Babylonian astronomy|Babylonian astronomical data]] and discovered the phenomena of Earth's [[precession]]. Pliny reports that Hipparchus produced the first systematic [[Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs, and surveys|star catalog]] after he observed a new star, wishing to preserve astronomical record of the stars so that new ones could be discovered.<ref>{{cite book |author=Otto Neugebauer |title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy |publisher=Springer |year=1975 |location=New York |pages=284–5}}; Lloyd (1973), pp. 69-71.</ref> A celestial globe based on Hipparchus' star catalog presumably sits atop the broad shoulders of a large 2nd-century Roman statue known as the [[Farnese Atlas]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schaefer |first1=Bradley E. |year=2005 |title=The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and Their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalogue |url=http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/JHAFarneseProofs.pdf |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=167–96 |bibcode=2005JHA....36..167S |doi=10.1177/002182860503600202 |s2cid=15431718}}; But see also {{cite journal |last1=Duke |first1=Dennis W. |year=2006 |title=Analysis of the Farnese Globe |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=37 |issue=126 |pages=87–100 |bibcode=2006JHA....37...87D |doi=10.1177/002182860603700107 |s2cid=36841784}}</ref> Another astronomer, [[Aristarchos of Samos]], measured the distances of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, and developed a [[heliocentric]] theory. In mechanics, [[Ctesibius]] wrote the first treatises on the science of [[compressed air]] and its uses in pumps, and allegedly designed a kind of [[cannon]] as reported by [[Hero of Alexandria]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Hero |title=Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater |date=1899 |publisher=B.G. Teubner |others=Wilhelm Schmidt (translator) |place=Leipzig |pages=228–232 |language=el, de |chapter=Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI |author-link=Hero of Alexandria |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/heronsvonalexandhero#page/228/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="Dictionary of Scientific Biography">{{cite book |author=Research Machines plc. |title=The Hutchinson dictionary of scientific biography |publisher=Helicon Publishing |year=2004 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |page=546 |quote='''Hero of Alexandria (lived c. ''AD'' 60)''' Greek mathematician, engineer and the greatest experimentalist of antiquity}}</ref>
 
In the life sciences, [[medicine]] made significant advances within the framework of the Hippocratic tradition. [[Praxagoras]] theorized that blood traveled through the veins, while [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] performed dissections and vivisections of humans and animals, providing accurate descriptions of the [[nervous system]], liver and other key organs. Influenced by [[Philinus of Cos]], a student of Herophilos, the [[Empiric school]] of medicine focused on strict observation and rejected the unseen causes of the [[Dogmatic school]]. In botany, [[Theophrastus]] was known for his work in plant classification while [[Crateuas (physician)|Crateuas]] wrote a compendium on botanic pharmacy. The library of Alexandria presumably included a zoo for research and Hellenistic zoologists include Archelaos, Leonidas of Byzantion, [[Apollodorus (physician)|Apollodoros of Alexandria]] and Bion of Soloi.<ref>Green, p. 467.</ref>
 
The technological achievement of the Hellenistic age is masterly displayed in the [[Antikythera mechanism]], a 37-gear mechanical analog computer which calculated the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets, including lunar and solar eclipses.<ref name="Freeth">{{cite journal |last=Freeth |first=T. |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title=Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=587–91 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..587F |doi=10.1038/nature05357 |pmid=17136087 |s2cid=4424998}}; {{cite journal |last=Marchant |first=Jo |year=2006 |title=In Search of Lost Time |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=534–8 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M |doi=10.1038/444534a |pmid=17136067 |doi-access=free}};</ref> Devices of this sort are not found again until the 10th century, when a simpler eight-geared luni-solar calculator incorporated into an [[astrolabe]] was described by the Persian scholar, [[Al-Biruni]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Charette |first=François |year=2006 |title=High tech from Ancient Greece |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=551–2 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..551C |doi=10.1038/444551a |pmid=17136077 |doi-access=free |s2cid=33513516}}; {{cite web |last=Noble Wilford |first=John |date=2006-11-30 |title=Early Astronomical 'Computer' Found to Be Technically Complex |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/30/science/30compute.html?ex=1322542800&en=088bd939ca75fbbb&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |access-date=2006-11-30 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> Similarly complex devices were also developed by other [[Inventions in the Muslim world|Muslim engineers]] and [[Islamic astronomy|astronomers]] during the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name="Freeth" /> Other technological developments of the Hellenistic age include cogged [[gears]], pulleys, [[Archimedes' screw]], the [[screw press]], [[glassblowing]], hollow bronze casting, surveying instruments, the odometer, the [[pantograph]], the [[water clock]], the [[watermill]], the [[water organ]], and the [[piston pump]].
 
Past interpretations of Hellenistic science often downplayed its significance, as found for instance in the English classical scholar [[F. M. Cornford|Francis Cornford]], who believed that "all the most important and original work was done in the three centuries from 600 to 300 BC".<ref>{{cite book |author=F. M. Cornford |title=The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays |page=83}} quoted in Lloyd (1973), p. 154.</ref> Recent interpretations tend to be more generous, leading a few people like mathematician [[Lucio Russo]] to claim that the [[scientific method]] was actually born in the 3rd century BC, to be largely forgotten during the Roman period and only revived in full during the [[History of science in the Renaissance|Renaissance]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Russo |first=Lucio |title=The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300&nbsp;BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |isbn=3-540-20396-6 |location=Berlin |author-link=Lucio Russo}}
But see the critical reviews by Mott Greene, ''Nature'', vol 430, no. 7000 (5 Aug 2004):614 [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v430/n7000/full/430614a.html] and Michael Rowan-Robinson, ''Physics World'', vol. 17, no. 4 (April 2004)[http://physicsweb.org/articles/review/17/4/1/1].</ref>
 
=== Military science ===
{{Further|Hellenistic armies}}
[[File:Ancient Mechanical Artillery. Pic 01.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Ancient mechanical artillery: Catapults (standing), the chain drive of [[Polybolos]] (bottom center), [[Gastraphetes]] (on wall)]]
Hellenistic warfare was a continuation of the military developments of [[Iphicrates]] and [[Philip&nbsp;II of Macedon]], particularly his use of the [[Macedonian phalanx]], a dense formation of [[phalangite|pikemen]], in conjunction with heavy [[companion cavalry]]. Armies of the Hellenistic period differed from those of the classical period in being largely made up of professional soldiers and also in their greater specialization and technical proficiency in [[siege warfare]]. Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek [[mercenaries]] (''misthophoroi''; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. Some ethnic groups were known for their martial skill in a particular mode of combat and were highly sought after, including [[Hellenistic armies#Tarantine cavalry|Tarantine cavalry]], Cretan archers, Rhodian slingers and Thracian [[peltasts]]. This period also saw the adoption of new weapons and troop types such as [[Thureophoroi]] and the [[Thorakitai]] who used the oval [[Thureos]] shield and fought with javelins and the [[machaira]] sword. The use of heavily armored [[cataphracts]] and also [[horse archers]] was adopted by the Seleucids, Greco-Bactrians, Armenians and [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]]. The use of [[war elephants]] also became common. Seleucus received Indian war elephants from the [[Mauryan empire]], and used them to good effect at the [[battle of Ipsus]]. He kept a core of 500 of them at [[Apamea (Euphrates)|Apameia]]. The Ptolemies used the smaller African elephant.
 
Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size. [[Hellenistic-era warships]] grew from the [[trireme]] to include more banks of oars and larger numbers of rowers and soldiers as in the Quadrireme and Quinquereme. The Ptolemaic [[Tessarakonteres]] was the largest ship constructed in Antiquity. New siege engines were developed during this period. An unknown engineer developed the torsion-spring catapult ({{circa|360&nbsp;BC}}) and Dionysios of Alexandria designed a repeating [[ballista]], the [[Polybolos]]. Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from {{cvt|4.4|to|78|kg|lb}}.<ref>Bugh, p. 285.</ref> [[Demetrius Poliorcetes]] was notorious for the large [[siege engines]] employed in his campaigns, especially during the 12-month siege of Rhodes when he had Epimachos of Athens build a massive 160 ton siege tower named [[Helepolis]], filled with artillery.
 
=== Art ===
{{Main|Hellenistic art|Hellenistic sculpture}}
[[File:Old woman BM GR1852.3-27.9.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Head of an old woman, a good example of [[Realism (arts)|realism]].]]
The term ''Hellenistic'' is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean, rather than the [[Classical Greece]] focused on the [[Poleis]] of [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]], but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience.
 
Hardly any examples of Hellenistic painting survive, but we have many Roman copies of [[Hellenistic sculpture]], and some originals, including [[Laocoön and his Sons]], the [[Venus de Milo]], and the [[Winged Victory of Samothrace]].
 
Hellenistic art saw a turn from the idealistic, perfected, calm and composed figures of classical Greek art to a style dominated by [[Realism (arts)|realism]] and the depiction of emotion ([[pathos]]) and character ([[ethos]]). The motif of deceptively realistic [[Naturalism (arts)|naturalism]] in art (''aletheia'') is reflected in stories such as that of the painter [[Zeuxis (painter)|Zeuxis]], who was said to have painted grapes that seemed so real that birds came and pecked at them.<ref>Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 92.</ref> The [[female nude]] also became more popular as epitomized by the [[Aphrodite of Cnidos]] of [[Praxiteles]] and art in general became more erotic (e.g., [[Leda and the Swan#Eroticism|Leda and the Swan]] and [[Scopas#Pothos|Scopa's Pothos]]). The dominant ideals of Hellenistic art were those of sensuality and passion.<ref>Green, p. 342.</ref>
 
People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Artists such as [[Peiraikos]] chose mundane and lower class subjects for his paintings. According to Pliny, "He painted barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects, earning for himself the name of ''rhyparographos'' [painter of dirt/low things]. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" ([[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]], Book XXXV.112). Even barbarians, such as the [[Galatia (Roman province)|Galatians]], were depicted in heroic form, prefiguring the artistic theme of the [[noble savage]]. The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look.
 
Developments in painting included experiments in [[chiaroscuro]] by [[Zeuxis (painter)|Zeuxis]] and the development of [[landscape painting]] and [[still life]] painting.<ref>Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, pp. 117–118.</ref> Greek temples built during the Hellenistic period were generally larger than classical ones, such as the [[temple of Artemis]] at Ephesus, the temple of [[Artemis]] at [[Sardis]], and the temple of Apollo at Didyma (rebuilt by Seleucus in 300&nbsp;BC). The royal palace (''basileion'') also came into its own during the Hellenistic period, the first extant example being the massive 4th-century villa of Cassander at [[Vergina]].
 
This period also saw the first written works of [[art history]] in the histories of [[Duris of Samos]] and [[Xenocrates of Athens]], a sculptor and a historian of sculpture and painting.
 
There has been a trend in writing the history of this period to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the ''Golden Age'' of [[Classical Greece|Classical Athens]]. [[Pliny the Elder]], after having described the [[Greek sculpture|sculpture]] of the classical period, says: ''Cessavit deinde ars'' ("then art disappeared").<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' (XXXIV, 52)</ref> The 18th century terms ''[[Baroque]]'' and ''[[Rococo]]'' have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of [[Vergina]], allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness.
 
=== Sport ===
[[File:Lion hunt mosaic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A lion hunt on a mosaic floor from [[Pella]] in [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]. Last quarter of the 4th century BC (Pella, Archaeological Museum).]]
Throughout the Hellenistic period, several sports were practiced and promoted across the different cities and kingdoms of the time. Hunting was both a favorite pastime of the Macedonian kings and nobles of that age and a favorite subject for paintings. In Egypt, the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic kings]] sponsored new athletic festivals, and subsidize 'Egyptian' or 'Alexandrian' athletes at major competitions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kyle |first=Donald G. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sports History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780197520956 |editor-last=Edelman |editor-first=Robert |edition=Robert |pages=87–88 |chapter=Chapter 5, Ancient Greek and Roman Sport |editor-last2=Wilson |editor-first2=Wayne}}</ref> Egyptian kings also provided funds for athletic facilities to be built, which housed ephebic education and encouraged citizens to partake in gymnasium classes. Ptolemaic and other Hellenistic royals often competed at athletic competitions like [[Olympic Games|The Olympics]] or other Panathenaic games.
 
Females during the Hellenistic period were often given opportunities to show off they athletic abilities in similar ways to men. In [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Egypt]], Ptolemaic females were well known in terms of court, and during equestrian competitions. Despite females being banned from watching sports and events like the male Olympics, in Hellenistic Empires, female sport (especially equestrian sport) flourished. Discoveries of poems in 2001 depicted eighteen different wins for equestrian sport. These wins took place at competitions like Olympia and [[History of Athens|Athens]], and all originated from the royal court. Several of these wins resulted from women and confirmed the desires and self-representation of Hellenistic rulers as they tried to influence the Greek World.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kyle |first=Donald G. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sports History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780197520956 |editor-last=Edelman |editor-first=Robert |chapter=Chapter 5, Ancient Greek and Roman Sport |editor-last2=Wilson |editor-first2=Wayne}}</ref>
 
Other forms of leisure activities included public presentations and demonstrations. These performances were often orchestrated by the royals for their own enjoyment. It is noted that these events were catered for both the female and male audiences. These events would often contain displays of exotic animals and other paraphernalia that aided to display their wealth and the territories that they controlled. While empires during the Hellenistic period ruled, they witnessed "expansion of 'crown' or 'Iso-' (equal to) major athletic festivals".<ref name=":0" /> This movement as well as the public displays for royalty were both trends what would continue into the [[Roman Empire]].
 
== Legacy ==
The focus on the Hellenistic period over the course of the 19th century by scholars and historians has led to an issue common to the study of historical periods; historians see the period of focus as a mirror of the period in which they are living. Many 19th-century scholars contended that the Hellenistic period represented a cultural decline from the brilliance of [[classical Greece]]. Though this comparison is now seen as unfair and meaningless, it has been noted that even commentators of the time saw the end of a cultural era which could not be matched again.<ref>Green, p. xv.</ref> This may be inextricably linked with the nature of government. It has been noted by [[Herodotus]] that after the establishment of the Athenian democracy:
 
<blockquote>the Athenians found themselves suddenly a great power. Not just in one field, but in everything they set their minds to&nbsp;... As subjects of a tyrant, what had they accomplished?&nbsp;...Held down like slaves they had shirked and slacked; once they had won their freedom, not a citizen but he could feel like he was labouring for himself<ref>Herodotus (Holland, T. ''Persian Fire'', p. 193.)</ref></blockquote>
 
Thus, with the decline of the Greek polis, and the establishment of monarchical states, the environment and social freedom in which to excel may have been reduced.<ref name="Green">Green.</ref> A parallel can be drawn with the productivity of the city states of Italy during [[the Renaissance]], and their subsequent decline under autocratic rulers.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
 
However, [[William Woodthorpe Tarn]], between [[World War&nbsp;I]] and [[World War&nbsp;II]] and the heyday of the [[League of Nations]], focused on the issues of racial and cultural confrontation and the nature of colonial rule. [[Michael Rostovtzeff]], who fled the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]], concentrated predominantly on the rise of the capitalist bourgeoisie in areas of Greek rule. [[Arnaldo Momigliano]], an [[Italian Jew]] who wrote before and after the Second World War, studied the problem of mutual understanding between races in the conquered areas. [[Moses Hadas]] portrayed an optimistic picture of synthesis of culture from the perspective of the 1950s, while [[Frank William Walbank]] in the 1960s and 1970s had a materialistic approach to the Hellenistic period, focusing mainly on class relations. Recently, however, [[papyrologist]] C. Préaux has concentrated predominantly on the economic system, interactions between kings and cities, and provides a generally pessimistic view on the period. [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]], on the other hand, writes from the point of view of late-20th-century [[liberalism]], his focus being on [[individualism]], the breakdown of convention, experiments, and a postmodern disillusionment with all institutions and political processes.<ref name="autogenerated2007">{{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |year=2007 |title=The Hellenistic Age (A Short History) |location=New York |publisher=Modern Library Chronicles}}</ref>
 
=== Influence on Christianity ===
Alexander's conquests helped the spread of [[Christianity]] (from: Greek Χρῑστῐᾱνισμός). One of Alexander's generals, [[Seleucus I Nicator]] who controlled most of [[Asia Minor]], [[Syria]], [[Mesopotamia]], and the [[Iranian Plateau]] after Alexander's death, founded [[Antioch]], which is known as the cradle of Christianity, since the name "Christian" for Jesus' followers first emerged there. The [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]] (from: Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books") was written in [[Koine Greek]].<ref>"The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," ''[[Encyclopaedia Biblica]]'', Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediabib01cheyuoft online .pdf file]. '''Warning:''' Takes several minutes to download).</ref>
 
== See also ==
{{Portal|Ancient Greece}}
{{div col}}
* [[Ancient Carthage]]
* [[Greco-Roman world]]
* [[Hellenism (Academia)]]
* [[Hellenism (neoclassicism)]]
* [[Hellenistic fortifications]]
* [[Hellenistic glass]]
* [[Humanism]]
* [[La Tène culture]]
* [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]]
{{div col end}}
 
== References ==
<references />
 
===Works cited===
* [[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]]  ''Greek Science after Aristotle''. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973.  {{ISBN|0-393-00780-4}}.
 
== Further reading ==
* Austin, M. M. ''The Hellenistic World From Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources In Translation''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
* Bugh, Glenn Richard (ed.). ''The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
* Börm, Henning and [[Nino Luraghi]] (eds.). ''The Polis in the Hellenistic World''. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2018.
* Cary, M. ''A History of the Greek World, From 323 to 146 B.C.'' London: Methuen, 1963.
* Chamoux, François. ''Hellenistic Civilization''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2003.
* Champion, Michael and Lara O'Sullivan. ''Cultural Perceptions of Violence In the Hellenistic World''. New York: Routledge, 2017.
* Erskine, Andrew (ed.). ''A Companion to the Hellenistic World''. Hoboken: Wiley, 2008.
* Goodman, Martin. "Under the influence: Hellenism in ancient Jewish life." ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' 36, no. 1 (2010), 60.
* Grainger, John D. ''Great Power Diplomacy In the Hellenistic World''. New York: Routledge, 2017.
* Green, Peter. ''Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
* {{Cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPV6v52mGf0C |title=The Hellenistic Age |date=2008 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-58836-706-8 |language=en}}
* Kralli, Ioanna. ''The Hellenistic Peloponnese: Interstate Relations: a Narrative and Analytic History, From the Fourth Century to 146 BC''. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2017.
* Lewis, D. M., John Boardman, and Simon Hornblower. ''Cambridge Ancient History Vol. 6: The Fourth Century BC''. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
* Rimell, Victoria and Markus Asper. ''Imagining Empire: Political Space In Hellenistic and Roman Literature''. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmbH, 2017.
* Thonemann, Peter. ''The Hellenistic Age''. First edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
* Walbank, F. W. ''The Hellenistic World''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.
 
== External links ==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Hellenistic period |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* {{Commons category-inline|Hellenistic age}}
* [http://wihs.uwaterloo.ca/ Waterloo Institute for Hellenistic Studies]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition at the MET]
* [https://www.bibalex.org/hellenisticstudies/Home/Index.aspx Alexandria Center for Hellenistic Studies]
 
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