Akbar: Difference between revisions

{{short description|3rd Mughal Emperor from 1556 to 1605}}

| image = Govardhan. Akbar With Lion and Calf ca. 1630, Metmuseum (cropped).jpg

| caption = Akbar by [[Govardhan (Mughal painter)|Govardhan]], {{Circa|1630}}

| name = Jalal-ud-din Muhammad<br />Akbar

| title = [[Padishah]]<br>[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Kishori Saran Lal|author-link=K. S. Lal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmBuAAAAMAAJ|title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India |date=1999|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|page=67|quote=It may be recalled that as an adolescent, Akbar had earned the title of Ghazi by beheading the defenseless infidel Himu. Under Akbar and Jahangir "five or six hundred thousand human beings were killed,"says emperor Jahangir|isbn=978-81-86471-72-2 |language=en}}</ref>

| succession = 3rd [[Mughal Emperor|Emperor]] of the [[Mughal Empire]]

| reign = 11 February 1556&nbsp;– 27 October 1605<ref name=Eraly04>{{cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |year=2004 |title=The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors |publisher=Phoenix |pages=115, 116 |isbn=978-0-7538-1758-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Akbar (Mughal emperor) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11421/Akbar |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>

| coronation = 14 February 1556<ref name=Eraly04/>

| predecessor = [[Humayun]]

| successor = [[Jahangir]]

| regent = [[Bairam Khan]] (1556–1560)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian) |title=Medieval India: from Sultanat to the Mughals|date=2005|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8124110669|page=95|edition=Revised}}</ref>

| spouse = {{unbulleted list|

|{{Marriage|[[Mariam-uz-Zamani]]|1562}}<ref name="farishta">{{cite book|last1=Hindu Shah|first1=Muhammad Qasim|title=Gulshan-I-Ibrahimi|volume=2|date=1595–1612|page=223|quote=Akbur, after this conquest, made pilgrimage to Khwaja Moyin-ood-Deen Chishty at Ajmere and returned to Agra; from whence he proceeded to visit the venerable Sheikh Sulim Chishty, in the village of Seekry. As all the king's children had hitherto died, he solicited the Sheikh's prayers, who consoled him, by assuring him he would soon have a son, who would live to a good old age. Shortly after, his favourite sooltana, being then pregnant, on Wednesday the 17th of Rubbee-ool-Awul, in the year 997 was delivered of a son, who was called Sulim.}}</ref> <ref name=jlmehta>{{cite book|last1=Mehta|first1=J.L.|title=Advance Study in the history of Medieval India:Mughal Empire|volume=II|publisher=Sterling Publisher Private Limited|year=1981|isbn=8120704320|quote=Bihari Mal gave rich dowry to his daughter and sent his son Bhagwan Das with a contingent of Rajput soldiers to escort his newly married sister to Agra as per Hindu custom. Akbar was deeply impressed by the highly dignified, sincere and princely conduct of his Rajput relations. He took Man Singh, the youthful son of Bhagwant Das into the royal service. Akbar was fascinated by the charm and accomplishments of his Rajput wife; he developed real love for her and raised her to the status of chief queen. She came to exercise profound impact on socio-cultural environment of the entire royal household and changed the lifestyle of Akbar. Salim (later Jahangir), heir to the throne, was born of this wedlock on 30th August, 1569.}}</ref> }}

| spouse-type = Consorts

| spouses = {{unbulleted list|

| issue = {{Unbulleted list|

| issue-link = #Issue

| full name = Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar<ref name="Britannica" />

| dynasty = [[Timurid dynasty]]

| house = [[Mughal dynasty|House of Babur]]

| father = [[Humayun]]

| mother = [[Hamida Banu Begum]]

| birth_name = Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar

| birth_date = 25 October 1542{{efn|name=birth}}

| birth_place = [[Amarkot]], [[Rajputana]] (present-day [[Umerkot]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]])

| death_date = {{death date and age|1605|10|27|1542|10|25|df=y}}

| death_place = [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Agra]], [[Mughal Empire]] (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]])

| burial_date = November 1605

| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Antony|title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present|date=2011|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0748688784|page=245|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd1vAAAAQBAJ&q=akbar+sunni+muslim|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Eraly |first=Abraham |title= Emperors of the Peacock Throne : The Saga of the Great Mughals |year=2000 |publisher= Penguin books |isbn= 978-0-14-100143-2 |page=189 }}</ref> <br> [[Din-e-Illahi]]

'''Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar'''<ref name=Britannica>{{cite web |last1=Ballhatchet |first1=Kenneth A. |title=Akbar |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref> (25 October 1542{{efn|name=birth}} – 27 October 1605),<ref name="iranicaonline1">{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/akbar-i-mughal-india |title=Akbar I |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |date=29 July 2011 |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-209 |title=Akbar I |publisher=Oxford Reference |date=17 February 2012 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |isbn=9780199546091}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fazl |first=Abul |title=The Akbarnama |publisher=ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL |pages=139–140 |translator-last=Beveridge |translator-first=Henry}}</ref> popularly known as '''Akbar the Great'''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Syed |first=Jawad |title=Akbar's multiculturalism: lessons for diversity management in the 21st century |journal=Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences |volume=28 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/CJAS.185 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |page=404}}</ref> ({{lang-fa|{{nq|اکبر اعظم}}}} {{IPA-fa|akbarɪ azam}}), and also as '''Akbar I''' ({{IPA-fa|akbar}}),<ref name=time/> was the third [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, [[Humayun]], under a regent, [[Bairam Khan]], who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India.

A strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the [[Mughal Empire]] to include much of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. His power and influence, however, extended over the entire subcontinent because of Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic state identity, Akbar strove to unite far-flung lands of his realm through loyalty, expressed through an [[Indo-Persian culture]], to himself as an emperor.

Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. He was fond of literature, and created a library of over 24,000 volumes written in [[Sanskrit]], [[Urdu]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], staffed by many scholars, translators, artists, [[calligraphers]], scribes, bookbinders, and readers. He did much of the cataloging himself through three main groupings.<ref name="Murray, Stuart 2009">Murray, Stuart. 2009. The library: an illustrated history. Chicago, ALA Editions</ref> Akbar also established the library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women,{{sfn|Wiegand|Davis|1994|p=273}} and he decreed that schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus should be established throughout the realm. He also encouraged bookbinding to become a high art.<ref name="Murray, Stuart 2009" /> Holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbar's courts at [[Delhi]], [[Agra]], and [[Fatehpur Sikri]] became centres of the arts, letters, and learning. [[Timurid Renaissance|Timurid]] and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterized by Mughal style arts, [[Mughal painting|painting]], and [[Mughal architecture|architecture]]. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated [[Din-i-Ilahi]], a syncretic creed derived mainly from [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] as well as some parts of [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Christianity]].

Akbar's reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history. During his rule, the Mughal Empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a powerful military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the [[Jizya|sectarian tax]] on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust and loyalty of the native subjects. He had [[Sanskrit literature]] translated, participated in native festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation and good-will of his subjects. Thus, the foundations for a multicultural empire under Mughal rule were laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as [[Jahangir]].

Defeated in battles at [[Chausa]] and [[Kannauj]] in 1539 to 1541 by the forces of [[Sher Shah Suri]], Mughal emperor [[Humayun]] fled westward to [[Sindh]].<ref name="Multiple5">{{cite book|author=Banjerji, S.K.|title=Humayun Badshah|url=https://archive.org/details/humayunbadshah035068mbp|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1938}}</ref> There he met and married the then 14-year-old [[Hamida Banu Begum]], daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a [[Persians|Persian]] teacher of Humayun's younger brother [[Hindal Mirza]]. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the next year on 25 October 1542{{efn|name=birth|Official sources, such as contemporary biographer [[Abu'l-Fazl]], record Akbar's birth name and date as Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar and 15 October 1542 . However, based on recollections of Humayun's personal attendant Jauhar, historian [[Vincent Arthur Smith]] holds that Akbar was born on 23 November 1542 (the fourteenth day of [[Sha'aban]], which had a full moon) and was originally named Badr ud-din ("The full moon of religion"). According to Smith, the recorded date of birth was changed at the time of Akbar's circumcision ceremony in March 1546 in order to throw off astrologers and sorcerers, and the name accordingly changed to Jalal ud-din ("Splendour of Religion")<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|pp=18–19}}</ref>}} (the fifth day of [[Rajab]], 949 [[Hijri year|AH]])<ref name=":0" /> at the [[Umarkot Fort|Rajput Fortress]] of [[Amarkot]] in [[Rajputana]] (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|pp=12–19}}</ref>

During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by the extended family of his paternal uncles, [[Kamran Mirza]] and [[Askari Mirza]], and his aunts, in particular Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, making him a daring, powerful, and brave warrior, but he never learned to read or write. This, however, did not hinder his search for knowledge as it is always said when he retired in the evening he would have someone read.<ref name="AknamaVolI">{{cite book|author=Fazl, Abul|title=Akbarnama Volume I}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|p=22}}</ref> On 20 November 1551, Humayun's youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, died fighting in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.<ref name=Erskine>{{cite book|last=Erskine|first=William|title=A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun, Volume 2|year=1854|publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans|isbn=978-1108046206|pages=403, 404}}</ref>

About the time of nine-year-old Akbar's first appointment, as governor of [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]], he married Hindal's daughter, [[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]].<ref name="Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd">{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jaswant Lal |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1981 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PG189 |volume=II |edition=2nd |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=978-81-207-1015-3 |oclc=1008395679 |page=189}}</ref> Humayun conferred on the imperial couple all the wealth, army, and adherents of Hindal and Ghazni. One of Hindal's ''[[jagir]]'' was given to his nephew, Akbar, who was appointed as its viceroy and was also given the command of his uncle's army.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Ferishta |first=Mahomed Kasim |title=History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, Till the Year AD 1612 |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-05555-0 |page=169}}</ref> Akbar's marriage with Ruqaiya was solemnized in [[Jalandhar]], Punjab, when both of them were 14-years-old.<ref name="Eraly 2000 123, 272">{{cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |title=Emperors of the Peacock Throne : the saga of the great Mughals |year=2000 |publisher=Penguin books |isbn=978-0141001432 |pages=123, 272}}</ref> She was his first wife and chief consort.<ref name="Sang-E-Meel Pub">{{cite book |last1=Schimmel |first1=Annemarie |editor-last=Waghmar |editor-first=Burzine K. |translator-last=Attwood |translator-first=Corinne |title=The empire of the Great Mughals : history, art and culture |date=2005 |publisher=Sang-E-Meel Pub. |location=Lahore |isbn=978-1861891853 |page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/149 149] |edition=Revised |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/149}}</ref><ref name="Thackston1999p437" />

Following the chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son [[Islam Shah]], Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Akbar, the Great Mughal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/150600b0 |access-date=31 January 2021 |journal=Nature |date=21 November 1942 |volume=150 |issue=3812 |pages=600–601 |language=en |doi=10.1038/150600b0|bibcode=1942Natur.150R.600. |s2cid=4084248 }}</ref> leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally [[Tahmasp I]]. A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, [[Bairam Khan]] concealed the death in order to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556,<ref name="India Today">{{cite news |title=Remembering Akbar the Great: Facts about the most liberal Mughal emperor |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/akbar-the-great-348793-2016-10-27 |access-date=31 January 2021 |work=India Today |date=27 October 2016 |language=en}}</ref> while in the midst of a war against [[Sikandar Shah Suri|Sikandar Shah]] to reclaim the Mughal throne. In [[Kalanaur, Punjab]], the 14-year-old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform, which still stands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://punjabgovt.nic.in/government/gurdas1.GIF |title=Gurdas |publisher=[[Government of Punjab (India)|Government of Punjab]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527210721/http://punjabgovt.nic.in/government/gurdas1.GIF |archive-date=27 May 2008 |access-date=30 May 2008}}</ref><ref>[http://gurdaspur.nic.in/html/profile.htm#history History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050802074716/http://gurdaspur.nic.in/html/profile.htm#history |date=2 August 2005 }} [[Gurdaspur district]] website.</ref> He was proclaimed ''Shahanshah'' ([[Persian language|Persian]] for "King of Kings").<ref name="India Today"/> Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=337}}</ref>

[[File:India in 1605.jpg|thumb|Mughal Empire under Akbar's period (yellow)]]

 

Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in [[cannons]], [[fortifications]], and the [[War elephant|use of elephants]].<ref name="Lal"/> Akbar also took an interest in [[matchlock]]s and effectively employed them during various conflicts. He sought the help of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], and also increasingly of Europeans, especially [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and Italians, in procuring firearms and artillery.<ref name="Schimmel">{{Cite book

}}</ref> Mughal firearms in the time of Akbar came to be far superior to anything that could be deployed by regional rulers, tributaries, or by zamindars.<ref name="Richards1">{{Cite book

}}</ref> Such was the impact of these weapons that Akbar's [[Vizier]], [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]], once declared that "with the exception of Turkey, there is perhaps no country in which its guns has more means of securing the Government than [India]."<ref name="Elgood">{{Cite book

}}</ref> The term "[[Gunpowder empires|gunpowder empire]]" has thus often been used by scholars and historians in analysing the success of the Mughals in India. Mughal power has been seen as owing to their mastery of the techniques of warfare, especially the use of firearms encouraged by Akbar.<ref name="Gommans">{{Cite book

[[File:Kaiser Akbar bändigt einen Elefanten.jpg|thumb|upright|Mughal Emperor Akbar training an elephant]]

Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the [[Punjab]], [[Delhi]], and [[Agra]] with [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] support, but even in these areas Mughal rule was precarious, and when the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, the fate of the boy emperor seemed uncertain. Akbar's minority and the lack of any possibility of military assistance from the Mughal stronghold of [[Kabul]], which was in the throes of an invasion by the ruler of [[Badakhshan]] Prince Mirza Suleiman, aggravated the situation.<ref name="Eraly1">{{Cite book

| last = Eraly

| first = Abraham

| title = Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals

}}</ref> When his regent, [[Bairam Khan]], called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved. Bairam Khan was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles, however, and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers, [[Sikandar Shah Suri]], in the Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency of [[Tardi Baig Khan]].<ref name="Eraly1"/> Sikandar Shah Suri, however, presented no major concern for Akbar,<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=104|ps=: "But the arch-enemy was neither Sikandar, who had become a spent force after Māchīwārā and Sirhind"}}</ref> and avoided giving battle as the Mughal army approached.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} The gravest threat came from [[Hemu]], a minister and general of one of the Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the Mughals from the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Indo-Gangetic plains]].<ref name="Eraly1"/>

Urged by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chandra|2007|pp=226–227}}</ref> His army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at the [[Second Battle of Panipat]], {{convert|50|mi|km}} north of Delhi.<ref name="Panipat">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=227}}</ref> Soon after the battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then he and Bairam Khan returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah, who had become active again.<ref name="Richards2">{{Cite book

}}</ref> In the next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander Shah Suri, who fled east to [[Bengal]]. Akbar and his forces occupied [[Lahore]] and then seized [[Multan]] in the Punjab. In 1558, Akbar took possession of [[Ajmer]], the aperture to [[Rajputana]], after the defeat and flight of its Muslim ruler.<ref name="Richards2"/> The Mughals had also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in control of [[Gwalior Fort]], the greatest stronghold north of the [[Narmada]] river.<ref name="Richards2"/>

Royal begums, along with the families of Mughal amirs, were finally brought over from Kabul to India at the time – according to Akbar's vizier, Abul Fazl, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to a country to which they were accustomed".<ref name="Eraly1"/> Akbar had firmly declared his intentions that the Mughals were in India to stay. This was a far cry from the political settlements of his grandfather, [[Babur]], and father, Humayun, both of whom had done little to indicate that they were anything but transient rulers.<ref name="Eraly1"/><ref name="Richards2"/> However, Akbar methodically re-introduced a historical legacy of the [[Timurid Renaissance]] that his ancestors had left.<ref>{{New Cambridge History of Islam|volume=3}}</ref>

[[File:Prince Akbar and Noblemen Hawking, Probably Accompanied by His Guardian Bairam Khan.jpg|thumb|upright|Akbar hawking with Mughal chieftains and nobleman accompanied by his guardian Bairam Khan]]

}}</ref> However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to the expansion.<ref name="Richards3"/> The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, [[Maham Anga]], and his relatives, Akbar decided to dispense with the services of Bairam Khan. After yet another dispute at court, Akbar finally dismissed Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on [[Hajj]] to [[Mecca]].<ref name="expansion">{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=339}}</ref> Bairam Khan left for Mecca but on his way was goaded by his opponents to rebel.<ref name="Panipat"/> He was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him, however, and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=228}}</ref> Bairam Khan was later assassinated on his way to Mecca, allegedly by an Afghan with a personal vendetta.<ref name="Richards3"/>

In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations.<ref name="Richards3"/> A Mughal army under the command of his foster brother, [[Adham Khan]], and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, began the [[Mughal conquest of Malwa]]. The Afghan ruler, [[Baz Bahadur]], was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur and fled to [[Sultanate of Khandesh|Khandesh]] for refuge leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants.<ref name="Richards3"/> Despite initial success, the campaign proved a disaster from Akbar's point of view. His foster brother retained all the spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were the descendants of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="Richards3"/> Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh and [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]].<ref name="Richards3"/> Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in the next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annex the kingdom.<ref name="Richards3"/> Malwa became a province of the nascent imperial administration of Akbar's regime. Baz Bahadur survived as a refugee at various courts until, eight years later in 1570, he took service under Akbar.<ref name="Richards3"/>

[[File:Young Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana being received by Akbar, Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Young [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana]] son of [[Bairam Khan]] being received by Akbar]]

Despite the ultimate success in Malwa, the conflict exposed cracks in Akbar's personal relationships with his relatives and Mughal nobles. When Adham Khan confronted Akbar following another dispute in 1562, he was struck down by the emperor and thrown from a terrace into the palace courtyard at Agra. Still alive, Adham Khan was dragged up and thrown to the courtyard once again by Akbar to ensure his death. Akbar now sought to eliminate the threat of over-mighty subjects.<ref name="Richards3"/> He created specialised ministerial posts relating to imperial governance; no member of the Mughal nobility was to have unquestioned pre-eminence.<ref name="Richards3"/> When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar decisively defeated and routed them in Malwa and then [[Bihar]].<ref name="Eraly2">{{Cite book

| pages = 140–141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&pg=PA140|isbn=978-0-14-100143-2

| last = Eraly

| first = Abraham

| title = Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals

}}</ref> He pardoned the rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them, but they rebelled again, so Akbar had to quell their uprising a second time. Following a third revolt with the proclamation of [[Mirza Muhammad Hakim]], Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul, as emperor, his patience was finally exhausted. Several Uzbek chieftains were subsequently slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants.<ref name="Eraly2"/> Simultaneously the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, had also risen up in rebellion. They too were slain and driven out of the empire.<ref name="Eraly2"/> In 1566, Akbar moved to meet the forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with dreams of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confrontation, however, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul.<ref name="Eraly2"/>

}}</ref> The territory was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother, [[Rani Durgavati|Durgavati]], a [[Rajput]] warrior queen of the Gonds.<ref name="Eraly2"/> Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, leaving the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara.<ref name="Eraly2"/><ref name="Chandra">{{Cite book

| publisher = Har-Anand Publications

| last = Chandra

| first = Satish

| author-link = Satish Chandra (historian)

}}</ref> Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh, while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh, the mountain fortress of the Gonds.<ref name="Chandra"/> The Mughals seized immense wealth, an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels, and 1000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem.<ref name="Chandra"/> The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region.<ref name="Chandra"/> Like in Malwa, however, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana.<ref name="Chandra"/> Asaf Khan was accused of keeping most of the treasures and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position.<ref name="Chandra"/>

====Attempt to murder Akbar====

Around 1564 is also when there was an assassination attempt on Akbar documented in a painting. The attempt was made when Akbar was returning from a visit to the dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi, by an assassin shooting an arrow. The arrow pierced his right shoulder. The assassin was apprehended and ordered beheaded by the Emperor. The culprit was a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin, a noble in Akbar's court whose rebellion had recently been curbed.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Irfan |first1=Lubna |title=The Woman Whose Downfall Nearly Killed Akbar |url=https://thewire.in/history/mughal-emperor-akbar-maham-anga-assassination-attempt |publisher=TheWire |access-date=11 May 2020}}</ref>

[[File:Akbar shoots Jaimal at the siege of Chitor.jpg|thumb|upright|Mughal Emperor Akbar shoots the Rajput warrior Jaimal during the Siege of Chittorgarh in 1568]]

Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of [[Rajputana]]. No imperial power in India based on the Indo-Gangetic plains could be secure if a rival centre of power existed on its flank in Rajputana.<ref name="Chandra"/> The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in [[Mewar|Mewat]], [[Ajmer]], and Nagor.<ref name="Richards2"/><ref name="Eraly2"/> Now, Akbar was determined to drive into the heartlands of the [[Rajput]] kings that had rarely previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy.<ref name="Richards4"/> Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; the rulers of Mewar and Marwar, [[Udai Singh II|Udai Singh]], and [[Chandrasen Rathore]], however, remained outside the imperial fold.<ref name="Eraly2"/> Rana Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler, [[Rana Sanga]], who had fought Babur at the [[Battle of Khanwa]] in 1527.<ref name="Eraly2"/> As the head of the Sisodia clan, he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} Unless Udai Singh was reduced to submission, the imperial authority of the Mughals would be lessened in Rajput eyes.<ref name="Eraly2"/> Furthermore, Akbar, at this early period, was still enthusiastically devoted to the cause of Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over the most prestigious warriors in Brahminical Hinduism.<ref name="Eraly2"/>

In 1567, Akbar moved to reduce the [[Chittor Fort]] in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of great strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]] and was also considered a key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retired to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, [[Jaimal Rathore|Jaimal]] and [[Patta Sisodia|Patta]], in charge of the defence of his capital.<ref name="earlyconquest">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=231}}</ref> Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–1568)|siege of four months]]. Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region, in order to demonstrate his authority.<ref name="chittor">{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=342}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chandra |first=Satish|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part I |publisher=Har-Anand Publications|isbn=81-241-0522-7|page=107|year=2001}}</ref> The booty that fell into the hands of the Mughals was distributed throughout the empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Payne, Tod|year=1994|publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |isbn=81-206-0350-8|title=Tod's Annals of Rajasthan: The Annals of Mewar|page=71}}</ref> He remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where to commemorate the victory, he set up, at the gates of his fort, statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants.<ref name="Eraly3">{{Cite book

| publisher = Penguin Books India

| page = 11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76daSuNVMTcC |isbn=978-0-14-100143-2

}}</ref> Udai Singh's power and influence was broken. He never again ventured out of his mountain refuge in Mewar and Akbar was content to let him be.<ref name="Eraly4">{{Cite book

| pages = 143–147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&pg=PA143|isbn=978-0-14-100143-2

| last = Eraly

| first = Abraham

| title = Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals

}}</ref>

The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on the [[Ranthambore Fort]] in 1568. Ranthambore was held by the [[Hada (clan)|Hada]] Rajputs and reputed to be the most powerful fortress in India.<ref name="Eraly4"/> However, it fell only after a couple of months.<ref name="Eraly4"/> Akbar was now the master of almost the whole of Rajputana. Most of the Rajput kings had submitted to the Mughals.<ref name="Eraly4"/> Only the clans of Mewar continued to resist.<ref name="Eraly4"/> Udai Singh's son and successor, [[Maharana Pratap|Pratap Singh]], was later defeated by the Mughals at the [[Battle of Haldighati]] in 1576.<ref name="Eraly4"/> Akbar would celebrate his conquest of Rajputana by laying the foundation of a new capital, {{convert|23|mi|km}} W.S.W of Agra in 1569. It was called [[Fatehpur Sikri]] ("the city of victory").<ref>{{cite book |author=Hastings, James |year=2003 |publisher=[[Kessinger Publishing]] |isbn=0-7661-3682-5 |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 10}}</ref> Rana Pratap Singh, however, continuously attacked Mughals and was able to retain most of the kingdom of his ancestors in the life of Akbar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rana-Pratap-Singh |title=Rana Pratap Singh &#124; Indian ruler |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

[[File:Court of Akbar from Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright|The court of young Akbar, age 13, showing his first imperial act: the arrest of an unruly courtier, who was once a favourite of Akbar's father. Illustration from a manuscript of the Akbarnama]]

Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]] respectively.<ref name="Eraly4"/> Furthermore, Gujarat had been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles, while in Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, [[Sulaiman Khan Karrani]]. Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in the crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa.<ref name="Eraly4"/> Gujarat, with its coastal regions, possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India.<ref name="Eraly4"/><ref name="Gujarat1">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=232}}</ref> Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains.<ref name="Richards5">{{Cite book

}}</ref> However, the ostensible casus belli was that the rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which served as justification for his military expedition.<ref name="Eraly4"/> In 1572, he moved to occupy [[Ahmedabad]], the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out the Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. [[Surat]], the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals.<ref name="Eraly4"/> The king, [[Muzaffar Shah III]], was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance.<ref name="Eraly4"/>

Having established his authority over Gujarat, Akbar returned to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he built the [[Buland Darwaza]] to commemorate his victories, but a rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler of [[Idar State|Idar]], and the renewed intrigues of the Mirzas forced his return to Gujarat.<ref name="Richards5"/> Akbar crossed the Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in eleven days – a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army then won a decisive victory on September 2, 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads.<ref name="Eraly4"/> The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for the Mughals; the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury, after expenses.<ref name="Eraly4"/>

Akbar had now defeated most of the Afghan remnants in India. The only centre of Afghan power was now in Bengal, where Sulaiman Khan Karrani, an Afghan chieftain whose family had served under Sher Shah Suri, was reigning in power. While Sulaiman Khan scrupulously avoided giving offence to Akbar, his son, [[Daud Khan Karrani|Daud Khan]], who had succeeded him in 1572, decided otherwise.<ref name="Eraly5">{{Cite book

| pages = 148–154|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&pg=PA148|isbn=978-0-14-100143-2

| title = Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals

| year = 2000

}}</ref> Whereas Sulaiman Khan had the [[khutba]] read in Akbar's name and acknowledged Mughal supremacy, Daud Khan assumed the insignia of royalty and ordered the khutba to be proclaimed in his own name in defiance of Akbar. [[Munim Khan]], the Mughal governor of Bihar, was ordered to chastise Daud Khan, but later, Akbar himself set out to Bengal.<ref name="Eraly5"/> This was an opportunity to bring the trade in the east under Mughal control.<ref name=" Pletcher">{{Cite book

}}</ref> In 1574, the Mughals seized [[Patna]] from Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal.<ref name="Eraly5"/> Akbar returned to Fatehpur Sikri and left his generals to finish the campaign. The Mughal army was subsequently victorious at the [[Battle of Tukaroi]] in 1575, which led to the annexation of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had been under the dominion of Daud Khan. Only [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] was left in the hands of the [[Karrani dynasty]] as a fief of the Mughal Empire. A year later, however, Daud Khan rebelled and attempted to regain Bengal. He was defeated by the Mughal general, [[Khan Jahan I|Khan Jahan Quli]], and had to flee into exile. Daud Khan was later captured and executed by Mughal forces. His severed head was sent to Akbar, while his limbs were gibbeted at Tandah, the Mughal capital in Bengal.<ref name="Eraly5"/>

{{see also|Akbar's conquest of Gujarat}}

Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns. He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and this time pressed on, determined to end the threat from Muhammad Hakim once and for all. In contrast to the problem that his predecessors once had in getting Mughal nobles to stay on in India, the problem now was to get them to leave India. They were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan." The Hindu officers, in turn, were additionally inhibited by the traditional [[Kala pani (taboo)|taboo against crossing the Indus]]. Akbar, however, spurred them on. The soldiers were provided with pay eight months in advance. In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at [[Bala Hissar, Kabul|Babur's old citadel]]. He stayed there for three weeks, in the absence of his brother, who had fled into the mountains. Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, [[Bakht-un-Nissa Begum]], and returned to India. He pardoned his brother, who took up de facto charge of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nissa continued to be the official governor. A few years later, in 1585, Muhammad Hakim died and Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar once again. It was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Eraly5"/>

The Kabul expedition was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire.<ref name="The Age of Akbar">{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_11.html|title=The Age of Akbar|publisher=columbia.edu |access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> For thirteen years, beginning in 1585, Akbar remained in the north, shifting his capital to Lahore in the Punjab while dealing with challenges from beyond the Khyber Pass.<ref name="The Age of Akbar"/> The gravest threat came from the [[Uzbeks]], the tribe that had driven his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia.<ref name="Eraly5"/> They had been organised under [[Abdullah Khan II|Abdullah Khan Shaybanid]], a capable military chieftain who had seized Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid relatives, and whose Uzbek troops now posed a serious challenge to the northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Eraly5"/><ref name="Dani">{{Cite book

}}</ref> The Afghan tribes on the border were also restless, partly on account of the hostility of the [[Yusufzai (Pashtun tribe)|Yusufzai]] of [[Bajaur]] and [[Swat Valley|Swat]], and partly owing to the activity of a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of the [[Roshaniyya]] sect.<ref name="The Age of Akbar"/> The Uzbeks were also known to be subsidising Afghans.<ref name="Richards6">{{Cite book

In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during the Uzbek invasion of Safavid held [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].<ref name="Richards6"/> In return, Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting, subsidising, or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals. Thus freed, Akbar began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels.<ref name="Richards6"/> Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes. [[Raja Birbal]], a renowned minister in Akbar's court, was also given military command. The expedition turned out to be a disaster, and on its retreat from the mountains, Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by the Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586.<ref name="Richards6"/> Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command of [[Raja Todar Mal]]. Over the next six years, the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys, and forced the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur.<ref name="Richards6"/> Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure the region. Akbar's response demonstrated his ability to clamp firm military control over the Afghan tribes.<ref name="Richards6"/>

Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia from today's Afghanistan.<ref name="Markovitz">{{Cite book

| publisher = Anthem Press

| page = 93|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA93|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4

| last = Markovitz

}}</ref> However, Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominions. There was only a transient occupation of the two provinces by the Mughals under his grandson, [[Shah Jahan]], in the mid-17th century.<ref name="Dani"/> Nevertheless, Akbar's stay in the northern frontiers was highly fruitful. The last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600.<ref name="Dani"/> The Roshaniyya movement was firmly suppressed. The [[Afridi]] and [[Orakzai]] tribes, which had risen up under the Roshaniyyas, had been subjugated.<ref name="Dani"/> The leaders of the movement were captured and driven into exile.<ref name="Dani"/> Jalaluddin, the son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops near [[Ghazni]].<ref name="Dani"/> Mughal rule over today's Afghanistan was finally secure, particularly after the passing of the Uzbek threat with the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598.<ref name="Richards6"/>

While in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, Akbar had sought to subjugate the [[Indus valley]] to secure the frontier provinces.<ref name="Richards6"/> He sent an army to conquer [[Kashmir]] in the upper Indus basin when, in 1585, Ali Shah, the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty, refused to send his son as a hostage to the Mughal court. Ali Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub, crowned himself as king, and led a stubborn resistance against the Mughal armies. Finally, in June, 1589, Akbar himself travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces.<ref name="Richards6"/> [[Baltistan]] and [[Ladakh]], which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar.<ref name="Eraly6">{{Cite book

| pages = 156–157|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&pg=PA156|isbn=978-0-14-100143-2

| last = Eraly

| first = Abraham

| title = Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals

}}</ref> The Mughals also moved to conquer [[Sindh]] in the lower Indus valley. Since 1574, the northern fortress of [[Bhakkar]] had remained under imperial control. Now, in 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of Mirza Jani Beg, the independent ruler of [[Thatta]] in southern Sindh.<ref name="Richards6"/> Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiege [[Sehwan]], the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet the Mughals.<ref name="Richards6"/> The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore.<ref name="Eraly6"/>

As early as 1586, about half a dozen [[Baluch people|Baluchi]] chiefs, under nominal Pani Afghan rule, had been persuaded to subordinate themselves to Akbar. In preparations to take [[Kandahar]] from the Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest of the Afghan held parts of [[Baluchistan]] in 1595.<ref name="Eraly6"/><ref name="Mehta">{{Cite book |last=Mehta |first=J. L. |year=1984 |orig-year=First published 1981 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PA258 |volume=II |edition=2nd |publisher=Sterling Publishers |page=258 |isbn=978-81-207-1015-3 |oclc=1008395679}}</ref> The Mughal general, [[Masum Shah|Mir Masum]], led an attack on the stronghold of Sibi, northeast of [[Quetta]] and defeated a coalition of local chieftains in battle.<ref name="Mehta"/> They were made to acknowledge Mughal supremacy and attend Akbar's court. As a result, the modern-day Pakistani and Afghan parts of Baluchistan, including the [[Makran]] coast, became a part of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Mehta"/>

Kandahar was the name given by Arab historians to the ancient Indian kingdom of [[Gandhara]].<ref name="Houtsma">{{Cite book

}}</ref> It was intimately connected with the Mughals since the time of their ancestor, [[Timur]], the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it as an appanage of the Persian-ruled territory of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and declared its association with the Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, the Safavid emperor, [[Tahmasp I]], had seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. For the next thirty years, it remained under Persian rule.<ref name="Eraly6"/> The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his prolonged military activity in the northern frontiers, a move to restore Mughal rule over the region became desirable.<ref name="Eraly6"/> The conquests of Sindh, Kashmir, and parts of Baluchistan, and the ongoing consolidation of Mughal power over today's Afghanistan had added to Akbar's confidence.<ref name="Eraly6"/> Furthermore, Kandahar was at this time under threat from the Uzbeks, but the Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send any reinforcements. Circumstances favoured the Mughals.<ref name="Eraly6"/>

In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza, after he had quarreled with his family.<ref name="Floor">{{Cite book

}}</ref> Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of commander of 5000 men and received Multan as a jagir.<ref name="Floor"/> Beleaguered by constant Uzbek raids, and seeing the reception of Rostom Mirza at the Mughal court, the Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Mozaffar Hosayn, who was in any case in an adversary relationship with his overlord, [[Abbas the Great|Shah Abbas]], was granted a rank of 5000 men, and his daughter [[Kandahari Begum]] was married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince, [[Shah Jahan|Khurram]].<ref name="Eraly6"/><ref name="Floor"/> Kandahar was finally secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan.<ref name="Floor"/> The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb the Mughal-Persian relationship.<ref name="Eraly6"/> Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However, the power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals.<ref name="Eraly6"/>

[[File:Jalal al-Din Muhammad Akbar. AH 963-1014 AD 1556-1605. AV Mohur Falcon type. Asir mint. Dated Khurdad Ilahi year 45 (20 February – 20 March AD 1600).jpg|thumb|300px|Falcon [[Mohur]] of Akbar, minted in Asir. This coin was issued in the name of Akbar, to commemorate the capture of the strategic [[Asirgarh Fort]] of the [[Khandesh Sultanate]] on 17 January 1601 CE. Legend: ''"Allah is great, [[Khordad]] Ilahi 45, struck at Asir"''.{{sfn|Smith|1917|p=274}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibbs |first1=J. |title=Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |date=1865 |publisher=Calcutta |pages=4–5 |url=https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofasi1883asia/page/4/mode/2up}}</ref>]]

In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged [[Ahmednagar Fort]] in 1595, forcing [[Chand Bibi]] to cede [[Berar Subah|Berar]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adibah |first1=Sulaiman |title=Akbar (1556-1605) and India unification under the mughals |journal=ResearchGate |date=December 2017 |volume=8 |issue=12 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322752022 |access-date=31 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied [[Burhanpur]] and besieged [[Asirgarh Fort]] in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601, when Miran Bahadur Shah refused to submit [[Khandesh]]. Akbar then established the [[Subah (province)|Subahs]] of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605, Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at [[Surat]] and was well astride central India."<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |pages=164, 188}}</ref>

===Political government===

Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since the [[Delhi Sultanate]], but the functions of various departments were carefully reorganised by laying down detailed regulations for their functioning{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}

* The revenue department was headed by a ''wazir'', responsible for all finances and management of ''jagir'' and ''inam'' lands.

* The head of the military was called the ''mir bakshi'', appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The ''mir bakshi'' was in charge of intelligence gathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotions.

* The ''mir saman'' was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard.

* The judiciary was a separate organisation headed by a chief ''[[qazi]]'', who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices

Akbar set about reforming the administration of his empire's land revenue by adopting a system that had been used by [[Sher Shah Suri]]. A cultivated area where crops grew well was measured and taxed through fixed rates based on the area's crop and productivity. However, this placed hardship on the peasantry because tax rates were fixed on the basis of prices prevailing in the imperial court, which were often higher than those in the countryside.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=233}}</ref> Akbar changed to a decentralised system of annual assessment, but this resulted in corruption among local officials and was abandoned in 1580, to be replaced by a system called the ''{{transliteration|bn|dahsala}}''.<ref name="dahsala">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=234}}</ref> Under the new system, revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices, and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought.<ref name="dahsala"/> Akbar's ''{{transliteration|bn|dahsala}}'' system (also known as ''{{transliteration|bn|zabti}})'' is credited to [[Raja Todar Mal]], who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri,<ref name="Chandra 2007 236">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=236}}</ref> and the structure of the revenue administration was set out by the latter in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582–83.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=160}}</ref>

Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Land which was fallow or uncultivated was charged at concessional rates.<ref name="localassessment">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=235}}</ref> Akbar also actively encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. The village continued to remain the primary unit of revenue assessment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|pp=164–165}}</ref> [[Zamindar]]s of every area were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and to sow seeds of superior quality. In turn, the zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue.<ref name="localassessment"/> While the revenue assessment system showed concern for the small peasantry, it also maintained a level of distrust towards the revenue officials. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=165}}</ref>

===Military organization===

Akbar organised his army as well as the nobility by means of a system called the ''mansabdari''. Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a ''mansabdar''), and assigned a number of [[cavalry]] that he had to supply to the imperial army.<ref name="Chandra 2007 236"/> The ''mansabdars'' were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Other ranks between 10 and 5,000 were assigned to other members of the nobility. The empire's permanent [[standing army]] was quite small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the ''mansabdars''.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=359}}</ref> Persons were normally appointed to a low ''mansab'' and then promoted, based on their merit as well as the favour of the emperor.<ref name="mansabdari">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=238}}</ref> Each ''mansabdar'' was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that the quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and only [[Arabian horse]]s were normally employed.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=237}}</ref> The ''mansabdars'' were remunerated well for their services and constituted the highest paid military service in the world at the time.<ref name="mansabdari"/>

===Capital===

Akbar was a follower of [[Salim Chishti]], a [[Asceticism|holy man]] who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be a lucky one for himself, he had a mosque constructed there for the use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundations of a new walled capital, {{convert|23|mi|km}} west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("''town of victory''") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573 and subsequently came to be known as [[Fatehpur Sikri]] in order to distinguish it from other similarly named towns.<ref name="earlyconquest"/> [[Jodha Bai Mahal|Palace for Akbar's favorite queen]], a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to [[Lahore]] in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. Other sources indicate Akbar simply lost interest in the city<ref>Petersen, A. (1996). ''Dictionary of Islamic Architecture''. New York: Routledge.</ref> or realised it was not militarily defensible. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.

The reign of Akbar was characterized by commercial expansion.<ref name="Economy">{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html#n10|title=Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals|publisher=columbia.edu |access-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> The Mughal government encouraged traders, provided protection and security for transactions, and levied a very low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade. Furthermore, it strived to foster a climate conducive to commerce by requiring local administrators to provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territory. To minimize such incidents, bands of highway police called ''{{transliteration|bn|rahdars}}'' were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure the safety of traders. Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications.<ref name="Levi">{{Cite book

| page = 39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qVkNBge8mIC&pg=PA39|isbn=978-90-04-12320-5

| last = Levi

| first = S. C.

| title = The Indian Diaspora in Central Asia and Its Trade: 1550–1900

}}</ref> Indeed, Akbar would make concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the [[Khyber Pass]], the most popular route frequented by traders and travelers journeying from [[Kabul]] into Mughal India.<ref name="Levi"/> He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of [[Multan]] and [[Lahore]] in the [[Punjab]] and constructed great forts, such as the one at [[Attock Fort|Attock]] near the crossing of the [[Grand Trunk Road]] and the [[Indus river]], as well as a network of smaller forts called ''thanas'' throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade with Persia and Central Asia.<ref name="Levi"/> Furthermore, he established a trade business for his chief consort, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]] who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels.<ref name=DirkCollier>{{cite book|last=Collier|first=Dirk|title=The Emperor's writings: Memories of Akbar the great|year=2011|page=326}}</ref>

[[File:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of Akbar with inscriptions of the [[shahada|Islamic declaration of faith]], the declaration reads: "There is no god except Allah, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of Allah."]]

 

Akbar introduced coins with decorative floral motifs, dotted borders, quatrefoil, and other types. His coins were both round and square in shape with a unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shape coin highlighting numismatic calligraphy at its best.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mintageworld.com/blog/coins-of-akbar/|title=Coins of Akbar &#124; Mintage World|date=29 July 2016|access-date=20 July 2020}}</ref> Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliation thereafter by minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait. The tolerant view of Akbar is represented by the 'Ram-Sita' silver coin type while during the latter part of Akbar's reign, we see coins portraying the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion 'Din-e-ilahi' with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu type coins.

 

The coins,{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} left, represent examples of these innovative concepts introduced by Akbar that set the precedent for Mughal coins which was refined and perfected by his son, Jahangir, and later by his grandson, Shah Jahan.

The practice of arranging marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings was known much before Akbar's time, but in most cases, these marriages did not lead to any stable relations between the families involved, and the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage.<ref name="Eraly">{{cite book|title=Emperors of the Peacock Throne, The Saga of the Great Mughals|last=Eraly|first=Abraham|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=2000|page=136|isbn=0-14-100143-7}}</ref><ref name="Chandra 243"/><ref name="Sarkar 37">{{harvnb|Sarkar|1984|p=37}}</ref>

However, Akbar's policy of matrimonial alliances marked a departure in India from previous practice in that the marriage itself marked the beginning of a new order of relations, wherein the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated on par with his Muslim fathers-in-law and brothers-in-law in all respects except being able to dine and pray with him or take Muslim wives. These Rajputs were made members of his court and their daughters' or sisters' marriage to a Muslim ceased to be a sign of degradation, except for certain proud elements who still considered it a sign of humiliation.<ref name="Sarkar 37"/>

[[File:Birth of jahangir.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Empress Mariam-uz-Zamani]], commonly known as Jodha Bai, giving birth to Prince Salim, the future emperor Jahangir.]]

The [[Kacchwaha]] Rajput, Raja [[Bharmal]], of the small kingdom of [[Amer, India|Amer]], who had come to Akbar's court shortly after the latter's accession, allied by giving his daughter [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Harka Bai]], mother of Akbar's successor, in marriage to the emperor. Bharmal was made a noble of high rank in the imperial court, and subsequently, his son [[Bhagwant Das]] and grandson [[Man Singh]] also rose to high ranks in the nobility.<ref name="Chandra 243">{{Harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=243}}</ref>

Other Rajput kingdoms also established matrimonial alliances with Akbar, but matrimony was not insisted on as a precondition for forming alliances. Two major Rajput clans remained aloof – the [[Sisodiya]]s of [[Mewar]] and [[Hada (clan)|Hadas]] of Ranthambore. In another turning point of Akbar's reign, [[Raja Man Singh]] I of Amber went with Akbar to meet the Hada leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance. Surjan accepted an alliance on the condition that Akbar did not marry any of his daughters. Consequently, no matrimonial alliance was entered into, yet Surjan was made a noble and placed in charge of Garh-Katanga.<ref name=" Chandra 243"/>

 

Another legend is that Akbar's daughter Meherunnissa was enamored by [[Tansen]] and had a role in his coming to Akbar's court.<ref name=dawn>{{cite news

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071121000709/http://dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/021012/yworld5.htm

}}</ref> Tansen converted to [[Islam]] from [[Hinduism]], apparently on the eve of his marriage with Akbar's daughter.<ref>India Divided, By Rajendra Prasad, p. 63</ref><ref>A History of Hindi Literature, By F. E. Keay, p. 36</ref>

{{quote box|width=25%|quote=''An Emperor shall be ever Intent on Conquest, Otherwise, His enemies shall rise in arms against him.''|source='''Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar'''

At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea trade in that region. As a consequence of this colonialism, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, and this was resented by the rulers and traders of the time including [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=256}}</ref>

[[File:Death of Sultan Bahadur in front of Diu against the Portuguese 1537 Akbar Nama end of 16th century.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Death of [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]] at [[Siege of Diu|Diu]], in front of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in 1537<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Dodwell |editor-first=Henry H. |date=1929 |title=The Cambridge history of the British Empire |volume=IV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA14 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The University Press |page=14 |oclc=1473561}}</ref>]]

In the year 1572 the [[Mughal Empire]] annexed [[Gujarat]] and acquired its first access to the sea after local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert control in the Indian Ocean. Hence Akbar was conscious of the threat posed by the presence of the Portuguese and remained content with obtaining a ''[[cartaz]]'' (permit) from them for sailing in the [[Persian Gulf]] region.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|pp=256–257}}</ref> At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the [[Siege of Surat]] in 1572, the Portuguese, recognizing the superior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war. The Portuguese Governor, upon the request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=259}}</ref> Akbar's efforts to purchase and secure from the Portuguese some of their compact [[artillery]] pieces were unsuccessful and thus Akbar could not establish the Mughal navy along the Gujarat coast.<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_16.html |title=XVI. Mughal Administration |publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref>

Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy, but the Portuguese continually asserted their authority and power in the Indian Ocean; Akbar was highly concerned when he had to request a permit from the Portuguese before any ships from the Mughal Empire were to depart for the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html |title=XIX. A Century of Political Decline: 1707–1803|publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref> In 1573, he issued a ''[[firman]]'' directing Mughal administrative officials in Gujarat not to provoke the Portuguese in the territory they held in [[Daman District, India|Daman]]. The Portuguese, in turn, issued passes for the members of Akbar's family to go on Hajj to Mecca. The Portuguese made mention of the extraordinary status of the vessel and the special status to be accorded to its occupants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=260}}</ref> Furthermore, he established a trade business for his favourite consort, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]] who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to the Gulf nations through merchant's vessels. The cost of her largest ship named 'Rahimi', built on the orders of Akbar, is estimated to be around 300000 pounds (Rs 3 crores approximately).<ref name=DirkCollier/>

In September 1579 [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] from [[Goa]] were invited to visit the court of Akbar.<ref>Akbar's letter of invitation in John Correia-Afonso, ''Letters from the Mughal Court'', Bombay, 1980.</ref> The emperor had his scribes translate the [[New Testament]] and granted the Jesuits the freedom to preach the Gospel.<ref name=org>{{cite book|last=Gomez|first=Oscar R|title= Tantrism in the Society of Jesus – from Tibet to the Vaticcan today |url=https://www.academia.edu/19202701 |year=2013|publisher=Editorial MenteClara|isbn=978-987-24510-3-5 |page=58}}</ref> One of his sons, [[Sultan Murad Mirza]], was entrusted to [[Antoni de Montserrat]] for his education.<ref>{{cite book |last=du Jarric |first=Pierre |translator-last=Payne |translator-first=C. H. |date=1926 |title=Akbar and the Jesuits |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75704 |series=Broadway Travellers |location=London |publisher=Harper & Brothers}}</ref><ref name="Durant2011">{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ru4LPyMAxxkC&pg=PT738 |date=7 June 2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-4668-9|pages=738– |access-date=27 August 2012}}</ref> While debating at court, the Jesuits did not confine themselves to the exposition of their own beliefs but also reviled Islam and Muhammad. Their comments enraged the [[Imam]]s and [[Ulama]], who objected to the remarks, but Akbar ordered their comments to be recorded and observed the Jesuits and their behavior. This event was followed by a rebellion of Muslim clerics in 1581 led by Mullah Muhammad Yazdi and Muiz-ul-Mulk, the chief [[Qadi]] of [[Bengal]]; the rebels wanted to overthrow Akbar and insert his brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim, ruler of Kabul, on the Mughal throne. Akbar successfully defeated the rebels, but he had grown more cautious about his guests and his proclamations, which he later checked with his advisers carefully.<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_12.html |title=XII. Religion at Akbar's Court |publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Seydi Ali-Ambush.png|thumb|[[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] ambush against the galleys of [[Seydi Ali Reis]] (Akbar's allies) in the Indian Ocean.]]

In 1555, while Akbar was still a child, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Admiral [[Seydi Ali Reis]] visited the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Humayun]]. In 1569, during the early years of Akbar's rule, another Ottoman Admiral [[Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis]] arrived on the shores of the Mughal Empire. These Ottoman admirals sought to end the growing threats of the Portuguese Empire during their [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean campaigns]]. During his reign Akbar himself is known to have sent six documents addressing the Ottoman [[Sultan]] [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=N. R. Farooqi |year=1996 |title=Six Ottoman Documents on Mughal-Ottoman Relations During The Reign of Akbar |url=http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/1/32.extract |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=32 |doi=10.1093/jis/7.1.32 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302190606/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/1/32.extract |archive-date=2 March 2012 |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |date=1 June 1994 |title=Book Reviews: Naimur Rahman Farooqi, Mughal-Ottoman Relations: A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556–1748, Delhi |url=http://ier.sagepub.com/content/31/2/249.extract |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=31 |issue=2 |page=249 |doi=10.1177/001946469403100210 |s2cid=143346476 |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref>

In 1576, Akbar sent a very large contingent of pilgrims led by Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi, [[Yahya Saleh]], with 600,000 gold and silver coins and 12,000 [[Kaftan]]s of honour and large consignments of rice.<ref>{{cite book |last=Farooqi |first=Naimur Rahman |date=1989 |title=Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556–1748 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uB1uAAAAMAAJ&q=akbar |location=Delhi |publisher=Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli |oclc=20894584}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2016}} In October 1576, Akbar sent a delegation including members of his family, including his aunt Gulbadan Begum and his consort Salima, on Hajj by two ships from [[Surat]] including an Ottoman vessel, which reached the port of [[Jeddah]] in 1577 and then proceeded towards [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=246}}</ref> Four more caravans were sent from 1577 to 1580, with exquisite gifts for the authorities of Mecca and Medina.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ottoman court chroniclers |title=Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 32 f 292 firman 740, Shaban 986 |year=1578}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Khan, Iqtidar Alam|title=Akbar and his age|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=1999|isbn=978-81-7211-108-3|page=218}}</ref>

The imperial Mughal entourage stayed in Mecca and Medina for nearly four years and attended the [[Hajj]] four times.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Farooqi|first=N. R.|s2cid=164261762|date=21 March 2017|title=An Overview of Ottoman Archival Documents and Their Relevance for Medieval Indian History|journal=The Medieval History Journal|volume=20|pages=192–229|language=en|doi=10.1177/0971945816687687}}</ref> During this period Akbar financed the pilgrimages of many poor [[Muslim]]s from the Mughal Empire and also funded the foundations of the [[Qadiriyya]] [[Sufi]] Order's dervish lodge in the Hijaz.<ref name="Faroqhi2006">{{Harvnb|Faroqhi|2006|p=88}}</ref> The Mughals eventually set out for Surat, and their return was assisted by the Ottoman [[Pasha]] in Jeddah.<ref>{{cite book |last=Farooqi |first=Naimur Rahman |date=1989 |title=Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556–1748 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uB1uAAAAMAAJ&q=Jidda |location=Delhi |publisher=Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli |oclc=20894584}}</ref> Because of Akbar's attempts to build Mughal presence in Mecca and Medina, the local Sharifs began to have more confidence in the financial support provided by Mughal Empire, lessening their dependency upon Ottoman bounty.<ref name="Faroqhi2006" /> Mughal-Ottoman trade also flourished during this period – in fact, merchants loyal to Akbar are known to have reached [[Aleppo]] after journeying upriver through the port of [[Basra]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Faroqhi|2006|p=138}}</ref>

According to some accounts Akbar expressed a desire to form an alliance with the Portuguese, mainly in order to advance his interests, but whenever the Portuguese attempted to invade the Ottomans, Akbar proved abortive.<ref>{{cite book |last=Farooqi |first=Naimur Rahman |date=1989 |title=Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556–1748 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uB1uAAAAMAAJ&q=forced |location=Delhi |publisher=Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli |oclc=20894584}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|p=158}}</ref> In 1587, a Portuguese fleet sent to attack Yemen was ferociously routed and defeated by the [[Ottoman Navy]]; thereafter the Mughal-Portuguese alliance immediately collapsed, mainly because of the continuing pressure by the Mughal Empire's prestigious vassals at [[Janjira State|Janjira]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Ottoman court chroniclers |title=Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 62 f 205 firman 457, Avail Rabiulavval 996|year=1588}}</ref>

The [[Safavid Empire|Safavids]] and the Mughals had a long history of diplomatic relationship, with the Safavid ruler [[Tahmasp I]] having provided refuge to [[Humayun]] when he had to flee the Indian subcontinent following his defeat by Sher Shah Suri. However, the Safavids differed from the Sunni Mughals and Ottomans in following the [[Shiite]] sect of Islam.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=94}}</ref> One of the longest standing disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals pertained to the control of the city of [[Qandahar]] in the [[Hindukush]] region, forming the border between the two empires.<ref name="Majumdar 153">{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|p=153}}</ref> The Hindukush region was militarily very significant owing to its geography, and this was well-recognised by strategists of the times.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|pp=327–328}}</ref> Consequently, the city, which was being administered by Bairam Khan at the time of Akbar's accession, was invaded and captured by the Persian ruler Husain Mirza, a [[Ismail I#Offspring|cousin of Tahmasp I]], in 1558.<ref name="Majumdar 153"/> Subsequent to this, Bairam Khan sent an envoy to the court of Tahmasp I in an effort to maintain peaceful relations with the Safavids. This gesture was reciprocated and a cordial relationship continued to prevail between the two empires during the first two decades of Akbar's reign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|p=154}}</ref> However, the death of Tahmasp I in 1576 resulted in civil war and instability in the Safavid empire, and diplomatic relations between the two empires ceased for more than a decade. They were restored only in 1587 following the accession of [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas]] to the Safavid throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|pp=154–155}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, Akbar's army completed its annexation of Kabul, and in order to further secure the north-western boundaries of his empire, it proceeded to Qandahar. The city capitulated without resistance on 18 April 1595, and the ruler Muzaffar Hussain moved into Akbar's court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|pp=153–154}}</ref> Qandahar continued to remain in Mughal possession, and the Hindukush the empire's western frontier, for several decades until [[Shah Jahan]]'s expedition into [[Badakhshan]] in 1646.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=327}}</ref> Diplomatic relations continued to be maintained between the Safavid and Mughal courts until the end of Akbar's reign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|p=155}}</ref>

[[Vincent Arthur Smith]] observes that the merchant Mildenhall was employed in 1600 while the establishment of the company was under adjustment to bear a letter from [[Queen Elizabeth I|Queen Elizabeth]] to Akbar requesting liberty to trade in his dominions on terms as good as those enjoyed by the Portuguese.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|p=292}}</ref>

Akbar was also visited by the French explorer [[Pierre Malherbe]].<ref>''Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 1'' by Donald F. Lach, Edwin J. Van Kley p. 393 [https://books.google.com/books?id=PjVKjJ-WgOYC&pg=PA393]</ref>

[[File:Portrait of Emperor Akbar Praying.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Portrait of the Mughal Emperor Akbar invocation of a [[Dua]] prayer.]]

 

Akbar sponsored religious debates between different Muslim groups ([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]], [[Shia Islam|Shia]], [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]], and [[Sufism|Sufis]]), [[Parsis]], [[Hindus]] ([[Shaivite]] and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]]), [[Sikhs]], [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Jews]], [[Jesuits]], and [[Materialism|Materialists]], but was partial to Sufism; he proclaimed that 'the wisdom of Vedanta is the wisdom of Sufism'.<ref>{{Cite book|title=On Hinduism|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|isbn=978-0199360079|location=Oxford|oclc=858660095|date = March 2014}}</ref>

When he was at Fatehpur Sikri, he held discussions as he loved to know about others' religious beliefs. On one such day he got to know that the religious people of other religions were often intolerant of others' religious beliefs. This led him to form the idea of the new religion, Sulh-e-kul meaning universal peace. His idea of this religion did not discriminate against other religions and focused on the ideas of peace, unity, and tolerance.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}

[[File:1573-Akbar receiving his sons at Fathpur-Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Mughal Emperor]] Akbar welcomes his son [[Jahangir|Prince Salim]] at Fatehpur Sikri, ([[Akbarnameh]]).]]

During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude of suppression towards Muslim sects that were condemned by the orthodoxy as [[heresy|heretical]].<ref name="religion4">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=85}}</ref> In 1567, on the advice of Shaikh Abdu'n Nabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi – a [[Shia]] buried in Delhi – because of the grave's proximity to that of [[Amir Khusrau]], arguing that a "heretic" could not be buried so close to the grave of a [[Sunni]] saint, reflecting a restrictive attitude towards the Shia, which continued to persist until the early 1570s.<ref name="religion5">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=86}}</ref> He suppressed [[Mahdavia|Mahdavism]] in 1573 during his campaign in Gujarat, in the course of which the Mahdavi leader Bandagi Miyan Sheik Mustafa was arrested and brought in chains to the court for debate and released after eighteen months.<ref name="religion5"/> However, as Akbar increasingly came under the influence of pantheistic Sufi mysticism from the early 1570s, it caused a great shift in his outlook and culminated in his shift from orthodox Islam as traditionally professed, in favour of a new concept of Islam transcending the limits of religion.<ref name="religion5"/> Consequently, during the latter half of his reign, he adopted a policy of tolerance towards the Shias and declared a prohibition on Shia-Sunni conflict, and the empire remained neutral in matters of internal sectarian conflict.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|pp=165–166}}</ref> In the year 1578, the Mughal Emperor Akbar famously referred to himself as:

In 1580, a rebellion broke out in the eastern part of Akbar's empire, and a number of ''[[fatwa]]s'', declaring Akbar to be a heretic, were issued by [[Qazi]]s. Akbar suppressed the rebellion and handed out severe punishments to the Qazis. To further strengthen his position in dealing with the Qazis, Akbar issued a ''[[mazhar]]'', or declaration, that was signed by all major ''[[ulema]]s'' in 1579.<ref name="religion6">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=254}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=159}}</ref> The ''mahzar'' asserted that Akbar was the ''[[Caliph|Khalifa]]'' of the age, a higher rank than that of a ''[[Mujtahid]]'': in case of a difference of opinion among the Mujtahids, Akbar could select any one opinion and could also issue decrees that did not go against the ''[[Nass (Islam)|nass]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hasan|2007|p=79}}</ref> Given the prevailing Islamic sectarian conflicts in various parts of the country at that time, it is believed that the ''Mazhar'' helped stabilize the religious situation in the empire.<ref name="religion6"/> It made Akbar very powerful because of the complete supremacy accorded to the ''Khalifa'' by Islam, and also helped him eliminate the religious and political influence of the Ottoman ''Khalifa'' over his subjects, thus ensuring their complete loyalty to him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hasan|2007|pp=82–83}}</ref>

Throughout his reign Akbar was a patron of influential Muslim scholars such as [[Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi]] and [[Tahir Muhammad Thattvi]].{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}

Whenever Akbar would attend congregations at a mosque, the following proclamation was made:<ref>{{cite book |last=Keene |first=Henry George |date=1879 |title=The Turks in India |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924024056172 |location=London |publisher=W. H. Allen |oclc=613242467}}</ref>

Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophical matters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to be influenced by [[Sufi]] mysticism that was being preached in the country at that time, and moved away from orthodoxy, appointing to his court several talented people with liberal ideas, including Abul Fazl, [[Faizi]], and [[Birbal]]. In 1575, he built a hall called the [[Ibadat Khana]] (''"House of Worship"'') at Fatehpur Sikri, to which he invited theologians, mystics, and selected courtiers renowned for their intellectual achievements and discussed matters of [[spirituality]] with them.<ref name="religion1"/> These discussions, initially restricted to Muslims, were acrimonious and resulted in the participants shouting at and abusing each other. Upset by this, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions as well as atheists, resulting in the scope of the discussions broadening and extending even into areas such as the validity of the [[Quran]] and the nature of God. This shocked the orthodox theologians, who sought to discredit Akbar by circulating rumours of his desire to forsake Islam.<ref name="religion6"/>

Akbar's effort to evolve a meeting point among the representatives of various religions was not very successful, as each of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respective religions by denouncing other religions. Meanwhile, the debates at the Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to their purpose of leading to a better understanding among religions, instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting in the discontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.<ref name="Chandra 2007 255">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=255}}</ref> However, his interaction with various religious theologians had convinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new religious movement known as [[Din-i-Ilahi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=256}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030480/Din-i-Ilahi |title=Din-i Ilahi&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 July 2009}}</ref>

Some modern scholars claim that Akbar did not initiate a new religion but instead introduced what [[Oscar R. Gómez]] calls the transtheistic outlook from tantric [[Tibetan Buddhism]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Gómez, Oscar R.|page=51|title=Tantrism in the Society of Jesus – from Tibet to the Vaticcan today|year=2013|publisher=Editorial MenteClara|isbn=978-987-24510-3-5}}</ref> and that he did not use the word ''Din-i-Ilahi''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sharma, Sri Ram|page=42|title=The Religious Policy of the Mughal Emperors|year=1988|publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] Publishers|isbn=81-215-0395-7}}</ref> According to the contemporary events in the Mughal court Akbar was indeed angered by the acts of embezzlement of wealth by many high level Muslim clerics.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=348}}</ref>

 

It has been argued that the theory of Din-i-Ilahi being a new religion was a misconception that arose because of erroneous translations of Abul Fazl's work by later British historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Ali|2006|pp=163–164}}</ref> However, it is also accepted that the policy of ''sulh-e-kul'', which formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes but as a part of general imperial administrative policy. This also formed the basis for Akbar's policy of religious tolerance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=164}}</ref> At the time of Akbar's death in 1605 there were no signs of discontent amongst his Muslim subjects, and the impression of even a theologian like Abdu'l Haq was that close ties remained.<ref name="Habib 1997 96">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p= 96}}</ref>

Akbar decreed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert to Hinduism without facing the death penalty.<ref>{{harvnb|Chua|2007|p=187}}</ref> In his days of tolerance he was so well liked by Hindus that there are numerous references to him, and his eulogies are sung in songs and religious hymns as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Chua|2007|p=126}}</ref>

Akbar practised several Hindu customs. He celebrated [[Diwali]], allowed Brahman priests to tie jewelled strings round his wrists by way of blessing, and, following his lead, many of the nobles took to wearing ''rakhi'' (protection charms).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Collingham|2006|p=30}}</ref> He renounced beef and forbade the sale of all meats on certain days.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Even his son Jahangir and grandson Shahjahan maintained many of Akbar's concessions, such as the ban on cow slaughter, having only vegetarian dishes on certain days of the week, and drinking only Ganges water.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvnb|Collingham|2006|p=31}}</ref> Even as he was in the Punjab, 200 miles away from the Ganges, the water was sealed in large jars and transported to him. He referred to the Ganges water as the "water of immortality."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

[[File:Farrukh Beg. Akbar's Triumphal Entry into Surat. Akbarnama, 1590-95, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.jpg|thumb|Akbar triumphantly enters [[Surat]]]]

Akbar regularly held discussions with [[Jain]] scholars and was also greatly impacted by their teachings. His first encounter with Jain rituals was when he saw a procession of a Jain [[Shravaka]] named Champa after a six-month-long fast. Impressed by her power and devotion, he invited her [[guru]], or spiritual teacher, [[Acharya]] [[Hiravijaya]] Suri to Fatehpur Sikri. Acharya accepted the invitation and began his march towards the Mughal capital from [[Gujarat]].<ref name=Sanghmitra>{{cite book|author=Sanghmitra |title=Jain Dharma ke Prabhavak Acharya|publisher=[[Jain Vishwa Bharati, Ladnu]]|author-link=Sadhvi Sanghmitra}}</ref>

Akbar was impressed by the scholastic qualities and character of the Acharya. He held several inter-faith dialogues among philosophers of different religions. The arguments of Jains against eating meat persuaded him to become a vegetarian.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Amartya |author-link=Amartya Sen |date=2005 |title=The Argumentative Indian |publisher=[[Allen Lane (imprint)|Allen Lane]] |pages=288–289 |isbn=0-7139-9687-0 |quote=Akbar arranged for discussions&nbsp;... involving not only mainstream Hindu and Muslim philosophers [but Jains and others]&nbsp;... Arguing with Jains, Akbar would remain sceptical of their rituals, and yet become convinced by their argument for vegetarianism and end up deploring the eating of all flesh}}</ref> Akbar also issued many imperial orders that were favourable for Jain interests, such as banning animal slaughter.<ref>{{cite web |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |title=Jains and the Mughals |url=http://www.jainpedia.org/themes/places/jainism-and-islam/jains-and-the-mughals.html |publisher=JAINpedia}}</ref> Jain authors also wrote about their experience at the Mughal court in Sanskrit texts that are still largely unknown to Mughal historians.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |title=Setting the Record Wrong: A Sanskrit Vision of Mughal Conquests |journal=South Asian History and Culture |year=2012 |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=373 |doi=10.1080/19472498.2012.693710 |s2cid=145619920 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1239832}}</ref>

The [[Indian Supreme Court]] has cited examples of co-existence of Jain and Mughal architecture, calling Akbar "the architect of modern India" and that "he had great respect" for Jainism. In 1584, 1592, and 1598, Akbar had declared "Amari Ghosana", which prohibited animal slaughter during [[Paryushan]] and [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak|Mahavira Janma Kalyanak]]. He removed the Jazia tax from Jain pilgrim places like [[Palitana]].<ref name=toi>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Ahmedabad-turned-Akbar-veggie/articleshow/5259184.cms |title=Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie |work=The Times of India |date=23 November 2009 |access-date=23 November 2009}}</ref>

Santichandra, disciple of Suri, was sent to the Emperor, who in turn left his disciples Bhanuchandra and Siddhichandra in the court. Akbar again invited Hiravijaya Suri's successor Vijayasena Suri in his court who visited him between 1593 and 1595.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}}

 

Akbar's religious tolerance was not followed by his son [[Jahangir]], who even threatened Akbar's former friend Bhanuchandra.<ref>p. 137, ''Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India'' by Allison Busch</ref>

[[File:AkbarHunt.jpg|thumb|upright|Akbar hunting with [[Asiatic Cheetah|cheetahs]], c. 1602]]

Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] in the books ''[[Akbarnama]]'' and ''Ain-i-akbari''. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign include the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi, and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi.

Akbar was a warrior, emperor, general, [[animal trainer]] (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), and theologian.<ref name=Habib>{{cite journal |last=Habib |first=Irfan |author-link=Irfan Habib |date=September–October 1992 |title=Akbar and Technology |journal=Social Scientist |volume=20 |issue=9–10 |pages=3–15 |doi=10.2307/3517712 |jstor=3517712}}</ref> Believed to be [[dyslexic]], he was read to every day and had a remarkable memory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |author-link=John F. Richards |date=1996 |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=35 |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref>

Akbar was said to have been a wise emperor and a sound judge of character. His son and heir, Jahangir, wrote effusive praise of Akbar's character in his memoirs, and dozens of anecdotes to illustrate his virtues.<ref name=Jahangir>{{cite book|author=Jahangir|title=Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (Memoirs of Jahangir)|date=1600s|author-link=Jahangir}}</ref> According to Jahangir, Akbar was "of the hue of wheat; his eyes and eyebrows were black, and his complexion rather dark than fair". [[Antoni de Montserrat]], the [[Catalan people|Catalan]] [[Jesuit]] who visited his court described him as follows:

"One could easily recognize even at first glance that he is King. He has broad shoulders, somewhat bandy legs well-suited for horsemanship, and a light brown complexion. He carries his head bent towards the right shoulder. His forehead is broad and open, his eyes so bright and flashing that they seem like a sea shimmering in the sunlight. His eyelashes are very long. His eyebrows are not strongly marked. His nose is straight and small though not insignificant. His nostrils are widely open as though in derision. Between the left nostril and the upper lip there is a mole. He shaves his beard but wears a moustache. He limps in his left leg though he has never received an injury there."<ref name="Portraits of Akbar">{{cite journal |last=Codrington |first=K. de B. |date=March 1943 |title=Portraits of Akbar, the Great Mughal (1542–1605) |journal=[[The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs]] |volume=82 |issue=480 |pages=64–67 |jstor=868499}}</ref>

Akbar was not tall but powerfully built and very agile. He was also noted for various acts of courage. One such incident occurred on his way back from Malwa to Agra when Akbar was 19 years of age. Akbar rode alone in advance of his escort and was confronted by a tigress who, along with her cubs, came out from the shrubbery across his path. When the tigress charged the emperor, he was alleged to have dispatched the animal with his sword in a solitary blow. His approaching attendants found the emperor standing quietly by the side of the dead animal.<ref name="chicago">{{cite book|author=Garbe, Richard von|title=Akbar, Emperor of India|url=https://archive.org/details/akbaremperorind00garbgoog|publisher=Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company|year=1909}}</ref>

Abul Fazl, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as having a commanding personality. He was notable for his command in battle, and, "like [[Alexander III of Macedon|Alexander of Macedon]], was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences". He often plunged on his horse into the flooded river during the rainy seasons and safely crossed it. He rarely indulged in cruelty and is said to have been affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who was a repented rebel. But on rare occasions, he dealt cruelly with offenders, such as his maternal uncle Muazzam and his foster-brother Adham Khan, who was twice [[Defenestration|defenestrated]] for drawing Akbar's wrath.<ref>{{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |author-link=John F. Richards |date=1996 |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=15 |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref>

He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. ''[[Ain-e-Akbari]]'' mentions that during his travels and also while at home, Akbar drank water from the [[Ganges]] river, which he called 'the water of immortality'. Special people were stationed at Sorun and later [[Haridwar]] to dispatch water, in sealed jars, to wherever he was stationed.<ref>[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D00702015%26ct%3D48%26rqs%3D60 Hardwar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920062933/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D00702015%26ct%3D48%26rqs%3D60 |date=20 September 2011 }} [[Ain-e-Akbari]], by Abul Fazl 'Allami, Volume I, A'I'N 22. The A'bda'r Kha'nah. p. 55. Translated from the original Persian, by [[Heinrich Blochmann]] and Colonel Henry Sullivan Jarrett, [[Asiatic Society|Asiatic society of Bengal]]. Calcutta, 1873–1907.</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2010}} According to [[Jahangir]]'s memoirs, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat, which he stopped eating in his later years.

Akbar also once visited [[Vrindavan]], regarded as the birthplace of [[Krishna]], in the year 1570, and gave permission for four temples to be built by the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnavas]], which were Madana-mohana, Govindaji, Gopinatha, and Jugal Kisore.

During Akbar's reign, the ongoing process of inter-religious discourse and [[syncretism]] resulted in a series of religious attributions to him in terms of positions of assimilation, doubt or uncertainty, which he either assisted himself or left unchallenged.<ref name="hagiography">{{harvnb|Sangari|2007|p=497}}</ref> Such [[hagiographical]] accounts of Akbar traversed a wide range of denominational and sectarian spaces, including several accounts by [[Parsi]]s, [[Jain]]s, and Jesuit missionaries, apart from contemporary accounts by Brahminical and Muslim orthodoxy.<ref>{{harvnb|Sangari|2007|p=475}}</ref> Existing sects and denominations, as well as various religious figures who represented popular worship felt they had a claim to him. The diversity of these accounts is attributed to the fact that his reign resulted in the formation of a flexible centralised state accompanied by personal authority and cultural heterogeneity.<ref name="hagiography"/>

The {{IAST|Akbarnāma}} ({{lang-fa|اکبر نامہ}}), which literally means ''Book of Akbar'', is an official biographical account of Akbar, the third [[Mughal Emperor]] (r. 1542–1605), written in Persian. It includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times.<ref name=art>{{cite web |url=http://www.artic.edu/artaccess/AA_India/pages/India_12.shtml |title=Art Access: Indian, Himalayan, and Southeast Asian |website=artic.edu |publisher=The Art Institute of Chicago |access-date=20 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919035749/http://www.artic.edu/artaccess/AA_India/pages/India_12.shtml |archive-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

 

The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]], one of the ''Nine Jewels'' ([[Hindi]]: [[Navaratnas]]) of Akbar's royal court. It is stated that the book took seven years to be completed and the original manuscripts contained a number of paintings supporting the texts, and all the paintings represented the [[Mughal painting|Mughal school of painting]], and work of masters of the imperial workshop, including [[Basawan]], whose use of portraiture in its illustrations was an innovation in [[Indian art]].<ref name=art/>

Akbar's first wife and one of the chief consorts was his cousin, Princess [[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]],<ref name="Sang-E-Meel Pub"/><ref name="Thackston1999p437" /> the only daughter of his paternal uncle, Prince [[Hindal Mirza]],{{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=40}} and his wife Sultanam Begum. In 1551, Hindal Mirza died fighting valorously in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.<ref name="Erskine"/> Hindal's daughter Ruqaiya married Akbar about the time of his first appointment, at age nine, as governor of [[Ghazni Province]].<ref name="Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd"/> Humayun conferred on the imperial couple, all the wealth, army, and adherents of Hindal and Ghazni which one of Hindal's ''[[jagir]]'' was given to his nephew, Akbar, who was appointed as its viceroy and was also given the command of his uncle's army.<ref name="auto"/> Akbar's marriage with Ruqaiya was solemnized near [[Jalandhar]], Punjab, when both of them were 14 years old.<ref name="Eraly 2000 123, 272"/> She was a senior-ranking wife of Akbar. She died childless in January 1626 and was buried next to her father's grave.

His second wife was the daughter of Abdullah Khan Mughal.<ref name="Burke1989"/> The marriage took place in 1557 during the siege of [[Mankot]]. [[Bairam Khan]] did not approve of this marriage, for Abdullah's sister was married to Akbar's uncle, Prince [[Kamran Mirza]], and so he regarded Abdullah as a partisan of Kamran. He opposed the match until Nasir-al-Mulk made him understand that opposition in such matters was unacceptable. Nasir-al-Mulk arranged an assemblage of pleasure and banquet of joy, and a royal feast was provided.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=88}}

His third wife and one of his three chief consorts was his cousin, [[Salima Sultan Begum]],<ref name="Burke1989">{{cite book|last1=Burke|first1=S. M.|title=Akbar: The Greatest Mogul|date=1989|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|pages=142, 143, 144|language=en}}</ref> the daughter of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Mirza and his wife Gulrukh Begum also known as Gulrang, the daughter of Emperor [[Babur]]. She was at first betrothed to Bairam Khan by Humayun. After Bairam Khan died in 1561, Akbar married her in the same year. She was the foster mother of Akbar's second son, [[Murad Mirza]]. She held a great influence on Akbar. She was a poetess and was regarded as a remarkable woman being a poetess, lover of books, and actively played a role in the politics of the Mughal court during Akbar's and Jahangir's reigns. She is regarded as the senior-most wife of Akbar. She died childless on 2 January 1613.{{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=140}}

Akbar's fourth and favourite wife <ref name="farishta"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chaudhary|first1=S.N. Roy|title=Restoration of Split Milk|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|page=77|quote=The mother of Jahangir was a pious Hindu princess, the most favourite queen of Akbar|year=2011|isbn=9788121210461}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Esposito|first1=John L.|title=The Oxford History of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press, New York|year=1999|isbn=9780195107999|oclc =40838649}}</ref><ref name="indiatoday">{{cite web|title=Jodha Bai's 474th birth anniversary: 17 facts about the Queen Mother|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/jodha-bai-344257-2016-10-01}}</ref>{{sfn|Lal|1980|p=322}}<ref name=Qa>{{cite journal |last1=Safdar |first1=Aiysha |last2=Khan |first2=Muhammad Azam |date=January–June 2021 |title=History of Indian Ocean-A South Indian perspective |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/indianStudies/PDF/12_v7_1_21.pdf |journal=Journal of Indian Studies |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=186 |quote=The most influential queen of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542-1605), and mother of Emperor Jahangir, was the beautiful Empress Mariam-uz- Zamani, commonly known as Jodha Bai ... Akbar allowed his favourite and most loved wife to build ships for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the River Ravi.}}</ref> was the [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], commonly known by the misnomer Jodha Bai, whom he married in the year 1562. She was the daughter of the ruler of Amer, [[Raja Bharmal]], and was by birth of [[Rajput clans|Rajput caste]]. She was his fourth wife and became one of his chief consorts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mehta|first1=J.L.|title=Advance Study in the history of Medieval India|volume=III|publisher=Sterling Publisher Private Limited|year=1981|isbn=8120704320|quote=Bihari Mal gave rich dowry to his daughter and sent his son Bhagwan Das with a contingent of Rajput soldiers to escort his newly married sister to Agra as per Rajput custom. Akbar was deeply impressed by the highly dignified, sincere, and princely conduct of his Rajput relations. He took Man Singh, the youthful son of Bhagwant Das into the royal service. Akbar was fascinated by the charm and accomplishments of his Rajput wife; he developed real love for her and raised her to the status of chief queen. She came to exercise a profound impact on the socio-cultural environment of the entire royal household and changed the lifestyle of Akbar. Salim (later Jahangir), the heir to the throne, was born of this wedlock on 30th August 1569.}}</ref> She gradually became his most influential wife<ref name="Qa" /> and subsequently is the only wife buried close to him. She was bestowed with the name 'Wali Nimat Begum' (Blessings/Gift of God) by Akbar shortly after her marriage. She was a beautiful woman said to possess uncommon beauty.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tarikh-i-Salim Shahi|date=1829|editor-first=Mahor David|editor-last=Price}}</ref> This marriage took place when Akbar was on his way back from [[Ajmer]] after offering prayers to the tomb of [[Moinuddin Chishti]]. Raja Bharmal had conveyed to Akbar that he was being harassed by his brother-in-law Sharif-ud-din Mirza (the Mughal ''[[hakim (title)|hakim]]'' of [[Mewat]]). Akbar insisted that the Raja should submit to him personally; it was also suggested that his daughter should be married to him as a sign of complete submission.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|pp=240–243}} Her marriage is considered one of the most important events of the Mughal Empire. She became his first wife to honour the royal mansion with an heir. In the year 1564, she gave birth to twins named Mirza Hassan and Mirza Hussain. In the year 1569, she was honoured with the title of 'Mariam-uz-Zamani' after giving birth to their third son named Prince Salim (the future emperor [[Jahangir]]), the heir to the throne. She was also the foster mother of Akbar's favourite son, [[Daniyal Mirza]].

[[File:AkbarMariamuzZamani.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar with [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Mariam Zamani Begum]], drawn as per Akbar's description.]]

She commanded a high rank in the imperial harem and was a recipient of many privileges.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fazl|first=Abul|title=Ain-I-Akbari|year=1590|volume=3|page=49|quote=When the world-conquering armies had been deputed, the Shāhinshāh proceeded stage by stage. On the day that he reached Sirohī, Mādhū* Singh and a number of men were sent to fetch that nursling of fortune's garden, Shahzāda Sultān Daniel, who had been conveyed from Ajmīr to Amber, so that he might be brought back to Ajmīr, and might come under the shadow of the Presence. In order to do honour to Rajah Bhagwān Das, his auspicious sister, who held high rank in the imperial harem, was sent off in order so that she might be present at the mourning for her brother Bhūpat, who had fallen in the battle of Sarnāl.}}</ref> She was an intellectual woman<ref name=Ain-i-Akbari>{{cite book|last1=Mubarak|first1=Abul -Fazl|title=Ain-i-Akbari|date=1593|page=36}}</ref> who held a considerable influence in Akbar's court and is known as the prime driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and religious neutrality.<ref name=lal9>{{cite book|first=Muni|last=Lal|title=Akbar|year=1977|publisher=V.P. House Private ltd., Delhi|page=229}}</ref> She was a smart woman who established international trade in the Mughal Empire and is regarded as the most adventurous and fearsome businesswoman of her time. Known as a great female patron of architecture of Mughal empire,<ref name=:09>{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=Ebba |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.79132 |title=Mughal architecture |date=1990 |pages=90}}</ref> she died on 19 May 1623 in Agra and was buried close to her husband in Sikandra, Agra. {{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=397}}

In the year 1562, Akbar married the former wife of Abdul Wasi, the son of Shaikh Bada, lord of Agra. Akbar was enamored with her beauty, and ordered Abdul Wasi to divorce her.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abd-ul-Qadir bin Maluk Shah|title=Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh by Al-Badaoni translated from the original Persian by W.H. Lowe – Volume II|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta|year=1884|pages=59–60}}</ref> Another of his wives was Gauhar-un-Nissa Begum, the daughter of Shaikh Muhammad Bakhtiyar and the sister of Shaikh Jamal Bakhtiyar. Their dynasty was called Din Laqab and had been living for a long time in Chandwar and Jalesar near Agra.<ref>{{cite book|author=Maulavi Abdur Rahim|title=Ma'asir al-Umara by Nawab Shams-ud-Daulah Shahnawaz Khan – Volume II (Persian)|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta|pages=564, 566}}</ref> He married the daughter of Jagmal Rathore, son of Rao Viramde of [[Merta City|Merta]] in 1562.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan|volume=II|pages=366–367}}</ref>

His next marriage took place in 1564 to the daughter of Miran Mubarak Shah, the ruler of [[Khandesh]]. In 1564, he sent presents to the court with a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. Miran's request acceded and an order was issued. Itimad Khan was sent with Miran's ambassadors, and when he came near the fort of Asir, which was Miran's residence. Miran welcomed Itimad with honor and despatched his daughter with Itimad. A large number of nobles accompanied her. The marriage took place in September 1564 when she reached Akbar's court.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=352}} As a dowry, Mubarak Shah ceded Bijagarh and Handia to his imperial son-in-law.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mohd. Ilyas|last=Quddusi|title=Khandesh under the Mughals, 1601–1724 A.D.: mainly based on Persian sources|publisher=Islamic Wonders Bureau|year=2002|pages=4}}</ref>

He married another Rajput princess in 1570, Raj Kunwari, daughter of Kanha, the brother of Rai Kalyan Mal, the ruler of [[Bikanir]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dShuAAAAMAAJ&q="Raj+kanwari"+|title=A Persian historiography in India|year=2003|pages=78–79|isbn=9788173915376}}</ref> The marriage took place in 1570 when Akbar came to this part of the country. Kalyan made a homage to Akbar and requested that his brother's daughter be married to him. Akbar accepted his proposal, and the marriage was arranged.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fazl|first=Abu'l|title=Akbarnama|volume=II|pages=518}}</ref> He also married Bhanmati, daughter of Bhim Raj, another brother of Rai Kalyan Mal.<ref name=":1" /> He also married Nathi Bai, daughter of Rawal Har Rai, the ruler of [[Jaisalmer]] in 1570.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=518}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Manchanda|first=Bindu|title=Jaisalmer: The City of Golden Sands and Strange Spirits|location=Jaisalmer, India|pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Somani|first=Ramavallabha|title=History of Jaisalmer|pages=55}}</ref> Rawal had sent a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. The proposal was accepted by Akbar. Raja Bhagwan Das was despatched on this service. The marriage ceremony took place after Akbar's return from [[Nagor]].{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|pp=518–519}} She was the mother of Princess Mahi Begum, who died on 8 April 1577.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=283}} In 1570, Narhardas, a grandson of Rao Viramde of [[Merta City|Merta]], married his sister, Puram Bai, to Akbar in return for Akbar's support of Keshodas's claims on Merta.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan|volume=I|pages=4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan|volume=II|pages=362}}</ref>

Another of his wives was Bhakkari Begum, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud of Bhakkar.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mahmudul|last=Hasan Siddiqi|title=History of the Arghuns and Tarkhans of Sindh, 1507–1593: An Annotated Translation of the Relevant Parts of Mir Ma'sums Ta'rikh-i-Sindh, with an Introduction & Appendices |publisher=Institute of Sindhology, University of Sind|year=1972|pages=166}}</ref> On 2 July 1572, Akbar's envoy I'timad Khan reached Mahmud's court to escort his daughter to Akbar. Itimad Khan brought with him for Sultan Mahmud an elegant dress of honor, a bejeweled scimitar belt, a horse with a saddle and reins, and four elephants. Mahmud celebrated the occasion by holding extravagant feasts for fifteen days. On the day of the wedding, the festivities reached their zenith, and the ulema, saints, and nobles were adequately honored with rewards. Mahmud offered 30,000 rupees in cash and kind to Itimad Khan and farewelled his daughter with a grand dowry and an impressive entourage.<ref>{{cite book|first=Aitzaz|last=Ahsan|year=2005|title=The Indus Saga|publisher=Roli Books Private Limited|isbn=978-9-351-94073-9}}</ref> She came to Ajmer and waited upon Akbar. The gifts of Sultan Mahmud, carried by the delegation were presented to the ladies of the imperial harem.<ref>{{cite book|first=Muhammad Saleem|last=Akhtar|title=Sindh under the Mughals: An Introduction to, translation of and commentary on the Mazhar-i Shahjahani of Yusuf Mirak (1044/1634)|year=1983|pages=78, 79, 81}}</ref>

His ninth wife was Qasima Banu Begum,<ref name="Burke1989" /> the daughter of Arab Shah. The marriage took place in 1575. A great feast was given, and the high officers and other pillars of the state were present.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|pp=167–168}} In 1577, the Rawal Askaran of [[Dungarpur State]] petitioned a request that his daughter might be married to Akbar. Akbar had regard for his loyalty and granted his request.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=278}} Rai Loukaran and Rajah Birbar, servants of the Rajah were sent from Dihalpur to do the honor of conveying his daughter. The two delivered the lady to Akbar's court where the marriage took place on 12 July 1577.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=295}}

His eleventh wife was Bibi Daulat Shad.<ref name="Burke1989" /> She was the mother of Princess Shakr-un-Nissa Begum, and Princess [[Aram Banu Begum]]{{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=39}} born on 22 December 1584.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Akbarnama of Abu'l Fazl Volume III|pages=661|quote=One of the occurrences was the birth of Ārām Bānū Begam.* On 12 Dai, 22 December 1584, divine month, and the 19th degree of Sagittarius, and according to the calculation of the Indians, one degree and 54 minutes, that night-gleaming jewel of fortune appeared and glorified the harem of the Shāhinshāh.}}</ref>{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=661}} His next wife was the daughter of Shams Chak, a Kashmiri. The marriage took place on 3 November 1592. Shams belonged to the great men of the country and had long cherished this wish.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=958}} In 1593, he married the daughter of Qazi Isa and the cousin of Najib Khan. Najib told Akbar that his uncle had made his daughter a present for him. Akbar accepted his representation and on 3 July 1593, he visited Najib Khan's house and married Qazi Isa's daughter.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=985}}

At some point, Akbar took into his [[harem]] Rukmavati, a daughter of Rao [[Maldev Rathore|Maldev]] of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]] by his mistress, Tipu Gudi. This was a ''dolo'' union as opposed to formal marriage, representing the bride's lower status in her father's household, and serving as an expression of vassalage to an overlord. The dating of this event is not recorded.<ref name="Sreenivasan2006">{{citation|last=Sreenivasan|first=Ramya|authorlink=Ramya Sreenivasan|editor1=Indrani Chatterjee|editor2=Richard M. Eaton|editor-link2=Richard M. Eaton|title=Drudges, dancing girls, concubines: female slaves in the Rajput polity, 1500–1850|journal=Slavery and South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nsh8NHDQHlcC&pg=PA152|year=2006|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=0-253-11671-6|pages=152, 159}}</ref><ref name="Chandra1993">{{cite book|last=Chandra|first=Satish|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119462/page/n24/mode/1up|year=1993|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|location=New Delhi, India|isbn=978-0-7069-6385-4|pages=17–18}}</ref>

[[File:Gate of the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, Agra, India, 1795.jpg|thumb|Gate of [[Tomb of Akbar the Great|Akbar's mausoleum]] at Sikandra, Agra, 1795]]

On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill from an attack of [[dysentery]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Remembering Akbar the Great: Facts about the most liberal Mughal emperor |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/akbar-the-great-348793-2016-10-27 |access-date=31 January 2021 |work=India Today |date=27 October 2016}}</ref> from which he never recovered. He is believed to have died on 27 October 1605. He was buried at [[Akbar's tomb|his mausoleum]] in Sikandra, Agra, which lies a kilometer next to the [[Mariam's Tomb|tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani]], his favourite and chief consort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|pp=168–169}}</ref><ref name=farishta/><ref name=jlmehta/>

Akbar left a rich legacy both for the Mughal Empire as well as the Indian subcontinent in general. He firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal Empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign,<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=79}}</ref> establishing its military and diplomatic superiority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|p=170}}</ref> During his reign, the nature of the state changed to a secular and liberal one, with emphasis on cultural integration. He also introduced several far-sighted social reforms, including prohibiting ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'', legalizing widow remarriage, and raising the age of marriage.

[[Folklore|Folk tales]] revolving around him and [[Birbal]], one of his ''navratnas'', are popular in India. He and his Hindu wife, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], in the popular culture known as '' 'Jodha Bai' '' are widely popular as the latter is believed to have been the prime inspiration and driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and universal benevolence (Sulh-i-Qul).

''[[Bhavishya Purana]]'' is a minor ''[[Purana]]'' that depicts the various Hindu holy days and includes a section devoted to the various dynasties that ruled India, dating its oldest portion to 500 CE and newest to the 18th century. It contains a story about Akbar in which he is compared to the other Mughal rulers. The section called "Akbar Bahshaha Varnan", written in Sanskrit describes his birth as a "[[reincarnation]]" of a sage who immolated himself on seeing the first Mughal ruler Babur, who is described as the "cruel king of Mlecchas (Muslims)". In this text it is stated that Akbar "was a miraculous child" and that he would not follow the previous "violent ways" of the Mughals.<ref name="Khanna, Culture of Medieval India">{{cite book|author=Meenakshi Khanna|title=Cultural History of Medieval India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbKv3zyIFD8C&pg=PA24 |year=2007|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-81-87358-30-5|pages=34–35 |access-date=30 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Review colonial record">{{cite book|title=The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialandasia00unkngoog |year=1900|publisher=Oriental Institute|pages=[https://archive.org/details/imperialandasia00unkngoog/page/n166 158]–161 |access-date=29 June 2013}}</ref>

Citing Akbar's melding of the disparate 'fiefdoms' of India into the [[Mughal Empire]] as well as the lasting legacy of "pluralism and tolerance" that "underlies the values of the modern republic of India", [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]] included his name in its list of top 25 world leaders.<ref name=time>{{cite magazine |last=Tharoor |first=Ishaan |date=4 February 2011 |title=Top 25 Political Icons:Akbar the Great |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2046303,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207230652/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2046303,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 February 2011 |magazine=Time}}</ref>

On the other hand, his legacy is explicitly negative in [[Pakistan]] for the same reasons. Historian [[Mubarak Ali]], while studying the image of Akbar in Pakistani textbooks, observes that Akbar "is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation", as opposed to the omnipresence of [[emperor Aurangzeb]]. He quotes historian [[Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi]], who said that, due to his religious tolerance, "Akbar had so weakened Islam through his policies that it could not be restored to its dominant position in the affairs." A common thread among Pakistani historians is to blame Akbar's [[Rajput]] policy. In a conclusion, after analyzing many textbooks, Mubarak Ali says that "Akbar is criticized for bringing Muslims and Hindus together as one nation and putting the separate identity of the Muslims in danger. This policy of Akbar contradicts the [[Two-nation theory|theory of Two-Nation]] and therefore makes him an unpopular figure in Pakistan."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=Mubarak |date=September–October 1992 |title=Akbar in Pakistani Textbooks |journal=Social Scientist |volume=20 |issue=9/10 |pages=73–76 |jstor=3517719 |doi=10.2307/3517719}}</ref>

* [[Mariam-uz-Zamani#Birth of Twins|Hassan Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 19 October 1564; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 5 November 1564) (twin with Hussain Mirza)—with [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum]]{{sfn|Lal|1980|p=133}}

* [[Mariam-uz-Zamani#Birth of Twins|Hussain Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 19 October 1564; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 29 October 1564) (twin with Hassan Mirza)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum{{sfn|Lal|1980|p=133}}

* [[Jahangir|Shahzada Salim]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 31 August 1569; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 28 October 1627)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum—He succeeded Akbar to the throne.

* [[Murad Mirza (son of Akbar)|Murad Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 15 June 1570; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 12 May 1599)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum or a concubine—Fostered by [[Salima Sultan Begum]] for the first few years and then returned to his mother's care before 1575.

* [[Daniyal Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 11 September 1572; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 19 March 1605 )— with a concubine — Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum.

* Shahzada Khusrao ( {{Abbr|d.|death}} infancy)—with a niece Rai Kalyan Mal of [[Bikaner]] {{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Akbar's daughters were:

* Fatima Banu Begum ( {{circa|1562}}; {{Abbr|d.|death}} infancy)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prasad |first=Beni |title=History of Jahangir |year=1940 |pages=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Early |first=Abraham |title=Emperors Of The Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls |quote=His first child was a daughter, Fatima Banu Begum, but she died in infancy, and so did the first sons born to him, twins named Hasan and Husain, born in 1564; they lived only a month.}}</ref>

* [[Shahzada Khanam]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 21 November 1569)—with Bibi Salima—Fostered by [[Mariam Makani]]—Married to Muzaffar Hussain Mirza, [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid Prince]].

* Mahi Begum ( {{Abbr|d.|death}} 7 April 1577)—with Nathi Bai

* [[Shakr-un-Nissa Begum]] ({{Abbr|d.|death}} 1 January 1653)—with Bibi Daulat Shad—Married to Shahrukh Mirza.

* Firoze Khannum ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 1575)—with a concubine —Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

* [[Aram Banu Begum]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 22 December 1584; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 17 June 1624)—with Bibi Daulat Shad

He had also adopted several children including :

* Kishnavati Bai ( {{Abbr|d.|death}} August 1609)—daughter of Sekhavat Kachvahi Durjan Sal. Akbar took her as his own and had her married to [[Sur Singh|Sawai Raja Sur Singh]] of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]. She became the mother of [[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Gaj Singh]] of Marwar and Manbhavati Bai, wife of [[Parviz Mirza]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan; Volume II|pages=51}}</ref>

;Films and television

* Akbar was portrayed in the award-winning 1960 [[Bollywood|Hindi movie]] ''[[Mughal-e-Azam]]'' (The great Mughal), in which his character was played by [[Prithviraj Kapoor]].

* The [[Government of India]]'s [[Films Division]] produced ''Akbar'', a documentary film about the emperor, in 1967 which was directed by Shanti S. Varma. It won the [[National Film Award for Best Educational/Motivational/Instructional Film]].

* In the Motu Patlu episode "Motu Akbar The Great" John fools Motu into believing he's playing as Akbar in a Hit Film.<ref>{{Citation |title=Motu Akbar The Great - Motu Patlu in Hindi - 3D Animation Cartoon for Kids -As on Nickelodeon |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=muNsCvHA-ho |language=en |access-date=2022-08-23}}</ref>

* [[Saurabh Raj Jain]] portrayed Akbar in the follow up sitcom by BIG Magic, ''[[Hazir Jawab Birbal]]''.

;Fiction

* [[Bertrice Small]] is known for incorporating historical figures as primary characters in her romance novels, and Akbar is no exception. He is a prominent figure in two of her novels, and mentioned several times in a third, which takes place after his death. In ''This Heart of Mine'' the heroine becomes Akbar's fortieth "wife" for a time, while ''Wild Jasmine'' and ''Darling Jasmine'' centre around the life of his half-British daughter, Yasaman Kama Begum (alias Jasmine).

* In [[Kunal Basu]]'s ''[[The Miniaturist (Kunal Basu novel)|The Miniaturist]]'', the story revolves around a young painter during Akbar's time who paints his own version of the ''Akbarnamu''

* Akbar is mentioned as 'Raja Baadshah' in the [[Chhattisgarhi]] [[Folklore|folktale]] of "[[Mohna de gori kayina]]"

;Video games

* Akbar is featured in the video game ''[[Sid Meier]]'s [[Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword]]'' as a "great general" available in the game.

* Akbar is also the AI Personality of India in the renowned game ''[[Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties]]''.

{{Reflist|25em}}

* {{cite book|title=Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture|first=M. Athar|last=Ali|year=2006|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-569661-5}}

* {{cite book|title=History of Medieval India|first=Satish|last=Chandra|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian) |year=2007|publisher=[[Orient Longman]]|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7}}

* {{cite book|title=Akbar and His India|first=Irfan|last=Habib|author-link=Irfan Habib|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-563791-5}}

* {{cite book|title=Religion, State and Society in Medieval India|first=Nurul|last=Hasan|author-link=Saiyid Nurul Hasan|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-569660-8}}

* {{cite book |last=Lal |first=Muni |year=1980 |title=Akbar| url= https://archive.org/details/Akbar/page/n113/mode/2up?q=Jodha+bai|publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=9780706910766}}

* {{cite book |year=1974 |editor-last=Majumdar |editor-first=R. C. |editor-link=R. C. Majumdar |title=History and Culture of the Indian People |url=https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/page/n6/mode/2up |volume=VII |location=Bombay |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}

* {{cite book |title=The Mughul Empire |first=R.C. |last=Majumdar |authorlink=R. C. Majumdar |year=1984 |publisher=[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] |place=Bombay}}

* {{cite book|title=People, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India|first=Shireen|last=Moosvi|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-569315-7}}

* {{cite book|title=History of Mughal Architecture|first=R.|last=Nath|year=1982|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-159-1}}

* {{cite book|title=A History of Jaipur|first=Jadunath|last=Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|year=1984|publisher=Orient Longman|place=New Delhi|isbn=81-250-0333-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC}}

* {{cite book|last=Smith |first=Vincent Arthur|author-link=Vincent Arthur Smith|title=Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924024056503#page/n7/mode/2up|year=1917|publisher=Oxford at The Clarendon Press}}

* {{cite book|title=The Oxford History of India|first=Vincent A.|last=Smith|author-link=Vincent Arthur Smith|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1919|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-561297-4|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00smit}}

* {{cite book|title=Akbarnama of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak – Volume II|first=Henry|last=Beveridge|year=1907|publisher=Asiatic Society, Calcutta |ref={{harvid|Beveridge Volume II|1907}} }}

* {{cite book|title=Akbarnama of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak – Volume III|first=Henry|last=Beveridge|year=1907|publisher=Asiatic Society, Calcutta |ref={{harvid|Beveridge Volume III|1907}} }}

* {{cite book|first1=Emperor |last1=Jahangir|first2=Wheeler&nbsp;McIntosh|last2=Thackston|title=The Jahangirnama : memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India|url=https://archive.org/details/jahangirnamamemo00jaha |publisher=Washington, D.C.: Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; New York: Oxford University Press|year=1999|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jahangirnamamemo00jaha/page/168 168], 316|isbn=978-0-19-512718-8}}

* {{cite encyclopedia |title=India |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Library History |editor-first1=Wayne A. |editor-last1=Wiegand |editor-link1=Wayne A. Wiegand |editor-first2=Donald G. |editor-last2=Davis|publisher=Garland Publishing, Inc. |year=1994 |isbn=0-8240-5787-2}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110103183456/http://www.india-intro.com/history-of-birbal-story-of-birbal.html History of the friendship between Akbar and Birbal]

* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9691 ''The Drama of Akbar''] by [[Muhammad Husain Azad]] from 1922.

[[Category:Child rulers from Asia]]