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{{short description|One of the principal deities in Hinduism}} | {{short description|One of the principal deities in Hinduism}} | ||
{{Other uses}} | {{Other uses}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2015}} | {{Use Indian English|date=March 2015}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date= | {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} | ||
{{Infobox deity <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> | {{Infobox deity <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> | ||
| type = Hindu | | type = Hindu | ||
| image = Vishnu Surrounded by his Avatars.jpg | | image = Vishnu Surrounded by his Avatars.jpg | ||
| name = Vishnu | | name = Vishnu | ||
| caption = Vishnu (center) surrounded by his [[Dashavatara]] | | caption = Vishnu (center) surrounded by his [[Dashavatara|dashavataras]] | ||
| affiliation = [[Parabrahman]] | | affiliation = {{hlist|[[Parabrahman]]|[[Trimurti]]|[[Brahman]]|[[Bhagavan]]|[[Ishvara]]|[[Dashavatara]]}} | ||
| deity_of = God of Preservation | | deity_of = God of Preservation<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA445|year=2008|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59339-491-2 |pages=445–448}}</ref> | ||
{{hlist|God of Time<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440|url-access=registration|year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster|isbn=978-0-87779-044-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/1134 1134]}}</ref>|The Protector of Good{{Sfn|Soifer|1991|p=85}}|Bestower of [[Karma]]}} | |||
[[Para Brahman|The Supreme Being]] ([[Vaishnavism]])<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KItocaxbibUC&dq=vishnu+supreme+being+vaishnavism&pg=PA112| isbn=9788175330832|title=Indian Civilization and Culture|year=1998| publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt.}}</ref> | |||
| abode = | | abode = {{hlist|[[Vaikuntha]]|[[Kshira Sagara]]}} | ||
| mantra = * [[Om Namo Narayanaya]] | | mantra = * [[Om Namo Narayanaya]] | ||
* [[Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya]] | * [[Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya]] | ||
*Hari Om | * [[Hari Om]] | ||
| weapon = * [[Sudarshana Chakra]] ( | | weapon = * [[Sudarshana Chakra]] (discus) | ||
* [[Panchajanya]] ([[Shankha| | * [[Panchajanya]] ([[Shankha|conch]]) | ||
* [[Kaumodaki]] ([[Gada (weapon)| | * [[Kaumodaki]] ([[Gada (weapon)|mace]]) | ||
* [[Sharanga]] (Bow) | * [[Sharanga]] ([[Bow and arrow|bow]]) | ||
* [[Nandaka]] ( | * [[Nandaka]] ([[sword]])<ref name=jones492>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=491–492}}</ref> | ||
| consort = [[Lakshmi]] and her [[Avatar#Avatars of Lakshmi|avatars]] | |||
<ref name=jones492>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=491–492}}</ref> | | mount = {{hlist|[[Garuda]]<ref name=jones492/>|[[Shesha]]<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/shesha|title=Shesha, Sesa, Śeṣa, Śeṣā: 34 definitions|date=23 August 2009}}</ref>}} | ||
| consort = [[Lakshmi]] | | festivals = {{hlist|[[Holi]]|[[Rama Navami]]|[[Krishna Janmashtami]]|[[Narasimha Jayanti]]|[[Deepavali]]|[[Onam]]|[[Vivaha Panchami]]|[[Vishu]]|[[Vijayadashami]]|[[Ananta Chaturdashi]]|[[Shayani Ekadashi]]|[[Prabodhini Ekadashi]] and other [[Ekadashi]]s|[[Kartik Purnima]]|[[Tulasi Vivaha]]|[[Buddha's Birthday|Buddha Purnima]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC |year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=75–91}}</ref>}} | ||
| mount = [[Garuda]] | | symbols = *[[Padma (Vishnu)|Padma]] ([[Lotus (plant)|lotus]]) | ||
| festivals = [[Holi]] | *[[Shaligram]]a | ||
| symbols = [[Padma (Vishnu)|Padma]] (Lotus) | |||
| siblings = [[Parvati]] or [[Durga]] (ceremonial sister; according to [[Shaivism]]) | | siblings = [[Parvati]] or [[Durga]] (ceremonial sister; according to [[Shaivism]]) | ||
| member_of = [[Trimurti]] | | member_of = [[Trimurti]] | ||
| other_names = [[Hari]] | | other_names = {{hlist|[[Hari]]|[[Narayana]]|[[Madhava (Vishnu)|Madhava]]|[[Keshava]]|[[Achyuta]]|[[Janardana]] and various others listed in the ''[[Vishnu Sahasranama]]''}} | ||
| children = | | children = *18 sons (from Lakshmi)<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.stephen-knapp.com/prayers_to_goddess_lakshmi.htm|title=Prayers to Goddess Lakshmi }}</ref> | ||
*18 sons (from Lakshmi)<ref>{{cite web | url= | *[[Kamadeva]] (in some traditions) | ||
*[[ | *[[Devasena]] and [[Sundaravalli]] (South Indian traditions) | ||
*[[ | |||
| day = [[Thursday]] | | day = [[Thursday]] | ||
}} | }}'''Vishnu''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|ɪ|ʃ|n|uː}} {{respell|VISH|noo}}; {{Lang-sa|विष्णु<!--Do not remove, WP:INDICSCRIPT doesn't apply to WikiProject Hinduism-->|Viṣṇu|lit=The Pervader}}, {{IPA-sa|ʋɪʂɳʊ|pron}}), also known as '''Narayana''' and '''Hari''', is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]]. He is the supreme being within [[Vaishnavism]], one of the major traditions within contemporary [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Comparative Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb0rCQD9NcoC|page=38|author=Kedar Nath Tiwari|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications|year=1987|isbn = 9788120802933}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 BCE- 700 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC |year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=24–25}}</ref> | ||
{{ | |||
{{ | |||
Vishnu is known as ''The Preserver'' within the [[Trimurti]], the [[triple deity]] of [[Para Brahman|supreme divinity]] that includes [[Brahma]] and [[Shiva]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Orlando O. Espín|author2=James B. Nickoloff|title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA539|year=2007|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7|page=539}}</ref><ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17">[[Gavin Flood]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C An Introduction to Hinduism]'' (1996), p. 17.</ref> In Vaishnavism, Vishnu is the supreme being who creates, protects, and transforms the [[Hindu cosmology|universe]]. In the [[Shaktism]] tradition, the Goddess, or [[Adi Shakti]], is described as the supreme [[para brahman|Para Brahman]], yet Vishnu is revered along with Shiva and Brahma. [[Tridevi]] is stated to be the energy and creative power ([[Shakti]]) of each, with [[Lakshmi]] being the equal complementary partner of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPrhBwAAQBAJ|page=236|author=David Leeming|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=17 November 2005|isbn=978-0190288884}}</ref> He is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17" /> | |||
According to Vaishnavism, the highest form of [[Ishvara]] is with qualities ([[Saguna Brahman|Saguna]]), and have certain form, but is limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute [[Brahman]], and the primal [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC|page=16|author1=Edwin Bryant|author2=Maria Ekstrand|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=23 June 2004|isbn=978-0231508438}}</ref> There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Vishnu. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient being sleeping on the coils of the serpent [[Adishesha]] (who represents time) floating in the primeval ocean of milk called [[Kshira Sagara]] with his consort, Lakshmi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_OIzDwAAQBAJ|title=In the Lost City of Sri Krishna: The Story of Ancient Dwaraka|page=737|author=Vanamali|publisher=Simon and Schuster|date=20 March 2018|isbn=978-1620556825}}</ref> | |||
According to Vaishnavism, the highest form of [[Ishvara]] is with qualities ([[Saguna Brahman|Saguna]]), and have certain form, but is limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute [[Brahman]], and the primal [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC|page=16|author1=Edwin Bryant|author2=Maria Ekstrand|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=23 June 2004|isbn=978-0231508438}}</ref> There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Vishnu. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient being sleeping on the coils of the serpent [[Adishesha]] (who represents time) floating in the primeval ocean of milk called [[Kshira Sagara]] with his consort, | |||
Whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces, Vishnu descends in the form of an [[avatar]] ''(incarnation)'' to restore the [[Hindu cosmology|cosmic order]], and protect ''[[dharma]]''. The [[Dashavatara]] are the ten primary [[avatar]]s ''(incarnations)'' of Vishnu. Out of these ten, [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]] are the most important.<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124">{{cite book|last1=Zimmer|first1=Heinrich Robert|author-link1=Heinrich Zimmer|title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01778-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTfNMQP81nAC|page=124|year=1972}}</ref> | Whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces, Vishnu descends in the form of an [[avatar]] ''(incarnation)'' to restore the [[Hindu cosmology|cosmic order]], and protect ''[[dharma]]''. The [[Dashavatara]] are the ten primary [[avatar]]s ''(incarnations)'' of Vishnu. Out of these ten, [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]] are the most important.<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124">{{cite book|last1=Zimmer|first1=Heinrich Robert|author-link1=Heinrich Zimmer|title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01778-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTfNMQP81nAC|page=124|year=1972}}</ref> | ||
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== Iconography == | == Iconography == | ||
Vishnu iconography shows him with dark blue, blue-gray or black coloured skin, and as a well-dressed jewelled man. He is typically shown with four arms, but two armed representations are also found in Hindu texts on artworks.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/><ref name="Rao1993p73"/> | {{CSS image crop|Image=Scuola di bilaspur, vishnu e lakshmi, 1810 ca.jpg|bSize=250|cWidth=213|cHeight=240|oTop=120|oLeft=17|Description=Miniature painting of Vishnu and Lakshmi in the [[Salar Jung Museum]], circa 1810|Location=left}} | ||
[[File:Lord Narayana.jpg|thumb|Vishnu holding Sudarshana Chakra Conch Lotus and Mace]] | |||
Vishnu iconography shows him with dark blue, blue-gray or black coloured skin, and as a well-dressed jewelled man. He is typically shown with four arms, but two armed representations are also found in Hindu texts on artworks.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30" /><ref name="Rao1993p73" /> | |||
The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell ([[shankha]] named [[Panchajanya]]) between the first two fingers of one hand (left back), a [[chakra]] – war discus named [[Sudarshana]] – in another (right back). The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence, while the discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/> One of his arms sometimes carries a ''gada'' (club, mace named [[Kaumodaki]]) which symbolizes authority and power of knowledge.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/> In the fourth arm, he holds a lotus flower (''[[Padma (Vishnu)|padma]]'') which symbolizes purity and transcendence.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30">{{cite book|author1=Steven Kossak|author2=Edith Whitney Watts|title=The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource for Educators |year= 2001 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC |publisher= Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn= 978-0-87099-992-5|pages= 30–31, 16, 25, 40–41, 74–78, 106–108}}</ref><ref name="Rao1993p73">{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=73–115}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA137 137], 231 (Vol. 1), 624 (Vol. 2)}}<br />{{*}}{{cite book|title=Vol. 1|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|via=Google Books|last1=James g. Lochtefeld |first1= | The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell ([[shankha]] named [[Panchajanya]]) between the first two fingers of one hand (left back), a [[chakra]] – war discus named [[Sudarshana]] – in another (right back). The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence, while the discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/> One of his arms sometimes carries a ''gada'' (club, mace named [[Kaumodaki]]) which symbolizes authority and power of knowledge.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/> In the fourth arm, he holds a lotus flower (''[[Padma (Vishnu)|padma]]'') which symbolizes purity and transcendence.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30">{{cite book|author1=Steven Kossak|author2=Edith Whitney Watts|title=The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource for Educators |year= 2001 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC |publisher= Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn= 978-0-87099-992-5|pages= 30–31, 16, 25, 40–41, 74–78, 106–108}}</ref><ref name="Rao1993p73">{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=73–115}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA137 137], 231 (Vol. 1), 624 (Vol. 2)}}<br />{{*}}{{cite book|title=Vol. 1|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|via=Google Books|last1=James g. Lochtefeld |first1=PhD |date=15 December 2001 }}<br />{{*}}{{cite book|title=Vol. 2|isbn= 978-0-8239-2287-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive|last1= Lochtefeld |first1= James G. |year= 2002 }}</ref> The items he holds in various hands varies, giving rise to twenty four combinations of iconography, each combination representing a special form of Vishnu. Each of these special forms is given a special name in texts such as the ''Agni Purana'' and ''Padma Purana''. These texts, however, are inconsistent.<ref name=bidyabinod>P.B.B. Bidyabinod, Varieties of the Vishnu Image, Memoirs of Archaeological Survey of India, No. 2, Calcutta, pages 23-33</ref> Rarely, Vishnu is depicted bearing the bow [[Sharanga]] or the sword [[Nandaka]]. He is depicted with the [[Kaustubha]] gem in a necklace and wearing [[Vaijayanti]], a garland of forest flowers. The [[shrivatsa]] mark is depicted on his chest in the form of a curl of hair. He generally wears yellow garments. He wears a crown called the [[Kiritamukuta]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blurton |first=T. Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&dq=kiritamukuta&pg=PA114 |title=Hindu Art |date=1993 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39189-5 |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Vishnu iconography show him either in standing pose, seated in a [[yoga]] pose, or reclining.<ref name="Rao1993p73"/> A traditional depiction of Vishnu is that of him reclining on the coils of the serpent [[Shesha]], accompanied by his consort [[Lakshmi]], as he "dreams the universe into reality."<ref>{{cite book |author1=Fred S. Kleiner|title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&q=vishnu+ananta&pg=PA22|year=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0495573678|page=22}}</ref> | Vishnu iconography show him either in standing pose, seated in a [[yoga]] pose, or reclining.<ref name="Rao1993p73"/> A traditional depiction of Vishnu is that of him reclining on the coils of the serpent [[Shesha]], accompanied by his consort [[Lakshmi]], as he "dreams the universe into reality."<ref>{{cite book |author1=Fred S. Kleiner|title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&q=vishnu+ananta&pg=PA22|year=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0495573678|page=22}}</ref> | ||
Vishnu was associated with the sun because he used to be "a minor solar deity but rose in importance in the following centuries."{{Sfn|Stevenson|2000|p=57}} | |||
== The Trimurti == | == The Trimurti == | ||
{{Main|Trimurti}} | {{Main|Trimurti}} | ||
[[File: | [[File:Trimurti1940s.jpg|thumb|Shiva (left), Vishnu (middle), and Brahma (right), c. 1940 illustration]] | ||
Particularly in [[Vaishnavism]], the Trimurti (also known as the '''Hindu Triad''' or '''Great Trinity''')<ref>See Apte, p. 485, for a definition of ''Trimurti'' as 'the unified form' of Brahmā, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva, as well as the use of phrase "Hindu triad."</ref><ref>See: Jansen, p. 83, for the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti.</ref> represents the three fundamental forces ([[Guṇa|''guṇas'']]) through which the universe is created, maintained, and destroyed in [[Hindu cosmology|cyclic succession]]. Each of these forces is represented by a Hindu deity:<ref>For quotation defining the Trimurti see: Matchett, Freda. 2003. "'The Purāṇas'." In ''Flood'', p. 139.</ref><ref>For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref> | Particularly in [[Vaishnavism]], the Trimurti (also known as the '''Hindu Triad''' or '''Great Trinity''')<ref>See Apte, p. 485, for a definition of ''Trimurti'' as 'the unified form' of Brahmā, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva, as well as the use of phrase "Hindu triad."</ref><ref>See: Jansen, p. 83, for the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti.</ref> represents the three fundamental forces ([[Guṇa|''guṇas'']]) through which the universe is created, maintained, and destroyed in [[Hindu cosmology|cyclic succession]]. Each of these forces is represented by a Hindu deity:<ref>For quotation defining the Trimurti see: Matchett, Freda. 2003. "'The Purāṇas'." In ''Flood'', p. 139.</ref><ref>For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref> | ||
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The trimurti themselves are beyond three gunas and are not affected by it.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-03-06|title=Shiva: The Auspicious One|url=https://iskconnews.org/shiva-the-auspicious-one/|access-date=2022-02-12|website=ISKCON News|language=en}}</ref> | The trimurti themselves are beyond three gunas and are not affected by it.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-03-06|title=Shiva: The Auspicious One|url=https://iskconnews.org/shiva-the-auspicious-one/|access-date=2022-02-12|website=ISKCON News|language=en}}</ref> | ||
In Hindu tradition, the trio is often referred to as '''Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh'''. All have the same meaning of three in One; different forms or manifestations of [[One]] person the [[Supreme Being]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23|publisher=Vedabase.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|archive-date=23 November 2010|access-date=2011-11-30 | In Hindu tradition, the trio is often referred to as '''Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh'''. All have the same meaning of three in One; different forms or manifestations of [[One]] person the [[Supreme Being]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23|publisher=Vedabase.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|archive-date=23 November 2010|access-date=2011-11-30}}</ref> | ||
==Avatars== | ==Avatars== | ||
{{Main|Avatar|Dashavatara}} | {{Main|Avatar|Dashavatara}} | ||
[[File: | [[File:Ten avatars.jpg|left|thumb|Hindu god [[Vishnu]] (centre) surrounded by his [[Dashavatara|ten major avatars]] (namely [[Matsya]]; [[Kurma]]; [[Varaha]]; [[Narasimha]]; [[Vamana]]; [[Parashurama]]; [[Rama]]; [[Krishna]]; [[Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]], and [[Kalki]]),]] | ||
The concept of the avatar (or incarnation) within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu [[Trimurti]]. The avatars of Vishnu descend to empower the good and to destroy evil, thereby restoring [[Dharma]] and relieving the burden of the Earth. An oft-quoted passage from the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu: | The concept of the avatar (or incarnation) within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu [[Trimurti]]. The avatars of Vishnu descend to empower the good and to destroy evil, thereby restoring [[Dharma]] and relieving the burden of the Earth. An oft-quoted passage from the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu: | ||
{{Blockquote|<poem> | {{Blockquote|<poem> | ||
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[[Vedas|Vedic]] literature, in particular the ''[[Puranas]]'' ('ancient'; similar to [[encyclopedia|''encyclopedias'']]) and ''[[Itihasa]]'' ('chronicle, history, legend'), narrate numerous [[avatar]]s of Vishnu. The most well-known of these avatars are [[Krishna]] (most notably in the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', and ''[[Mahabharata]]''; the latter encompassing the [[Bhagavad Gita]]), and [[Rama]] (most notably in the ''[[Ramayana]]''). Krishna in particular is venerated in [[Vaishnavism]] as the ultimate, primeval, [[Transcendence (religion)#Hinduism|transcendental]] source of all existence, including all the other [[demigod]]s and gods such as Vishnu. | [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature, in particular the ''[[Puranas]]'' ('ancient'; similar to [[encyclopedia|''encyclopedias'']]) and ''[[Itihasa]]'' ('chronicle, history, legend'), narrate numerous [[avatar]]s of Vishnu. The most well-known of these avatars are [[Krishna]] (most notably in the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', and ''[[Mahabharata]]''; the latter encompassing the [[Bhagavad Gita]]), and [[Rama]] (most notably in the ''[[Ramayana]]''). Krishna in particular is venerated in [[Vaishnavism]] as the ultimate, primeval, [[Transcendence (religion)#Hinduism|transcendental]] source of all existence, including all the other [[demigod]]s and gods such as Vishnu. | ||
=== The ''Mahabharata'' === | === The ''Mahabharata'' === | ||
In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Vishnu (as [[Narayana]]) states to [[Narada]] that He will appear in the following ten incarnations: | In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Vishnu (as [[Narayana]]) states to [[Narada]] that He will appear in the following ten incarnations: | ||
{{blockquote|Appearing in the forms of a swan [Hamsa], a tortoise [<nowiki/>[[Kurma]]], a fish [<nowiki/>[[Matsya]]], O foremost of regenerate ones, I shall then display myself as a boar [<nowiki/>[[Varaha]]], then as a Man-lion ([[Narasimha|Nrisingha]]), then as a dwarf [<nowiki/>[[Vamana]]], then as [[Parashurama|Rama]] of Bhrigu's race, then as [[Rama]], the son of Dasaratha, then as [[Krishna]] the scion of the Sattwata race, and lastly as [[Kalki]].|source=Book 12, Santi Parva, Chapter CCCXL (340), translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, 1883-1896<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12c039.htm|title=The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXL|website=sacred-texts.com|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> | {{blockquote|Appearing in the forms of a swan [Hamsa], a tortoise [<nowiki/>[[Kurma]]], a fish [<nowiki/>[[Matsya]]], O foremost of regenerate ones, I shall then display myself as a boar [<nowiki/>[[Varaha]]], then as a Man-lion ([[Narasimha|Nrisingha]]), then as a dwarf [<nowiki/>[[Vamana]]], then as [[Parashurama|Rama]] of Bhrigu's race, then as [[Rama]], the son of Dasaratha, then as [[Krishna]] the scion of the Sattwata race, and lastly as [[Kalki]].|source=Book 12, Santi Parva, Chapter CCCXL (340), translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, 1883-1896<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12c039.htm|title=The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXL|website=sacred-texts.com|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref>|title=}} | ||
=== The Puranas === | === The Puranas === | ||
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!Purana | !Purana | ||
!Avatars | !Avatars | ||
!Names / Descriptions (with chapters and verses) | !Names / Descriptions (with chapters and verses) – [[Dashavatara]] lists are in bold | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="2" |[[Agni Purana|Agni]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/AgniPuranaUnabridgedEnglishMotilal|title=Agni Purana Unabridged English Motilal (vol 1.)|last=J. L. Shastri|first=G. P. Bhatt|date=1998-01-01|pages=[https://archive.org/details/AgniPuranaUnabridgedEnglishMotilal/page/n8 1]–38}}</ref> | | rowspan="2" |[[Agni Purana|Agni]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/AgniPuranaUnabridgedEnglishMotilal|title=Agni Purana Unabridged English Motilal (vol 1.)|last=J. L. Shastri|first=G. P. Bhatt|date=1998-01-01|pages=[https://archive.org/details/AgniPuranaUnabridgedEnglishMotilal/page/n8 1]–38}}</ref> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="3" |[[Garuda Purana|Garuda]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541/page/n33 1]–6}}</ref> | | rowspan="3" |[[Garuda Purana|Garuda]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541/page/n33 1]–6}}</ref> | ||
|20<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha">Kumara is more likely to be the Four Kumaras (one unit) than | |20<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha">Kumara is more likely to be the Four Kumaras (one unit) than – as the translator believes – [[Kartikeya|Karttikeya]], one of [[Shiva|Shiva's]] sons and the Hindu god of war</ref> | ||
|Kumara, Varaha, Narada, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, [[Dattatreya|Datta]] (Dattatreya), Yajna, Urukrama, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma, Dhanavantari, Mohini, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Vyasadeva, Balarama, Krishna, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter 1) | |Kumara, Varaha, Narada, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, [[Dattatreya|Datta]] (Dattatreya), Yajna, Urukrama, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma, Dhanavantari, Mohini, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Vyasadeva, Balarama, Krishna, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter 1) | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|10<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12942|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 3|last=N.A|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI}}</ref> | |10<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12942|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 3|last=N.A|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI}}</ref> | ||
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Rama, | |Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, [[Balarama]], Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 3, Chapter 30, Verse 37) | ||
|- | |- | ||
|[[Linga Purana|Linga]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana | |[[Linga Purana|Linga]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana – English Translation – Part 2 of 2|last=J.L.Shastri|date=1951|pages=[https://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2/page/n281 774]}}</ref> | ||
|'''10'''<ref group="lower-alpha">These avatars are stated to incarnate 'for the good of the world' in every cycle of [[yuga]]s; It is also stated that there are other avatars due to the curse of [[Bhrigu|Bhrgu]]</ref> | |'''10'''<ref group="lower-alpha">These avatars are stated to incarnate 'for the good of the world' in every cycle of [[yuga]]s; It is also stated that there are other avatars due to the curse of [[Bhrigu|Bhrgu]]</ref> | ||
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 2, Chapter 48, Verses 31–32) | |Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 2, Chapter 48, Verses 31–32) | ||
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|3 celestial incarnations of [[Dharma]], Nrishimha, and Vamana; and 7 human incarnations of [[Dattatreya]], [[Mandhatri|Mandhitri]], Parasurama, Rama, Vedavyasa (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter XLVII / 47) | |3 celestial incarnations of [[Dharma]], Nrishimha, and Vamana; and 7 human incarnations of [[Dattatreya]], [[Mandhatri|Mandhitri]], Parasurama, Rama, Vedavyasa (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter XLVII / 47) | ||
|- | |- | ||
|[[Naradiya Purana|Narada]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12976|title= | |[[Naradiya Purana|Narada]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12976|title=The Narada-Purana Part. 4|last=N.A|date=1952|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12976/page/n152 1486]}}</ref> | ||
|'''10''' | |'''10''' | ||
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama, Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, Kalki (Part 4, Chapter 119, Verses 14–19), and Kapila<ref name=jacobsen08>{{cite book |year=2008 |surname=Jacobsen |given=Knut A. |author-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |title=Kapila, Founder of Sāṃkhya and Avatāra of Viṣṇu: With a Translation of Kapilāsurisaṃvāda |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |isbn=978-81-215-1194-0 |pages=9–25}}</ref> | |Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama, Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, Kalki (Part 4, Chapter 119, Verses 14–19), and Kapila<ref name=jacobsen08>{{cite book |year=2008 |surname=Jacobsen |given=Knut A. |author-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |title=Kapila, Founder of Sāṃkhya and Avatāra of Viṣṇu: With a Translation of Kapilāsurisaṃvāda |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |isbn=978-81-215-1194-0 |pages=9–25}}</ref> | ||
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|'''Part 7:''' [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]] (66.44-54) and [[Brahma]] (71.23-29) name 'Matsya, Kurma, and Varaha. Narasimha and Vamana, (Parasu-)rama, Rama, Krsna, Buddha, and Kalki'; '''Part 9:''' this list is repeated by [[Shiva]] (229.40-44); Kapila<ref name=jacobsen08 /> | |'''Part 7:''' [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]] (66.44-54) and [[Brahma]] (71.23-29) name 'Matsya, Kurma, and Varaha. Narasimha and Vamana, (Parasu-)rama, Rama, Krsna, Buddha, and Kalki'; '''Part 9:''' this list is repeated by [[Shiva]] (229.40-44); Kapila<ref name=jacobsen08 /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
|[[Shiva Purana|Shiva]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart4|title=Siva Purana | |[[Shiva Purana|Shiva]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart4|title=Siva Purana – English Translation – Part 4 of 4|last=J.L.Shastri|date=1950}}</ref> | ||
|'''10''' | |'''10''' | ||
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, 'Rama trio' [Rama, Parasurama, Balarama], Krishna, Kalki (Part 4: Vayaviya Samhita: Chapter 30, Verses 56-58 and Chapter 31, verses 134–136) | |Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, 'Rama trio' [Rama, Parasurama, Balarama], Krishna, Kalki (Part 4: Vayaviya Samhita: Chapter 30, Verses 56-58 and Chapter 31, verses 134–136) | ||
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| rowspan="2" |[[Skanda Purana|Skanda]] | | rowspan="2" |[[Skanda Purana|Skanda]] | ||
|14<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13008|title=THE SKANDA-PURANA PART. 7|last=N.A|date=1951|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13008/page/n295 285]–288}}</ref> | |14<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13008|title=THE SKANDA-PURANA PART. 7|last=N.A|date=1951|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13008/page/n295 285]–288}}</ref> | ||
|Varaha, | |Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Nrsimha, Vamana, Kapila, Datta, Rsabha, Bhargava Rama (Parashurama), Dasarathi [[Rama]], Krsna, Krsna Dvaipayana (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Part 7: Vasudeva-Mamatmya: Chapter 18) | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'''10'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20778|title=THE SKANDA-PURANA PART.15|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI}}</ref> | |'''10'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20778|title=THE SKANDA-PURANA PART.15|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI}}</ref> | ||
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===Dashavatara=== | ===Dashavatara=== | ||
[[File:Vishnu Avatars.jpg|thumb|[[Hindu]] god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his avatars | [[File:Vishnu Avatars.jpg|thumb|[[Hindu]] god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his avatars (counter-clockwise, from left-top: [[Matsya]]; [[Kurma]]; [[Varaha]]; [[Narasimha]]; [[Vamana]]; [[Parashurama]]; [[Rama]]; [[Krishna]]; [[Gautama Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]] and [[Kalki]]), 19th century [[Chromolithography|oleograph]] by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]]] | ||
{{Main|Dashavatara}} | {{Main|Dashavatara}} | ||
The ''Dashavatara'' is a list of the so-called ''Vibhavas'', or '10 [primary] [[Avatar]]s' of Vishnu. The [[Agni Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Naradiya Purana|Narada Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], and [[Skanda Purana]] all provide matching lists. The same ''Vibhavas'' are also found in the ''Garuda Purana'' ''Saroddhara'', a commentary or | The ''Dashavatara'' is a list of the so-called ''Vibhavas'', or '10 [primary] [[Avatar]]s' of Vishnu. The [[Agni Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Naradiya Purana|Narada Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], and [[Skanda Purana]] all provide matching lists. The same ''Vibhavas'' are also found in the ''Garuda Purana'' ''Saroddhara'', a commentary or 'extracted essence' written by Navanidhirama about the Garuda Purana (i.e. not the [[Puranas|Purana]] itself, with which it seems to be confused): | ||
{{blockquote|The [[Matsya|Fish]], the [[Kurma|Tortoise]], the [[Varaha|Boar]], the [[Narasimha|Man-Lion]], the [[Vamana|Dwarf]], [[Parashurama|Parasurama]], [[Rama]], [[Krishna|Krisna]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and also [[Kalki]]: These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise. Those who recite them near the diseased are called relatives.|source=''Garuda Purana Saroddhara'', Chapter VIII, Verses 10-11, translated by E. Wood and S.V. Subrahmanyam<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45762|title=The Garuda Purana|last=Subrahmanyam|first=S. V.|date=1911|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45762/page/n74 62]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gpu/gpu10.htm|title=The Garuda Purana: Chapter VIII. An Account of the Gifts for the Dying|website=sacred-texts.com|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>|author=Navanidhirama|title=}} | {{blockquote|The [[Matsya|Fish]], the [[Kurma|Tortoise]], the [[Varaha|Boar]], the [[Narasimha|Man-Lion]], the [[Vamana|Dwarf]], [[Parashurama|Parasurama]], [[Rama]], [[Krishna|Krisna]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and also [[Kalki]]: These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise. Those who recite them near the diseased are called relatives.|source=''Garuda Purana Saroddhara'', Chapter VIII, Verses 10-11, translated by E. Wood and S.V. Subrahmanyam<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45762|title=The Garuda Purana|last=Subrahmanyam|first=S. V.|date=1911|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45762/page/n74 62]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gpu/gpu10.htm|title=The Garuda Purana: Chapter VIII. An Account of the Gifts for the Dying|website=sacred-texts.com|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>|author=Navanidhirama|title=}} | ||
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===Perumal=== | ===Perumal=== | ||
{{Main|Perumal (deity)}} | {{Main|Perumal (deity)}} | ||
[[File:Malekallu Tirupathi-balaji, Arsikere.jpg|thumb|[[Venkateswara|Venkatesvara]], one of the forms of Perumal (Vishnu)]] | [[File:Malekallu Tirupathi-balaji, Arsikere.jpg|thumb|[[Venkateswara|Venkatesvara]], one of the forms of Perumal (Vishnu), 2013]] | ||
Perumal ({{Lang-ta|பெருமாள்}})—also known as Thirumal ({{Lang-ta|திருமால்|links=no}}), or Mayon (as described in the Tamil scriptures)— was accepted as a manifestation of Vishnu during the process of the syncretism of South Indian deities into mainstream Hinduism. He is a popular [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity among [[Tamils|Tamilians]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], as well among the [[Tamil diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/mal.html|title=Devotion to Mal (Mayon)|website=University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy|access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Who's who in non-classical mythology|last=Sykes, Egerton|others=Kendall, Alan, 1939-|date=4 February 2014|isbn=9781136414442|edition=2nd|location=London|oclc=872991268}}</ref> Revered by the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] denomination of Hinduism, Perumal is venerated in popular tradition as [[Venkateswara|Venkateshwara]] at [[Tirupati]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnXXAAAAMAAJ&q=perumal+venkateshwara+temple |title=Balaji-Venkateshwara, Lord of Tirumala-Tirupati: An Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Vakils, Feffer, and Simons |isbn=978-81-87111-46-7 |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy]] at [[Srirangam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyar |first=P. V. Jagadisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&q=perumal+srirangam+temple |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |date=1982 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |pages=453 |language=en}}</ref> | Perumal ({{Lang-ta|பெருமாள்}})—also known as Thirumal ({{Lang-ta|திருமால்|links=no}}), or Mayon (as described in the Tamil scriptures)— was accepted as a manifestation of Vishnu during the process of the syncretism of South Indian deities into mainstream Hinduism. He is a popular [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity among [[Tamils|Tamilians]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], as well among the [[Tamil diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/mal.html|title=Devotion to Mal (Mayon)|website=University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy|access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Who's who in non-classical mythology|last=Sykes, Egerton|others=Kendall, Alan, 1939-|date=4 February 2014|isbn=9781136414442|edition=2nd|location=London|oclc=872991268}}</ref> Revered by the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] denomination of Hinduism, Perumal is venerated in popular tradition as [[Venkateswara|Venkateshwara]] at [[Tirupati]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnXXAAAAMAAJ&q=perumal+venkateshwara+temple |title=Balaji-Venkateshwara, Lord of Tirumala-Tirupati: An Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Vakils, Feffer, and Simons |isbn=978-81-87111-46-7 |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy]] at [[Srirangam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyar |first=P. V. Jagadisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&q=perumal+srirangam+temple |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |date=1982 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |pages=453 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
==Literature== | ==Literature== | ||
{{Infobox | {{Infobox | ||
| title = Vishnu icons across cultures | | title = Vishnu icons across cultures | ||
| image = | | image = {{image array|perrow=2|width=125|height=125 | ||
{{image array|perrow=2|width=125|height=125 | |||
| image1 = KINGS of BAKTRIA. Agathokles. Circa 185-170 BC. AR Drachm (3.22 gm, 12h). Bilingual series. BASILEWS AGAQOKLEOUS with Indian god Balarama-Samkarshana.jpg|caption1=180 BCE [[Indo-Greek]] coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]]. | | image1 = KINGS of BAKTRIA. Agathokles. Circa 185-170 BC. AR Drachm (3.22 gm, 12h). Bilingual series. BASILEWS AGAQOKLEOUS with Indian god Balarama-Samkarshana.jpg|caption1=180 BCE [[Indo-Greek]] coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]]. | ||
| image2 = VishnuGandhara.JPG| caption2 = [[Vishnu Nicolo Seal]], {{nowrap|4th–6th}} century CE, [[Gandhara]]. | | image2 = VishnuGandhara.JPG| caption2 = [[Vishnu Nicolo Seal]], {{nowrap|4th–6th}} century CE, [[Gandhara]]. | ||
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| image6 = Vishnu Kediri.jpg| caption6 = [[Indonesia]] | | image6 = Vishnu Kediri.jpg| caption6 = [[Indonesia]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
|caption =The iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history. | | caption = The iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history. | ||
}} | }} | ||
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Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3.<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /> In these hymns, the Vedic scriptures assert that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) reside, an assertion that may have been the reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu [[soteriology]].<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p10">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint) |isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=9–11, 167–169}}</ref> He is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" /> | Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3.<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /> In these hymns, the Vedic scriptures assert that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) reside, an assertion that may have been the reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu [[soteriology]].<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p10">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint) |isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=9–11, 167–169}}</ref> He is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" /> | ||
{{Verse translation|तदस्य प्रियमभि पाथो अश्यां नरो यत्र देवयवो मदन्ति । उरुक्रमस्य स हि बन्धुरित्था विष्णोः पदे परमे मध्व उत्सः ॥५॥ ऋग्वेद १-१५४-५|5. Might I reach that dear cattle-pen of his, where men seeking the gods find elation, for exactly that is the bond to the wide-striding one: the wellspring of honey in the highest step of Viṣṇu.|lang=sa|attr1=RV. 1.154.5<ref name="ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ | {{Verse translation|तदस्य प्रियमभि पाथो अश्यां नरो यत्र देवयवो मदन्ति । उरुक्रमस्य स हि बन्धुरित्था विष्णोः पदे परमे मध्व उत्सः ॥५॥ ऋग्वेद १-१५४-५|5. Might I reach that dear cattle-pen of his, where men seeking the gods find elation, for exactly that is the bond to the wide-striding one: the wellspring of honey in the highest step of Viṣṇu.|lang=sa|attr1=RV. 1.154.5<ref name="ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ – विकिस्रोतः">"[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AA ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ – विकिस्रोतः]". ''sa.wikisource.org''. Retrieved 17 June 2020.</ref>|italicsoff=off|attr2=translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020<ref name="Jamison, Stephanie 2020">Jamison, Stephanie (2020). ''The Rigveda''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0190633395}}.</ref>}} | ||
{{Verse translation|आहं पितॄन्सुविदत्राँ अवित्सि नपातं च विक्रमणं च विष्णोः । | {{Verse translation|आहं पितॄन्सुविदत्राँ अवित्सि नपातं च विक्रमणं च विष्णोः । | ||
बर्हिषदो ये स्वधया सुतस्य भजन्त पित्वस्त इहागमिष्ठाः ॥३॥ ऋग्वेद १०-१५-३|3. I have found here the forefathers good to find and the grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu. | बर्हिषदो ये स्वधया सुतस्य भजन्त पित्वस्त इहागमिष्ठाः ॥३॥ ऋग्वेद १०-१५-३|3. I have found here the forefathers good to find and the grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu. | ||
Those who, sitting on the ritual grass, share in the pressed soma and the food at (the cry of) | Those who, sitting on the ritual grass, share in the pressed soma and the food at (the cry of) "svadhā", they are the most welcome arrivals here.|lang=sa|attr1=RV 10.15.13<ref name="ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ – विकिस्रोतः"/>|italicsoff=off|attr2=translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020<ref name="Jamison, Stephanie 2020"/>}} | ||
In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing the symbol of evil named [[Vritra]].<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p18" /> His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in [[Mandala 7]] refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the Rigveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is [[Surya]] or [[Savitr]] (Sun god), who also bears the name ''Suryanarayana''. Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni, wherein different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and impel them to go about their daily activities.<ref name="Macdonell1898p29">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=29–32}}</ref> | In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing the symbol of evil named [[Vritra]].<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p18" /> His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in [[Mandala 7]] refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the Rigveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is [[Surya]] or [[Savitr]] (Sun god), who also bears the name ''Suryanarayana''. Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni, wherein different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and impel them to go about their daily activities.<ref name="Macdonell1898p29">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=29–32}}</ref> | ||
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===Puranas=== | ===Puranas=== | ||
[[File:Bhagavata Purana (Ancient Stories of the Lord) Manuscript LACMA M.88.134.4 (2 of 2).jpg|thumb|The [[Bhagavata Purana]] is centred around [[Krishna]], a Vishnu avatar.]] | [[File:Bhagavata Purana (Ancient Stories of the Lord) Manuscript LACMA M.88.134.4 (2 of 2).jpg|thumb|The [[Bhagavata Purana]] (c. 16th century) is centred around [[Krishna]], a Vishnu avatar.]] | ||
Vishnu is the primary focus of the Vaishnavism-focused [[Puranas]] genre of [[Hindu texts]]. Of these, according to [[Ludo Rocher]], the most important texts are the [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Nāradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]] and [[Vayu Purana]].{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp= | Vishnu is the primary focus of the Vaishnavism-focused [[Puranas]] genre of [[Hindu texts]]. Of these, according to [[Ludo Rocher]], the most important texts are the [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Nāradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]] and [[Vayu Purana]].{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=59–61}} The Purana texts include many versions of cosmologies, mythologies, encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life, and chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples-related tourist guides called {{lang|sa|mahatmyas}}.{{Sfn|Glucklich|2008|p=146, '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''.}} | ||
One version of the cosmology, for example, states that Vishnu's eye is at the Southern Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IsSpbyjw5DMC&pg=PA273 | title = Sinister Yogis | isbn = 978-0-226-89515-4 | last1 = White | first1 = David Gordon | page=273 with footnote 47| date = 2010-07-15}}</ref> In another version found in section 4.80 of the Vayu Purana, he is the [[Hiranyagarbha]], or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all feminine and masculine beings of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.M Masson|title=The Oceanic Feeling: The Origins of Religious Sentiment in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swsrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |year=2012|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-94-009-8969-6|pages=63 with footnote 4}}</ref> | One version of the cosmology, for example, states that Vishnu's eye is at the Southern Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IsSpbyjw5DMC&pg=PA273 | title = Sinister Yogis | isbn = 978-0-226-89515-4 | last1 = White | first1 = David Gordon | page=273 with footnote 47| date = 2010-07-15}}</ref> In another version found in section 4.80 of the Vayu Purana, he is the [[Hiranyagarbha]], or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all feminine and masculine beings of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.M Masson|title=The Oceanic Feeling: The Origins of Religious Sentiment in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swsrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |year=2012|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-94-009-8969-6|pages=63 with footnote 4}}</ref> | ||
==== Vishnu Purana ==== | ==== Vishnu Purana ==== | ||
The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp= | The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=246–247}} | ||
The [[Vishnu Purana]] also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called [[Brahman]] in the context of the [[Upanishad]]s; a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar [[Ramanuja]] interprets to be about the equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu, a foundational theology in the [[Sri Vaishnavism]] tradition.<ref>Sucharita Adluri (2015), Textual Authority in Classical Indian Thought: Ramanuja and the Visnu Purana, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415695756}}, pages 1-11, 18-26</ref> | The [[Vishnu Purana]] also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called [[Brahman]] in the context of the [[Upanishad]]s; a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar [[Ramanuja]] interprets to be about the equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu, a foundational theology in the [[Sri Vaishnavism]] tradition.<ref>Sucharita Adluri (2015), Textual Authority in Classical Indian Thought: Ramanuja and the Visnu Purana, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415695756}}, pages 1-11, 18-26</ref> | ||
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==== Other Puranas ==== | ==== Other Puranas ==== | ||
Some versions of the Purana texts, unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts, emphasize Vishnu as supreme and on whom other gods depend. Vishnu, for example, is the source of creator deity [[Brahma]] in the Vaishnavism-focussed Purana texts. Vishnu's iconography typically shows Brahma being born in a lotus emerging from his navel, who then is described as creating all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/krishnasourceboo00brya_424/page/n32 18]}} In contrast, the [[Shiva]]-focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by [[Ardhanarishvara]], that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from [[Rudra]], or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons ([[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206">Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019307}}, pages 205-206</ref> | Some versions of the Purana texts, unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts, emphasize Vishnu as supreme and on whom other gods depend. Vishnu, for example, is the source of creator deity [[Brahma]] in the Vaishnavism-focussed Purana texts. Vishnu's iconography and a Hindu myth typically shows Brahma being born in a lotus emerging from his navel, who then is described as creating the world{{Sfn|Stevenson|2000|p=164}} or all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/krishnasourceboo00brya_424/page/n32 18]}} In contrast, the [[Shiva]]-focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by [[Ardhanarishvara]], that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from [[Rudra]], or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons ([[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206">Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019307}}, pages 205-206</ref> | ||
In some Vaishnava Puranas, Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands Rudra to destroy the world, thereafter the entire universe dissolves and along with time, everything is reabsorbed back into Vishnu. The universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again, starting a new ''Kalpa''.<ref name="doniger71">{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxoaUKmMG9gC&pg=PA71 |year=1988|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61847-0|pages=71–73}}</ref> For this the ''Bhagavata Purana'' employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a spider and the universe as his web. Other texts offer alternate cosmogenic theories, such as one where the universe and time are absorbed into Shiva.<ref name="doniger71" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01930-7|pages=274–276}}</ref> | In some Vaishnava Puranas, Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands Rudra to destroy the world, thereafter the entire universe dissolves and along with time, everything is reabsorbed back into Vishnu. The universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again, starting a new ''Kalpa''.<ref name="doniger71">{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxoaUKmMG9gC&pg=PA71 |year=1988|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61847-0|pages=71–73}}</ref> For this the ''Bhagavata Purana'' employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a spider and the universe as his web. Other texts offer alternate cosmogenic theories, such as one where the universe and time are absorbed into Shiva.<ref name="doniger71" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01930-7|pages=274–276}}</ref> | ||
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Krishna as Vishnu avatar is the primary subject of two post-Sangam Tamil epics ''[[Silappadikaram]]'' and ''[[Manimekalai]]'', each of which was probably composed about the 5th century CE.<ref name="padmaja30">{{cite book|author=T. Padmaja|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=PA28 |year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|pages=30–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=John Stratton Hawley|author2=Donna Marie Wulff|title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C&pg=PA238 |year=1982|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-89581-102-8|pages=238–244}}</ref> These Tamil epics share many aspects of the story found in other parts of India, such as those related to baby Krishna such as stealing butter, and teenage Krishna such as teasing girls who went to bathe in a river by hiding their clothes.<ref name="padmaja30" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Guy L. Beck|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8341-1|pages=68–69}}</ref> | Krishna as Vishnu avatar is the primary subject of two post-Sangam Tamil epics ''[[Silappadikaram]]'' and ''[[Manimekalai]]'', each of which was probably composed about the 5th century CE.<ref name="padmaja30">{{cite book|author=T. Padmaja|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=PA28 |year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|pages=30–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=John Stratton Hawley|author2=Donna Marie Wulff|title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C&pg=PA238 |year=1982|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-89581-102-8|pages=238–244}}</ref> These Tamil epics share many aspects of the story found in other parts of India, such as those related to baby Krishna such as stealing butter, and teenage Krishna such as teasing girls who went to bathe in a river by hiding their clothes.<ref name="padmaja30" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Guy L. Beck|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8341-1|pages=68–69}}</ref> | ||
===Bhakti | ===Bhakti movement=== | ||
Ideas about Vishnu in the mid 1st millennium CE were important to the [[Bhakti movement]] theology that ultimately swept India after the 12th century. The [[Alvars]], which literally means "those immersed in God", were Tamil Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another.<ref name="olson231">{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|title=The many colors of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|page=231|isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9}}</ref> They established temple sites such as [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam]], and spread ideas about [[Vaishnavism]]. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or [[Divya Prabhandham]], developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The [[Bhagavata Purana]]'s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on ''bhakti'', have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that ''bhakti'' movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|p={{page needed|date=January 2021}}}}<ref>{{cite book | last=[[J. A. B. van Buitenen]] | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |title=Encyclopedia Indica | year = 1996| editor=S.S Shashi | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 | pages=28–45 }}</ref> | Ideas about Vishnu in the mid 1st millennium CE were important to the [[Bhakti movement]] theology that ultimately swept India after the 12th century. The [[Alvars]], which literally means "those immersed in God", were Tamil Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another.<ref name="olson231">{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|title=The many colors of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|page=231|isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9}}</ref> They established temple sites such as [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam]], and spread ideas about [[Vaishnavism]]. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or [[Divya Prabhandham]], developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The [[Bhagavata Purana]]'s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on ''bhakti'', have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that ''bhakti'' movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|p={{page needed|date=January 2021}}}}<ref>{{cite book | last=[[J. A. B. van Buitenen]] | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |title=Encyclopedia Indica | year = 1996| editor=S.S Shashi | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 | pages=28–45 }}</ref> | ||
==Vaishnava theology== | ==Vaishnava theology== | ||
{{Main|Vaishnavism|Pañcaratra}} | {{Main|Vaishnavism|Pañcaratra}} | ||
The Bhagavata Purana summarizes the Vaishnava theology, wherein it frequently discusses the merging of the individual Self with the Absolute [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality, Supreme Truth), or "the return of Brahman into His own true nature", a distinctly [[Advaitic]] or non-dualistic philosophy of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]].{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}<ref name="Brown" />{{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} The concept of ''[[moksha]]'' is explained as ''Ekatva'' ('Oneness') and ''Sayujya'' ('Absorption, intimate union'), wherein one is completely lost in Brahman (Self, Supreme Being, one's true nature).<ref name="Rukmani_217-218" /> This, states Rukmini (1993), is proclamation of "return of the individual Self to the Absolute and its merging into the Absolute", which is unmistakably Advaitic in its trend.<ref name="Rukmani_217-218" /> In the same passages, the Bhagavata includes a mention of [[Bhagavan]] as the object of concentration, thereby presenting the [[Bhakti]] path from the three major paths of Hindu spirituality discussed in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref name="Rukmani_217-218">{{Harvnb|Rukmani|1993|pp=217–218}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Murray Milner Jr.|title=Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdqMMcYQ7r8C |year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535912-1|pages=191–203}}</ref> | {{Vaishnavism}}The Bhagavata Purana summarizes the Vaishnava theology, wherein it frequently discusses the merging of the individual Self with the Absolute [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality, Supreme Truth), or "the return of Brahman into His own true nature", a distinctly [[Advaitic]] or non-dualistic philosophy of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]].{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}<ref name="Brown" />{{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} The concept of ''[[moksha]]'' is explained as ''Ekatva'' ('Oneness') and ''Sayujya'' ('Absorption, intimate union'), wherein one is completely lost in Brahman (Self, Supreme Being, one's true nature).<ref name="Rukmani_217-218" /> This, states Rukmini (1993), is proclamation of "return of the individual Self to the Absolute and its merging into the Absolute", which is unmistakably Advaitic in its trend.<ref name="Rukmani_217-218" /> In the same passages, the Bhagavata includes a mention of [[Bhagavan]] as the object of concentration, thereby presenting the [[Bhakti]] path from the three major paths of Hindu spirituality discussed in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref name="Rukmani_217-218">{{Harvnb|Rukmani|1993|pp=217–218}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Murray Milner Jr.|title=Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdqMMcYQ7r8C |year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535912-1|pages=191–203}}</ref> | ||
The theology in the ''Bhagavad Gita'' discusses both the sentient and the non-sentient, the Self and the matter of existence. It envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu (Krishna), state Harold Coward and Daniel Maguire. Vishnu in Gita's theology pervades all | Vaishnava thought holds Vishnu to exist in the alternate guise of "Isvara, the Lord of All Being" and the universe to be his breath that he will "assimilate" into him again, by breathing and causing the end of the world, which has happened before.{{Sfn|Stevenson|2000|p=57}} Afterwards, he will "exhale again and re-create the world."{{Sfn|Stevenson|2000|p=57}} | ||
The theology in the ''Bhagavad Gita'' discusses both the sentient and the non-sentient, the Self and the matter of existence. It envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu (Krishna), state Harold Coward and Daniel Maguire. Vishnu in Gita's theology pervades all selves, all matter, and time,<ref name="coward113">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkIwI84XajEC&pg=PA113|title=Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption, and Ecology|author1=Harold Coward|author2=Daniel C. Maguire|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7914-4458-0|page=113}}</ref> and is associated with [[Brahman]].{{Sfn|Stevenson|2000|p=57}} In Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition, Vishnu and Sri (goddess [[Lakshmi]]) are described as inseparable, that they pervade everything together. Both together are the creators, who also pervade and transcend their creation.<ref name="coward113" /> | |||
The Bhagavata Purana, in many passages, parallels the ideas of Nirguna Brahman and non-duality of [[Adi Shankara]]. {{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} For example: | The Bhagavata Purana, in many passages, parallels the ideas of Nirguna Brahman and non-duality of [[Adi Shankara]]. {{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} For example: | ||
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==Associated deities== | ==Associated deities== | ||
===Lakshmi=== | ===Lakshmi=== | ||
{{Main|Lakshmi}} | {{Main|Lakshmi}} | ||
[[File: | [[File:Lakshmi_Vishnu.jpg|thumb|Vishnu with [[Lakshmi]] ([[Lakshmi Narayan]]) on [[Garuda]], painted in [[gouache]] c. 1820 ]]Lakshmi, the [[Hindu goddess]] of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the wife and [[shakti|active energy]] of Vishnu.<ref name="anandrao167">{{cite book|author=Anand Rao|title=Soteriologies of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxGEy6m4N9kC&pg=PA167|year=2004|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-7205-2|page=167}}</ref><ref>A Parasarthy (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, {{ISBN|978-8175971493}}, pages 91-92, 160-162</ref> She is also called [[Sri]].<ref name="mmwlak">{{Cite MWSD|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/mw/l.html|lakṣmī}}</ref><ref name="jmuir">John Muir, {{Google books|ymLZAAAAMAAJ|Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India – Their Religions and Institutions|348}}, Volume 5, pp. 348-362 with footnotes</ref> When Vishnu incarnated on earth as the [[avatar]]s [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]], Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts: [[Sita]] and [[Radha]] or [[Rukmini]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monaghan |first=Patricia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha |title=Goddesses in World Culture |date=2010-12-31 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
Lakshmi, the [[Hindu goddess]] of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the wife and [[shakti|active energy]] of Vishnu.<ref name="anandrao167">{{cite book|author=Anand Rao|title=Soteriologies of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxGEy6m4N9kC&pg=PA167|year=2004|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-7205-2|page=167}}</ref><ref>A Parasarthy (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, {{ISBN|978-8175971493}}, pages 91-92, 160-162</ref> She is also called [[Sri]].<ref name="mmwlak">{{Cite MWSD|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/mw/l.html|lakṣmī}}</ref><ref name="jmuir">John Muir, {{Google books|ymLZAAAAMAAJ|Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India | <ref name="Rosen2006">{{cite book|last=Rosen|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven J. Rosen|title=Essential Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuVG8PxKq_0C&pg=PA136|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-99006-0|page=136}}</ref> Various regional beliefs consider Lakshmi to be manifested as various goddesses, who are considered Vishnu's wives. In South India, Lakshmi is worshipped in two forms – Sridevi and [[Bhudevi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knapp |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&dq=sridevi+and+bhudevi&pg=PT378 |title=Spiritual India Handbook |date=2009-01-01 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8495-024-3 |pages=378 |language=en}}</ref> In Tirupati, [[Venkateshwara]] (identified as a form of Vishnu) is depicted with consorts, Lakshmi and [[Padmavathi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Critical Companion to George Orwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=491|author=Edward Quinn|year=2014|isbn = 9781438108735}}</ref> | ||
<ref name="Rosen2006">{{cite book|last=Rosen|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven J. Rosen|title=Essential Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuVG8PxKq_0C&pg=PA136|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-99006-0|page=136}}</ref> Various regional beliefs consider Lakshmi to be manifested as various goddesses, who are considered Vishnu's wives. In South India, Lakshmi is worshipped in two forms | |||
===Garuda=== | ===Garuda=== | ||
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=== Shesha === | === Shesha === | ||
{{Main|Shesha}} | {{Main|Shesha}} | ||
[[File:Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. Sculpture. From India, c. 14th century CE. National Museum of Scotland.jpg|thumb|Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (Shesha, the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. | [[File:Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. Sculpture. From India, c. 14th century CE. National Museum of Scotland.jpg|thumb|Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (Shesha, the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. 14th century sculpture from India, housed in [[National Museum of Scotland]]]] | ||
One of the primordial beings of creation, Shesha, or Adishesha, is the king of the serpents in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hāṇḍā |first=Omacanda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55617010 |title=Naga cults and traditions in the western Himalaya |date=2004 |publisher=Indus Pub. Co |isbn=81-7387-161-2 |location=New Delhi |oclc=55617010}}</ref> Residing in [[Vaikuntha]], Vishnu sleeps upon Adishesha in a perpetual slumber in his form of [[Narayana]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Achuthananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&dq=shesha+vishnu&pg=PA75 |title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma |date=2018-08-27 |publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd |isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2 |pages=175 |language=en}}</ref> | One of the primordial beings of creation, Shesha, or Adishesha, is the king of the serpents in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hāṇḍā |first=Omacanda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55617010 |title=Naga cults and traditions in the western Himalaya |date=2004 |publisher=Indus Pub. Co |isbn=81-7387-161-2 |location=New Delhi |oclc=55617010}}</ref> Residing in [[Vaikuntha]], Vishnu sleeps upon Adishesha in a perpetual slumber in his form of [[Narayana]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Achuthananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&dq=shesha+vishnu&pg=PA75 |title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma |date=2018-08-27 |publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd |isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2 |pages=175 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
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=== Harihara === | === Harihara === | ||
{{Main|Harihara}} | {{Main|Harihara}} | ||
[[File:Harihara V&A.jpg|thumb|Harihara | [[File:Harihara V&A.jpg|thumb|Harihara – Combined form of Vishnu and Shiva, c. 1825]] | ||
Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations. Harihara is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva, mentioned in literature such as the [[Vamana Purana]] (chapter 36),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.313087|title=The Vamana Purana With English Translation|last=Gupta|first=anand Swarup|date=1968|pages=326}}</ref> and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE, such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-century [[Badami cave temples]].<ref>Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807051}}, pages 89-95, 115-124, 174-184</ref><ref>TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, pages 334-335</ref> Another half Vishnu half Shiva form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in [[Mahabharata]].<ref>For Harirudra citation to Mahabharata 3:39:76f see Hopkins (1969), p. 221.</ref> | Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations. Harihara is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva, mentioned in literature such as the [[Vamana Purana]] (chapter 36),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.313087|title=The Vamana Purana With English Translation|last=Gupta|first=anand Swarup|date=1968|pages=326}}</ref> and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE, such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-century [[Badami cave temples]].<ref>Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807051}}, pages 89-95, 115-124, 174-184</ref><ref>TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, pages 334-335</ref> Another half Vishnu half Shiva form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in [[Mahabharata]].<ref>For Harirudra citation to Mahabharata 3:39:76f see Hopkins (1969), p. 221.</ref> | ||
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===Buddhism=== | ===Buddhism=== | ||
[[File:Devinuwara Sri Vishnu Maha Devalaya in Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in Devinuwara, Matara, Sri Lanka.]] | [[File:Devinuwara Sri Vishnu Maha Devalaya in Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in [[Dondra|Devinuwara, Matara, Sri Lanka]].]] | ||
While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of [[Sri Lanka]] and protector of Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Swarna Wickremeratne| title = Buddha in Sri Lanka: Remembered Yesterdays| publisher = State University of New York Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYrQnZT9JREC |year = 2012| isbn=978-0791468814 |page = 111}}</ref> | While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of [[Sri Lanka]] and protector of Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Swarna Wickremeratne| title = Buddha in Sri Lanka: Remembered Yesterdays| publisher = State University of New York Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYrQnZT9JREC |year = 2012| isbn=978-0791468814 |page = 111}}</ref> | ||
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John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were integrated into the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture, such as the 14th and 15th-century [[Lankatilaka Vihara|Lankatilaka]] and [[Gadaladeniya Vihara|Gadaladeniya]] Buddhist temples.<ref>{{cite book | author = John C Holt|title = The Buddhist Vishnu: Religious transformation, politics and culture| publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2004|isbn= 978-0231133234|page=51}}</ref> He states that the medieval Sinhala tradition encouraged Visnu worship (puja) as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu tradition incorporated the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, but contemporary [[Theravada]] monks are attempting to purge the Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples.<ref>{{cite book | author = John C Holt|title = The Buddhist Vishnu: Religious transformation, politics and culture| publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2004|isbn= 978-0231133234|pages=5–7, 13–27}}</ref> According to Holt, the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in [[Ceylon]] was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s, Holt states that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital [[Polonnaruwa]]. | John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were integrated into the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture, such as the 14th and 15th-century [[Lankatilaka Vihara|Lankatilaka]] and [[Gadaladeniya Vihara|Gadaladeniya]] Buddhist temples.<ref>{{cite book | author = John C Holt|title = The Buddhist Vishnu: Religious transformation, politics and culture| publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2004|isbn= 978-0231133234|page=51}}</ref> He states that the medieval Sinhala tradition encouraged Visnu worship (puja) as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu tradition incorporated the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, but contemporary [[Theravada]] monks are attempting to purge the Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples.<ref>{{cite book | author = John C Holt|title = The Buddhist Vishnu: Religious transformation, politics and culture| publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2004|isbn= 978-0231133234|pages=5–7, 13–27}}</ref> According to Holt, the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in [[Ceylon]] was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s, Holt states that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital [[Polonnaruwa]]. | ||
Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of Southeast Asia, now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In [[Thailand]], for example, statues of four-armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to be from the 4th to 9th-century, and this mirror those found in ancient India.<ref name=hobsonxxiii>{{cite book|author1= | Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of Southeast Asia, now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In [[Thailand]], for example, statues of four-armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to be from the 4th to 9th-century, and this mirror those found in ancient India.<ref name="hobsonxxiii">{{cite book |author1=Jacq-Hergoualc'h |first=Michel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PR23 |title=The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk-Road (100 BC-1300 AD) |publisher=BRILL Academic |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-11973-4 |page=xxiii, 116–128 |translator-last=Hobson |translator-first=Victoria}}</ref> Similarly, Vishnu statues have been discovered from the 6th to 8th century eastern [[Prachinburi Province]] and central [[Phetchabun Province]] of Thailand and southern [[Đồng Tháp Province]] and [[An Giang Province]] of [[Vietnam]].{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 131]–135, 145}} Krishna statues dated to the early 7th century to 9th century have been discovered in [[Takéo Province]] and other provinces of [[Cambodia]].{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 146]–148, 154–155}} | ||
Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia, and these have been dated to the 5th century and thereafter.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=7–9}} In addition to statues, inscriptions and carvings of Vishnu, such as those related to the "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) have been found in many parts of Buddhist southeast Asia.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=11–12, 118–129}} In some iconography, the symbolism of [[Surya]], Vishnu and Buddha are fused.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=221–225}} | Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia, and these have been dated to the 5th century and thereafter.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=7–9}} In addition to statues, inscriptions and carvings of Vishnu, such as those related to the "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) have been found in many parts of Buddhist southeast Asia.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=11–12, 118–129}} In some iconography, the symbolism of [[Surya]], Vishnu and Buddha are fused.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=221–225}} | ||
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=== In science === | === In science === | ||
[[4034 Vishnu]] is an asteroid discovered by [[Eleanor F. Helin]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMH64M_Vishnu_4034_Vishnu_Asteroid__Pasadena_CA|title=Vishnu & 4034 Vishnu Asteroid | [[4034 Vishnu]] is an asteroid discovered by [[Eleanor F. Helin]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMH64M_Vishnu_4034_Vishnu_Asteroid__Pasadena_CA|title=Vishnu & 4034 Vishnu Asteroid – Pasadena, CA – Extraterrestrial Locations on Waymarking.com|website=waymarking.com}}</ref> Vishnu rocks are a type of volcanic [[Sedimentary rock|sediment]] found in the [[Grand Canyon]], Arizona, USA. Consequently, mass formations are known as Vishnu's temples.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pandasthumb.org/archives/2012/08/vishnu-temple-a.html|title=Vishnu Temple at the Grand Canyon|first=Matt|last=Young|date=27 August 2012|website=The Panda's Thumb}}</ref> | ||
==Outside Indian subcontinent== | ==Outside Indian subcontinent== | ||
===Indonesia=== | ===Indonesia=== | ||
[[File:Gwk.jpg|thumb|270px|Statue of Vishnu riding Garuda in [[Garuda Wisnu Kencana]], [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]] | [[File:Gwk.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Garuda Wisnu Kencana statue|Statue of Vishnu riding Garuda]] in [[Garuda Wisnu Kencana Cultural Park|GWK Park]], [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], completed in 2018]] | ||
In [[Indonesia]], Vishnu or ''Wisnu'' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] spelling) is a well-known figure in the world of [[wayang]] ([[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesian]] Puppetry), Wisnu is often referred to as the title ''Sanghyang Batara Wisnu''. Wisnu is the god of justice or welfare, wisnu was the fifth son of [[Batara Guru]] and Batari Uma. He is the most powerful son of all the sons of Batara Guru. | In [[Indonesia]], Vishnu or ''Wisnu'' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] spelling) is a well-known figure in the world of [[wayang]] ([[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesian]] Puppetry), Wisnu is often referred to as the title ''Sanghyang Batara Wisnu''. Wisnu is the god of justice or welfare, wisnu was the fifth son of [[Batara Guru]] and Batari Uma. He is the most powerful son of all the sons of Batara Guru. | ||
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Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in existence by the 1st century BCE.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18 with footnote 19}} The most significant Vishnu-related epigraphy and archaeological remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in [[Rajasthan]] which refer to temples of Sankarshana and Vasudeva, the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which mentions a Bhagavata temple, another inscription in [[Naneghat]] cave in [[Maharashtra]] by a Queen Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana, Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and several discoveries in [[Mathura]] relating to Vishnu, all dated to about the start of the common era.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18 with footnote 19}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year=1997|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-10758-8|pages=211–220, 240–259}}</ref><ref>[a] {{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Mathurā: The Cultural Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82vtCre6vTcC|year=1989|publisher=Manohar|isbn=978-81-85054-37-7|pages=389–392}};<br />[b] {{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06498-0|pages=127–136|chapter=Early Krishan Icons: the case at Mathura}}</ref> | Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in existence by the 1st century BCE.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18 with footnote 19}} The most significant Vishnu-related epigraphy and archaeological remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in [[Rajasthan]] which refer to temples of Sankarshana and Vasudeva, the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which mentions a Bhagavata temple, another inscription in [[Naneghat]] cave in [[Maharashtra]] by a Queen Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana, Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and several discoveries in [[Mathura]] relating to Vishnu, all dated to about the start of the common era.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18 with footnote 19}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year=1997|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-10758-8|pages=211–220, 240–259}}</ref><ref>[a] {{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Mathurā: The Cultural Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82vtCre6vTcC|year=1989|publisher=Manohar|isbn=978-81-85054-37-7|pages=389–392}};<br />[b] {{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06498-0|pages=127–136|chapter=Early Krishan Icons: the case at Mathura}}</ref> | ||
The [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], is dedicated to Vishnu. The temple has attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history.<ref>{{cite news | title=Keralas Sree Padmanabha Swamy temple may reveal more riches | website=India Today | date=2011-07-07 | url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/kerala-temple-may-reveal-more-riches/1/144004.html | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Pomfret | first=James | title=Kerala temple treasure brings riches, challenges | | The [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], is dedicated to Vishnu. The temple has attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history.<ref>{{cite news | title=Keralas Sree Padmanabha Swamy temple may reveal more riches | website=India Today | date=2011-07-07 | url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/kerala-temple-may-reveal-more-riches/1/144004.html | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Pomfret | first=James | title=Kerala temple treasure brings riches, challenges | agency=Reuters |location=India| date=2011-08-19 | url=http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-58866020110819 | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | last=Blitzer | first=Jonathan | title=The Secret of the Temple | magazine=The New Yorker | date=2012-04-23 | url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/04/30/the-secret-of-the-temple | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=A One Trillion Dollar Hidden Treasure Chamber is Discovered at India's Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimdobson/2015/11/13/a-one-trillion-dollar-hidden-treasure-chamber-is-discovered-at-indias-sree-padmanabhaswam-temple/|magazine=Forbes.com}}</ref> | ||
===List of temples=== | ===List of temples=== | ||
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#[[Kallalagar temple|Kallalagar temple , Madurai]] | #[[Kallalagar temple|Kallalagar temple , Madurai]] | ||
{{wide image|Srirangamlong view.jpg|600px|[[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple]] is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to Vishnu located in [[Srirangam]], [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The temple occupies an area of {{convert|156|acres|m2|abbr=on}} with a perimeter of {{convert| | {{wide image|Srirangamlong view.jpg|600px|[[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple]] is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to Vishnu located in [[Srirangam]], [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The temple occupies an area of {{convert|156|acres|m2|abbr=on}} with a perimeter of {{convert|4116|m|ft|abbr=on}} making it the largest temple in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.{{sfn|Mittal| Thursby |2005| p= 456}}||none}} | ||
==Gallery== | ==Gallery== | ||
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===Works cited=== | ===Works cited=== | ||
{{Refbegin|30em}} | {{Refbegin|30em}} | ||
*{{cite journal| last=Brown| first=C. Mackenzie|year=1983| title=The Origin and Transmission of the Two "Bhāgavata Purāṇas": A Canonical and Theological Dilemma| journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion| publisher=Oxford University Press| volume=51 | issue=4| pages=551–567| jstor=1462581| doi=10.1093/jaarel/li.4.551 }} | *{{cite journal |last=Brown |first=C. Mackenzie |year=1983 |title=The Origin and Transmission of the Two "Bhāgavata Purāṇas": A Canonical and Theological Dilemma |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=551–567 |jstor=1462581 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/li.4.551}} | ||
*{{cite book| last=Brown| first=Cheever Mackenzie|title=The Devī Gītā: the song of the Goddess; a translation, annotation, and commentary| publisher=SUNY Press| year=1998| isbn=978-0-7914-3940-1| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OxayHczql9EC&pg=PA17 }} | *{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Cheever Mackenzie |title=The Devī Gītā: the song of the Goddess; a translation, annotation, and commentary |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7914-3940-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OxayHczql9EC&pg=PA17}} | ||
*{{cite book|editor-last=Bryant|editor-first=Edwin F.|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=New York| year=2007| isbn=978-0-19-514891-6| url=https://archive.org/details/krishnasourceboo00brya_424 |url-access=limited}} [Via [https://books.google.com/books?id=HVDqCkW1WpUC Google Books] | *{{cite book |editor-last=Bryant |editor-first=Edwin F. |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-514891-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/krishnasourceboo00brya_424 |url-access=limited}} [Via [https://books.google.com/books?id=HVDqCkW1WpUC Google Books] | ||
*{{cite book| last=Cutler| first=Norman| title=Songs of Experience| publisher=Indiana University Press| year=1987|page=1|isbn=978-0-253-35334-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA1 }} | *{{cite book |last=Cutler |first=Norman |title=Songs of Experience |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1987 |page=1 |isbn=978-0-253-35334-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA1}} | ||
*{{cite book|last= Deussen|first=Paul| title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA556|year= 1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7}} | *{{cite book |last=Deussen |first=Paul |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA556 |year=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1467-7}} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Glucklich|first=Ariel|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC| year=2008| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-971825-2 }} | *{{cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971825-2}} | ||
*{{cite book|title=The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoFDK_sDGHwC|first=Deborah A.|last=Soifer|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1991|isbn = 9780791407998}} | *{{cite book |title=The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoFDK_sDGHwC |first=Deborah A. |last=Soifer |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991 |isbn=9780791407998}} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Guy |first=John |title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia |year=2014 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-524-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ}} | *{{cite book |last=Guy |first=John |title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia |year=2014 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-524-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ}} | ||
*{{cite book| last=Kumar Das |first=Sisir | title=A history of Indian literature, 500–1399 | publisher=Sahitya Akademi | year=2006 | isbn=978-81-260-2171-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC3l1AbPM8sC }} | *{{cite book |last=Kumar Das |first=Sisir |title=A history of Indian literature, 500–1399 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-260-2171-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC3l1AbPM8sC}} | ||
*{{cite book|last= Lamb |first=Ramdas |title=Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv1nxyOTgN0C&pg=PA191|year=2002|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5386-5}} | *{{cite book |last=Lamb |first=Ramdas |title=Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv1nxyOTgN0C&pg=PA191 |year=2002 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-5386-5}} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Mahony|first=William K. |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 }} | *{{cite book |last=Mahony |first=William K. |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3}} | ||
*{{cite book | author = Translation by Richard W. Lariviere| title = The Nāradasmr̥ti| publisher = University of Philadelphia | year = 1989}} | *{{cite book |author=Translation by Richard W. Lariviere |title=The Nāradasmr̥ti |publisher=University of Philadelphia |year=1989}} | ||
*{{cite journal|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|author-link1=Patrick Olivelle|title=The Date and Provenance of the Viṣṇu Smṛti|date=2007|volume=33|pages=49–163 |url=http://www.indologica.it/volumi/doc_XXXIII/chapter%2007%20Olivelle.pdf|access-date=23 October 2015|journal=Indologica Taurinensia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722035453/http://www.indologica.it/volumi/doc_XXXIII/chapter%2007%20Olivelle.pdf|archive-date=22 July 2011}} | *{{cite journal |last1=Olivelle |first1=Patrick |author-link1=Patrick Olivelle |title=The Date and Provenance of the Viṣṇu Smṛti |date=2007 |volume=33 |pages=49–163 |url=http://www.indologica.it/volumi/doc_XXXIII/chapter%2007%20Olivelle.pdf |access-date=23 October 2015 |journal=Indologica Taurinensia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722035453/http://www.indologica.it/volumi/doc_XXXIII/chapter%2007%20Olivelle.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011}} | ||
*{{Cite book|first=Ludo |last=Rocher| year= 1986| author-link= Ludo Rocher| title= The Puranas| publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn= 978-3447025225}} | *{{Cite book |first=Ludo |last=Rocher |year=1986 |author-link=Ludo Rocher |title=The Puranas |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3447025225}} | ||
*{{cite book | author = Devdutt Pattanaik| title = 7 Secrets of Vishnu| publisher = westland ltd| year = 2011| isbn = 978-93-80658-68-1| author-link = Devdutt Pattanaik}} | *{{cite book |author=Devdutt Pattanaik |title=7 Secrets of Vishnu |publisher=westland ltd |year=2011 |isbn=978-93-80658-68-1 |author-link=Devdutt Pattanaik}} | ||
*{{cite book |last1=Daniélou |first1=Alain |author1-link=Alain Daniélou |title=The myths and gods of India : the classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen series |date=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions International |location=Rochester, Vt. |isbn=0-89281-354-7 |pages=164–187 |orig-date=1964 |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani}} | *{{cite book |last1=Daniélou |first1=Alain |author1-link=Alain Daniélou |title=The myths and gods of India : the classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen series |date=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions International |location=Rochester, Vt. |isbn=0-89281-354-7 |pages=164–187 |orig-date=1964 |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani}} | ||
*{{Cite journal | last1 = Coleman | first1 = T. | doi = 10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0009 | title = Avatāra | journal= Oxford Bibliographies Online: Hinduism| year = 2011 | postscript = . Short introduction and bibliography of sources about ''Avatāra'' {{ODNBsub|sentence=yes}}. }} | *{{Cite journal |last1=Coleman |first1=T. |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0009 |title=Avatāra |journal=Oxford Bibliographies Online: Hinduism |year=2011 |postscript=. Short introduction and bibliography of sources about ''Avatāra'' {{ODNBsub|sentence=yes}}.}} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Matchett|first=Freda|title=Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu| isbn =978-0700712816 |year=2001| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC | *{{cite book |last=Matchett |first=Freda |title=Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu |isbn=978-0700712816 |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC |publisher=Routledge}} | ||
*{{Cite book|title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre | author= Paul Hacker| language=de| editor= Lambert Schmithausen| publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=1978| isbn=978-3447048606 }} | *{{Cite book |title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre |author=Paul Hacker |language=de |editor=Lambert Schmithausen |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=1978 |isbn=978-3447048606}} | ||
*{{cite book |last1=Mittal |first1=Sushil |first2=G. R.|last2= Thursby|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fz6KBkgEacAC&q=The+Hindu+World+%2B+srirangam&pg=PA456 |title=The Hindu World|year=2005 |publisher=Routelge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-203-67414-7}} | *{{cite book |last1=Mittal |first1=Sushil |first2=G. R. |last2=Thursby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fz6KBkgEacAC&q=The+Hindu+World+%2B+srirangam&pg=PA456 |title=The Hindu World |year=2005 |publisher=Routelge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-203-67414-7}} | ||
*{{cite book|last= Sen |first=S.C. |title=The Mystical Philosophy | *{{cite book |last=Sen |first=S.C. |title=The Mystical Philosophy of the Upanishads |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xnhNZQJ07DYC&pg=PA26 |year=1937 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-81-307-0660-3}} | ||
*{{cite book| editor=Wayman, Alex |title=Researches in Indian and Buddhist philosophy: essays in honour of Professor Alex Wayman | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | last = Rukmani | first=T. S. |author-link=T. S. Rukmani |chapter = Siddhis in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and in the Yogasutras of Patanjali – a Comparison | year=1993 | pages=217–226 | isbn=978-81-208-0994-9 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1ffdTIbNJkC&pg=PA217 }} | *{{cite book |editor=Wayman, Alex |title=Researches in Indian and Buddhist philosophy: essays in honour of Professor Alex Wayman |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |last=Rukmani |first=T. S. |author-link=T. S. Rukmani |chapter=Siddhis in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and in the Yogasutras of Patanjali – a Comparison |year=1993 |pages=217–226 |isbn=978-81-208-0994-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1ffdTIbNJkC&pg=PA217}} | ||
*{{cite book| last=Sheridan| first=Daniel| title= The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |publisher=South Asia Books |location=Columbia, MO |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-208-0179-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C }} | *{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |publisher=South Asia Books |location=Columbia, MO |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-208-0179-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C}} | ||
*{{cite journal|doi=10.1353/pew.2002.0005|last=Sheth|first=Noel| year= 2002| title=Hindu Avatāra and Christian Incarnation: A Comparison| journal=Philosophy East and West| publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]]| volume=52| issue=1 (January)|pages=98–125 |jstor = 1400135 |s2cid=170278631}} | *{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/pew.2002.0005 |last=Sheth |first=Noel |year=2002 |title=Hindu Avatāra and Christian Incarnation: A Comparison |journal=Philosophy East and West |publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]] |volume=52 |issue=1 (January) |pages=98–125 |jstor=1400135 |s2cid=170278631}} | ||
*{{cite book| last=Varadpande| first= Manohar Laxman|title=History of Indian theatre, Vol. 3 | publisher=Abhinav Publications| year=1987| isbn=978-81-7017-221-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC }} | *{{cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Jay |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy |publisher=[[Alpha Books]] |year=2000 |isbn=9780028638201 |location=Indianapolis |pages= |language=en-US}} | ||
*{{cite book |last=Varadpande |first=Manohar Laxman |title=History of Indian theatre, Vol. 3 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7017-221-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC}} | |||
{{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||
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{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:Vishnu| ]] | [[Category:Vishnu| ]] | ||