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{{about|the particular space between celestial bodies|the general concept|Space}}
{{about|the particular space between celestial bodies|the general concept|Space}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Other uses}}


{{Short description|Void between celestial bodies}}
{{Short description|Void between celestial bodies}}
{{Good article}}
{{Good article}}
[[File:Earth's atmosphere.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The interface between the Earth's surface and outer space. The [[Kármán line]] at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} is shown. The layers of [[atmosphere of Earth|the atmosphere]] are drawn to scale, whereas objects within them, such as the [[International Space Station]], are not.]]
[[File:Earth's atmosphere.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The interface between the Earth's surface and outer space. The [[Kármán line]] at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} is shown. The layers of [[atmosphere of Earth|the atmosphere]] are drawn to scale, whereas objects within them, such as the [[International Space Station]], are not.]]


'''Outer space''', commonly shortened to '''space''', is the expanse that exists beyond [[Earth]] and [[Earth atmosphere|its atmosphere]] and between [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]]. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a [[hard vacuum]] containing a low density of particles, predominantly a [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]], as well as [[electromagnetic radiation]], [[magnetic field]]s, [[cosmic neutrino background|neutrinos]], [[cosmic dust|dust]], and [[cosmic ray]]s. The baseline [[temperature]] of outer space, as set by the [[cosmic background radiation|background radiation]] from the [[Big Bang]], is {{Convert|2.7|K|C F|abbr=out}}.<ref name="CBE2008" /> The [[Warm–hot intergalactic medium|plasma between galaxies]] is thought to account for about half of the [[baryonic matter|baryonic (ordinary) matter]] in the universe, having a [[number density]] of less than one [[hydrogen atom]] per [[cubic metre]] and a temperature of millions of kelvins.<ref name=baas41_908/> Local concentrations of matter have condensed into [[star]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Studies indicate that 90% of the mass in most galaxies is in an unknown form, called [[dark matter]], which interacts with other matter through [[gravitation]]al but not [[electromagnetic force]]s.{{sfn|Freedman|Kaufmann|2005|pp=573, 599–601}}<ref name="Trimble 1987" /> Observations suggest that the majority of the [[Mass–energy equivalence|mass-energy]] in the [[observable universe]] is ''[[dark energy]]'', a type of [[vacuum energy]] that is poorly understood.<ref name="nasa_darkenergy" />{{sfn|Freedman|Kaufmann|2005|pp=650–653}} Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the [[universe]], but even galaxies and [[star system]]s consist almost entirely of empty space.
'''Outer space''', commonly shortened to '''space''', is the expanse that exists beyond [[Earth]] and [[Earth atmosphere|its atmosphere]] and between [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]]. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a [[Ultra-high vacuum|near perfect vacuum]]<ref>{{citation | title=Vacuum Technology | first=A. | last=Roth | page=6 | isbn=9780444598745 | publisher=Elsevier | year=2012 | url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=oBqs3sr9r48C&pg=PA6 }}</ref> containing a low density of particles, predominantly a [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]], as well as [[electromagnetic radiation]], [[magnetic field]]s, [[cosmic neutrino background|neutrinos]], [[cosmic dust|dust]], and [[cosmic ray]]s. The baseline [[temperature]] of outer space, as set by the [[cosmic background radiation|background radiation]] from the [[Big Bang]], is {{Convert|2.7255|K|C F|abbr=out}} +/-0.002 K.<ref name="CBE2008" /> The [[Warm–hot intergalactic medium|plasma between galaxies]] is thought to account for about half of the [[baryonic matter|baryonic (ordinary) matter]] in the universe, having a [[number density]] of less than one [[hydrogen atom]] per [[cubic metre]] and a temperature of millions of kelvins.<ref name=baas41_908/> Local concentrations of matter have condensed into [[star]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Studies indicate that 90% of the mass in most galaxies is in an unknown form, called [[dark matter]], which interacts with other matter through [[gravitation]]al but not [[electromagnetic force]]s.{{sfn|Freedman|Kaufmann|2005|pp=573, 599–601}}<ref name="Trimble 1987" /> Observations suggest that the majority of the [[Mass–energy equivalence|mass-energy]] in the [[observable universe]] is ''[[dark energy]]'', a type of [[vacuum energy]] that is poorly understood.<ref name="nasa_darkenergy" />{{sfn|Freedman|Kaufmann|2005|pp=650–653}} Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the [[universe]], but even galaxies and [[star system]]s consist almost entirely of empty space.


Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above the Earth's surface. The [[Kármán line]], an altitude of {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} above sea level,{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|p=84}}<ref name=space_begin/> is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international [[space law]] was established by the [[Outer Space Treaty]], which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of [[national sovereignty]] and permits all states to freely [[space exploration|explore outer space]]. Despite the drafting of [[UN resolution]]s for the peaceful uses of outer space, [[anti-satellite weapon]]s have been tested in Earth orbit.
Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above the Earth's surface. The [[Kármán line]], an altitude of {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} above sea level,{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|p=84}}<ref name=space_begin/> is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international [[space law]] was established by the [[Outer Space Treaty]], which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of [[national sovereignty]] and permits all states to freely [[space exploration|explore outer space]]. Despite the drafting of [[UN resolution]]s for the peaceful uses of outer space, [[anti-satellite weapon]]s have been tested in Earth orbit.
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[[File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|upright=1.7|thumb|This is an artist's concept of the [[metric expansion of space]], where a volume of the Universe is represented at each time interval by the circular sections. At left is depicted the rapid [[Inflationary epoch|inflation]] from the initial state, followed thereafter by steadier expansion to the present day, shown at right.]]
[[File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|upright=1.7|thumb|This is an artist's concept of the [[metric expansion of space]], where a volume of the Universe is represented at each time interval by the circular sections. At left is depicted the rapid [[Inflationary epoch|inflation]] from the initial state, followed thereafter by steadier expansion to the present day, shown at right.]]
{{Main|Big Bang}}
{{Main|Big Bang}}
The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andrew |last=Liddle |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley |title=An Introduction to Modern Cosmology |isbn=9781118502143 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Modern_Cosmology/4lPWBgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=infinite+universe+observable&pg=PA33&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> According to the Big Bang theory, the very early Universe was an extremely hot and dense state about [[age of the universe|13.8&nbsp;billion years ago]]<ref name=planck_2013 /> which rapidly [[Metric expansion of space|expanded]]. About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called [[Recombination (cosmology)|recombination epoch]]. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space.<ref name="SciAm301_1_36"/> Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create [[star]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]] and other [[astronomical object]]s, leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space.{{sfn|Silk|2000|pp=105–308}} As light has a finite velocity, this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe.<ref name="SciAm301_1_36"/>
The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent.{{sfn|Liddle|2015|pp=33}} According to the Big Bang theory, the very early Universe was an extremely hot and dense state about [[age of the universe|13.8&nbsp;billion years ago]]<ref name=planck_2013 /> which rapidly [[Metric expansion of space|expanded]]. About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called [[Recombination (cosmology)|recombination epoch]]. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space.<ref name="SciAm301_1_36"/> Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create [[star]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]] and other [[astronomical object]]s, leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space.{{sfn|Silk|2000|pp=105–308}} As light has a finite velocity, this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe.<ref name="SciAm301_1_36"/>


The present day [[shape of the universe]] has been determined from measurements of the [[Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]] using satellites like the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]]. These observations indicate that the [[spatial geometry]] of the observable universe is "[[Flatness (cosmology)|flat]]", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity.<ref name="WMAP"/> The flat Universe, combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating [[Hubble's law|expansion of the Universe]], indicates that space has a non-zero [[vacuum energy]], which is called [[dark energy]].{{sfn|Sparke|Gallagher|2007|pp=329–330}}
The present day [[shape of the universe]] has been determined from measurements of the [[Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]] using satellites like the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]]. These observations indicate that the [[spatial geometry]] of the observable universe is "[[Flatness (cosmology)|flat]]", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity.<ref name="WMAP"/> The flat Universe, combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating [[Hubble's law|expansion of the Universe]], indicates that space has a non-zero [[vacuum energy]], which is called [[dark energy]].{{sfn|Sparke|Gallagher|2007|pp=329–330}}
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As a consequence of rapid decompression, [[oxygen]] dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the [[partial pressure]] gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes.<ref name=bmj286/> Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3&nbsp;kPa, and this condition is called [[ebullism]].<ref name=jramc157_1_85/> The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.{{sfn|Billings|1973|pp=1–34}}<ref name=landis20070807/> Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a [[pressure suit]]. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa.<ref name=am39_376/> Supplemental oxygen is needed at {{Convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above {{Convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.{{sfn|Ellery|2000|p=68}} Most space suits use around 30–39&nbsp;kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause [[decompression sickness]] and [[air embolism|gas embolisms]] if not managed.{{sfn|Davis|Johnson|Stepanek|2008|pp=270–271}}
As a consequence of rapid decompression, [[oxygen]] dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the [[partial pressure]] gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes.<ref name=bmj286/> Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3&nbsp;kPa, and this condition is called [[ebullism]].<ref name=jramc157_1_85/> The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.{{sfn|Billings|1973|pp=1–34}}<ref name=landis20070807/> Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a [[pressure suit]]. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa.<ref name=am39_376/> Supplemental oxygen is needed at {{Convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above {{Convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.{{sfn|Ellery|2000|p=68}} Most space suits use around 30–39&nbsp;kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause [[decompression sickness]] and [[air embolism|gas embolisms]] if not managed.{{sfn|Davis|Johnson|Stepanek|2008|pp=270–271}}


[[Human evolution|Humans evolved]] for life in Earth [[Gravitation|gravity]], and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience [[space motion sickness]]. This can cause [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], headaches, [[lethargy]], and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in [[muscle atrophy]] and deterioration of the [[Human skeleton|skeleton]], or [[spaceflight osteopenia]]. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise.<ref name=spp22_15/> Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the [[cardiovascular system]], decreased production of [[red blood cell]]s, balance disorders, and a weakening of the [[immune system]]. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.<ref name=cmaj180_13_1317/>
[[Human evolution|Humans evolved]] for life in Earth [[Gravitation|gravity]], and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience [[space motion sickness]]. This can cause [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], headaches, [[lethargy]], and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in [[muscle atrophy]] and deterioration of the [[Human skeleton|skeleton]], or [[spaceflight osteopenia]]. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise.{{sfn|Kanas|Manzey|2008|pp=15–48}} Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the [[cardiovascular system]], decreased production of [[red blood cell]]s, balance disorders, and a weakening of the [[immune system]]. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.<ref name=cmaj180_13_1317/>


During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an [[acute health hazard]].
During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an [[acute health hazard]].
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[[File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aurora (astronomy)|Aurora australis]] observed from the [[Space Shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', on [[STS-39]], May 1991 (orbital altitude: 260 km)|alt=The lower half is the blue-white planet in low illumination. Nebulous red streamers climb upward from the limb of the disk toward the black sky. The Space Shuttle is visible along the left edge.]]
[[File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aurora (astronomy)|Aurora australis]] observed from the [[Space Shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', on [[STS-39]], May 1991 (orbital altitude: 260 km)|alt=The lower half is the blue-white planet in low illumination. Nebulous red streamers climb upward from the limb of the disk toward the black sky. The Space Shuttle is visible along the left edge.]]


[[wikt:geospace|Geospace]] is the region of outer space near Earth, including the [[upper atmosphere]] and [[magnetosphere]].{{sfn|Schrijver|Siscoe|2010|p=363}} The [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the [[magnetopause]], which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the [[ionosphere]].<ref name=geospace/> The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with [[heliophysics]]—the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.{{sfn|Fichtner|Liu|2011|pp=341–345}}
'''[[wikt:geospace|Geospace]]''' is the region of outer space near Earth, including the [[upper atmosphere]] and [[magnetosphere]].{{sfn|Schrijver|Siscoe|2010|p=363}} The [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the [[magnetopause]], which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the [[ionosphere]].<ref name=geospace/> The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with [[heliophysics]]—the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.{{sfn|Fichtner|Liu|2011|pp=341–345}}


The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form a [[magnetotail]] that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.{{sfn|Koskinen|2010|pp=32, 42}}<ref name=HonesJr1986/> For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.{{sfn|Mendillo|2000|p=275}}
The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure—the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form a [[magnetotail]] that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.{{sfn|Koskinen|2010|pp=32, 42}}<ref name=HonesJr1986/> For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.{{sfn|Mendillo|2000|p=275}}


Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the [[Earth's magnetic field]]. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. [[Geomagnetic storm]]s can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] location and timing.<ref>{{cite book |title=Space Weather & Telecommunications |first=John M. |last=Goodman |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4465qvHUZusC&pg=PA244|isbn=978-0-387-23671-1|page=244}}</ref> Magnetic storms can also be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They also create [[aurora (astronomy)|aurorae]] seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the [[geomagnetic pole]]s.<ref name=oecd/>
Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the [[Earth's magnetic field]]. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. [[Geomagnetic storm]]s can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] location and timing.{{sfn|Goodman|2006|p=244}} Magnetic storms can also be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They also create [[aurora (astronomy)|aurorae]] seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the [[geomagnetic pole]]s.<ref name=oecd/>


Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant [[Drag (physics)|drag]] on [[satellite]]s.<ref name=slsa/> This region contains material left over from previous crewed and uncrewed launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this [[space debris|debris]] re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.<ref name=portree_loftus1999/>
Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant [[Drag (physics)|drag]] on [[satellite]]s.<ref name=slsa/> This region contains material left over from previous crewed and uncrewed launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this [[space debris|debris]] re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.<ref name=portree_loftus1999/>


====Cislunar space====
====Cislunar space====
[[File:2024_Lunar_Gateway_concept_art,_March_2020.jpg|right|thumb|[[Lunar Gateway]], one of the planned space stations for crewed cislunar travel in the 2020s]]
[[File:MarsReconnaissanceOrbiter-Views-EarthMoon-20220422.jpg|thumb|Cislunar space seen from Mars]]
 
[[gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] keeps the [[Moon]] in orbit at an [[lunar distance (astronomy)|average distance]] of {{cvt|384403|km|mi}}. The region outside [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and extending out to just beyond the [[orbit of the Moon|Moon's orbit]], including the [[Lagrange point]]s, is sometimes referred to as '''cislunar space'''.<ref name=sr2165/>
[[gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] keeps the [[Moon]] in orbit at an [[lunar distance (astronomy)|average distance]] of {{cvt|384403|km|mi}}. The region outside [[atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and extending out to just beyond the [[orbit of the Moon|Moon's orbit]], including the [[Lagrange point]]s, is sometimes referred to as '''cislunar space'''.<ref name=sr2165/>


'''Deep space''' is defined by the United States government and others as any region beyond cislunar space.{{sfn|Dickson|2010|p=57}}{{sfn|United States|p=536}}{{sfn|Williamson|2006|p=97}}<ref name=Collins/> The [[ITU-R|International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication]] (including satellites) defines the beginning of deep space at about 5 times that distance ({{Val|2e6|u=km}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/art1.pdf |title=ITU-R Radio Regulations, Article 1, Terms and definitions, Section VIII, Technical terms relating to space, paragraph 1.177. |publisher=International Telecommunication Union |access-date=2018-02-05 }}</ref>
'''Deep space''' is defined by the United States government and others as any region beyond cislunar space.{{sfn|Dickson|2010|p=57}}{{sfn|United States|p=536}}{{sfn|Williamson|2006|p=97}}<ref name=Collins/> The [[ITU-R|International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication]] (including satellites) defines the beginning of deep space at about 5 times that distance ({{Val|2e6|u=km}}).<ref name=ITU/>


The region where Earth's gravity remains dominant against gravitational [[perturbation (astronomy)|perturbations]] from the Sun is called the [[Hill sphere]].<ref name=yoder1995/> This extends into translunar space to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun,{{sfn|Barbieri|2006|p=253}} or {{convert|1.5|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}}.
The region where Earth's gravity remains dominant against gravitational [[perturbation (astronomy)|perturbations]] from the Sun is called the [[Hill sphere]].<ref name=yoder1995/> This extends into translunar space to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun,{{sfn|Barbieri|2006|p=253}} or {{convert|1.5|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}}.
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=== Intergalactic space ===
=== Intergalactic space ===
[[File:Structure of the Universe.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Structure of the Universe|Matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber structures represent the [[matter]] and the empty regions in between represent the [[Void (astronomy)|cosmic voids]] of the intergalactic medium.]]
[[File:Structure of the Universe.jpg|thumb|alt=Structure of the Universe|Large scale matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber structures represent the [[matter]] and the empty regions in between represent the [[Void (astronomy)|cosmic voids]] of the intergalactic medium.]]
[[File:LH 95.jpg|thumb|right|[[LH 95|A]] [[star]]-forming region in the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], perhaps the closest Galaxy to Earth's [[Milky Way]]]]
{{Main|Warm–hot intergalactic medium|Intracluster medium|Intergalactic dust}}
{{Main|Warm–hot intergalactic medium|Intracluster medium|Intergalactic dust}}
Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large scale distribution of galaxies show that the Universe has a foam-like structure, with [[Galaxy groups and clusters|groups and clusters of galaxies]] lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms huge voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a [[Void (astronomy)|void]] spans a distance of (10–40) ''h''<sup>−1</sup> Mpc, where ''h'' is the [[Hubble constant]] in units of {{nowrap|100 km s<sup>−1</sup> Mpc<sup>−1</sup>}}, or the [[dimensionless Hubble constant]].{{sfn|Wszolek|2013|p=67}}
Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large scale distribution of galaxies show that the Universe has a foam-like structure, with [[Galaxy groups and clusters|groups and clusters of galaxies]] lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms huge voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a [[Void (astronomy)|void]] spans a distance of (10–40) ''h''<sup>−1</sup> Mpc, where ''h'' is the [[Hubble constant]] in units of {{nowrap|100 km s<sup>−1</sup> Mpc<sup>−1</sup>}}, or the [[dimensionless Hubble constant]].{{sfn|Wszolek|2013|p=67}}


Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a [[rarefaction|rarefied]] plasma<ref name=jafelice_opher1992/> that is organized in a [[galaxy filament|galactic filamentary]] structure.<ref name=wadsley2002/> This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM). The density of the IGM is 5–200 times the average density of the Universe.<ref name="apj_714_1715"/> It consists mostly of ionized hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons. As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 10<sup>5</sup>&nbsp;K to 10<sup>7</sup>&nbsp;K,<ref name=baas41_908/> which is high enough so that collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei; this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). (Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 10<sup>5</sup> K is often called "warm" in astrophysics.) Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the Universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state.<ref name="apj_714_1715" /><ref name=ssr134_1_141/><ref name="apjs_182_378"/> When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 10<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;K and above in the so-called [[intracluster medium]] (ICM).<ref name="apj546_100"/>
Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a [[rarefaction|rarefied]] [[plasma (physics)|plasma]]<ref name=jafelice_opher1992/> that is organized in a [[galaxy filament|galactic filamentary]] structure.<ref name=wadsley2002/> This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM). The density of the IGM is 5–200 times the average density of the Universe.<ref name="apj_714_1715"/> It consists mostly of ionized hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons. As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 10<sup>5</sup>&nbsp;K to 10<sup>7</sup>&nbsp;K,<ref name=baas41_908/> which is high enough so that collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei; this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). (Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 10<sup>5</sup> K is often called "warm" in astrophysics.) Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the Universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state.<ref name="apj_714_1715" /><ref name=ssr134_1_141/><ref name="apjs_182_378"/> When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 10<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;K and above in the so-called [[intracluster medium]] (ICM).<ref name="apj546_100"/>


== Earth orbit ==
== Earth orbit ==
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* The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] has established the [[Kármán line]] at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}, as [[Theodore von Kármán]] calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than [[Orbital speed|orbital velocity]] to derive sufficient [[aerodynamic lift]] from the atmosphere to support itself.{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|p=84}}<ref name=space_begin/>
* The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] has established the [[Kármán line]] at an altitude of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}, as [[Theodore von Kármán]] calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than [[Orbital speed|orbital velocity]] to derive sufficient [[aerodynamic lift]] from the atmosphere to support itself.{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|p=84}}<ref name=space_begin/>
* The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} as [[astronaut]]s.{{sfn|Wong|Fergusson|2010|p=16}}
* The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} as [[astronaut]]s.{{sfn|Wong|Fergusson|2010|p=16}}
* [[NASA]]'s Space Shuttle used 400,000 feet ({{Convert|400000|ft|km|0|disp=out}}, {{Convert|400000|ft|mi|0|disp=out}}) as its [[atmospheric reentry|re-entry]] altitude (termed the Entry Interface), which roughly marks the boundary where [[atmospheric drag]] becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.<ref name=petty20030213/>
* [[NASA]]'s Space Shuttle used {{val|400000|u=ft|fmt=commas}}, or {{Convert|75.76|mi|km|sigfig=2}}, as its [[atmospheric reentry|re-entry]] altitude (termed the Entry Interface), which roughly marks the boundary where [[atmospheric drag]] becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.<ref name=petty20030213/>


In 2009, scientists reported detailed measurements with a Supra-Thermal Ion Imager (an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions), which allowed them to establish a boundary at {{Convert|118|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} above Earth. The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space, which can reach speeds well over {{Convert|268|m/s|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name=thompton20090409/><ref name=jgr114/>
In 2009, scientists reported detailed measurements with a Supra-Thermal Ion Imager (an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions), which allowed them to establish a boundary at {{Convert|118|km|mi|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} above Earth. The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space, which can reach speeds well over {{Convert|268|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name=thompton20090409/><ref name=jgr114/>


== Legal status ==
== Legal status ==
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{{see also|Bogota Declaration}}
{{see also|Bogota Declaration}}
[[File:SM-3 launch to destroy the NRO-L 21 satellite.jpg|thumb|upright|2008 launch of the [[RIM-161 Standard Missile 3|SM-3 missile]] used to destroy American [[reconnaissance satellite]] [[USA-193]]|alt=At top, a dark rocket is emitting a bright plume of flame against a blue sky. Underneath, a column of smoke is partly concealing a navy ship.]]
[[File:SM-3 launch to destroy the NRO-L 21 satellite.jpg|thumb|upright|2008 launch of the [[RIM-161 Standard Missile 3|SM-3 missile]] used to destroy American [[reconnaissance satellite]] [[USA-193]]|alt=At top, a dark rocket is emitting a bright plume of flame against a blue sky. Underneath, a column of smoke is partly concealing a navy ship.]]
The [[Outer Space Treaty]] provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of ''outer space'', the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national [[sovereignty]], calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a [[common heritage of mankind]] has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations.<ref name="Durrani">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/ |title=Is Spaceflight Colonialism? |author=Haris Durrani |access-date=6 October 2020 |date=19 July 2019}}</ref> It also prohibits the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s in outer space. The treaty was passed by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.<ref name="unoosa2" /><ref name=unoosa/>
The [[Outer Space Treaty]] provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of ''outer space'', the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national [[sovereignty]], calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a [[common heritage of mankind]] has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations.<ref name="Durrani"/> It also prohibits the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s in outer space. The treaty was passed by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.<ref name="unoosa2" /><ref name=unoosa/>


Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space.<ref name=garros/> Four additional [[space law]] treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's [[United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space]]. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and [[anti-satellite weapon]]s have been successfully tested by the US, USSR, China,{{sfn|Wong|Fergusson|2010|p=4}} and in 2019, India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Solanki|first=Lalit|date=2019-03-27|title=India Enters the Elite Club: Successfully Shot Down Low Orbit Satellite|url=https://themirk.com/india-enters-the-elite-club-successfully-shot-down-low-orbit-satellite/|journal=The Mirk|access-date=2019-03-28}}</ref> The 1979 [[Moon Treaty]] turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.<ref name=esf20071105/>
Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space.<ref name=garros/> Four additional [[space law]] treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's [[United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space]]. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and [[anti-satellite weapon]]s have been successfully tested by the US, USSR, China,{{sfn|Wong|Fergusson|2010|p=4}} and in 2019, India.<ref name=Solanki2019/> The 1979 [[Moon Treaty]] turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.<ref name=esf20071105/>


In 1976, eight equatorial states ([[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Zaire]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and [[Indonesia]]) met in [[Bogotá]], Colombia. With their "[[Bogota Declaration|Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or "the Bogotá Declaration"]], they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country.<ref name=bogota1976/> These claims are not internationally accepted.<ref name=aasl31_2006/>
In 1976, eight equatorial states ([[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Zaire]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and [[Indonesia]]) met in [[Bogotá]], Colombia. With their "[[Bogota Declaration|Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or "the Bogotá Declaration"]], they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country.<ref name=bogota1976/> These claims are not internationally accepted.<ref name=aasl31_2006/>
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The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist [[Charles Édouard Guillaume|Charles É. Guillaume]] in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6&nbsp;K. British physicist [[Arthur Eddington]] made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18&nbsp;K in 1926. German physicist [[Erich Regener]] used the total measured energy of [[cosmic ray]]s to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8&nbsp;K in 1933.<ref name="Apeiron2_3_79"/> American physicists [[Ralph Alpher]] and [[Robert Herman]] predicted 5&nbsp;K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new [[Big Bang]] theory.<ref name="Apeiron2_3_79"/> The modern measurement of the [[cosmic microwave background]] is about 2.7K.
The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist [[Charles Édouard Guillaume|Charles É. Guillaume]] in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6&nbsp;K. British physicist [[Arthur Eddington]] made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18&nbsp;K in 1926. German physicist [[Erich Regener]] used the total measured energy of [[cosmic ray]]s to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8&nbsp;K in 1933.<ref name="Apeiron2_3_79"/> American physicists [[Ralph Alpher]] and [[Robert Herman]] predicted 5&nbsp;K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new [[Big Bang]] theory.<ref name="Apeiron2_3_79"/> The modern measurement of the [[cosmic microwave background]] is about 2.7K.


The term ''outward space'' was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady [[Emmeline Stuart-Wortley]] in her poem "The Maiden of Moscow".{{sfn|Stuart Wortley|1841|p=410}} The expression ''outer space'' was used as an astronomical term by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] in 1845.{{sfn|Von Humboldt|1845|p=39}} It was later popularized in the writings of [[H. G. Wells]] in 1901.<ref name="entymonline"/> The shorter term ''space'' is older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' in 1667.<ref name=harper2001/><ref name=Brady2007>{{cite journal | first=Maura | last=Brady | title=Space and the Persistence of Place in "Paradise Lost" | journal=Milton Quarterly | volume=41 | issue=3 | date=October 2007 | pages=167–182 | doi=10.1111/j.1094-348X.2007.00164.x | jstor=24461820 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24461820 }}</ref>
The term ''outward space'' was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady [[Emmeline Stuart-Wortley]] in her poem "The Maiden of Moscow".{{sfn|Stuart Wortley|1841|p=410}} The expression ''outer space'' was used as an astronomical term by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] in 1845.{{sfn|Von Humboldt|1845|p=39}} It was later popularized in the writings of [[H. G. Wells]] in 1901.<ref name="entymonline"/> The shorter term ''space'' is older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' in 1667.<ref name=harper2001/><ref name=Brady2007/> "[[:wikt:spaceborne|Spaceborne]]" denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a [[spacecraft]];<ref name="Merriam-Webster 2022"/><ref name="Fall Cao Hong Eymard 2022"/> similarly, "[[:wikt:space-based|space-based]]" means based in outer space or using [[space technology]].


=== Exploration and application ===
=== Exploration and application ===
{{Main|Space exploration|Human presence in space}}
{{Main|Space exploration|Human presence in space}}
{{Also|Astronautics|Spaceflight|Benefits of space exploration|Earth observation|Commercialization of space|Human spaceflight|Space habitation}}
{{Also|Astronautics|Spaceflight|Benefits of space exploration|Earth observation|Commercialization of space|Human spaceflight|Space habitation}}
[[File:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|left|The first image taken by a human of the whole Earth, probably photographed by [[William Anders]] of [[Apollo 8]].<ref name="Apollo8FlightJournalDay1">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm |title=Day 1: The Green Team and Separation |last1=Woods |first1=W. David |last2=O'Brien |first2=Frank |year=2006 |work=Apollo 8 Flight Journal |publisher=NASA |access-date=October 29, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923012425/http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/03day1_green_sep.htm |archive-date=September 23, 2008 }} TIMETAG 003:42:55.</ref> South is up; South America is in the middle.]]
[[File:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|left|The first image taken by a human of the whole Earth, probably photographed by [[William Anders]] of [[Apollo 8]].<ref name="Apollo8FlightJournalDay1"/> South is up; South America is in the middle.]]


For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S. [[Explorer II]] crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of {{Convert|22|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ssr13_2_199/> This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German [[V-2 rocket|A-4 rocket]] climbed to an altitude of about {{Convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}}. In 1957, the uncrewed satellite [[Sputnik 1]] was launched by a Russian [[R-7 Semyorka|R-7 rocket]], achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of {{Convert|215|-|939|km|mi}}.{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|pp=209–224}} This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when [[Yuri Gagarin]] was sent into orbit on [[Vostok 1]]. The first humans to escape low-Earth orbit were [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]] in 1968 on board the U.S. [[Apollo 8]], which achieved lunar orbit{{sfn|Harrison|2002|pp=60–63}} and reached a maximum distance of {{Convert|377349|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Earth.{{sfn|Orloff|2001}}
For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S. [[Explorer II]] crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of {{Convert|22|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ssr13_2_199/> This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German [[V-2 rocket|A-4 rocket]] climbed to an altitude of about {{Convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}}. In 1957, the uncrewed satellite [[Sputnik 1]] was launched by a Russian [[R-7 Semyorka|R-7 rocket]], achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of {{Convert|215|-|939|km|mi}}.{{sfn|O'Leary|2009|pp=209–224}} This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when [[Yuri Gagarin]] was sent into orbit on [[Vostok 1]]. The first humans to escape low-Earth orbit were [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]] in 1968 on board the U.S. [[Apollo 8]], which achieved lunar orbit{{sfn|Harrison|2002|pp=60–63}} and reached a maximum distance of {{Convert|377349|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Earth.{{sfn|Orloff|2001}}
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* [[List of government space agencies]]
* [[List of government space agencies]]
* [[List of topics in space]]
* [[List of topics in space]]
* [[Olbers' paradox]]
* [[Outline of space science]]
* [[Outline of space science]]
* [[Panspermia]]
* [[Panspermia]]
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<ref name=pasj20_230>{{citation | last=Tadokoro | first=M. | title=A Study of the Local Group by Use of the Virial Theorem | journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan | volume=20 | page=230 | date=1968 | bibcode=1968PASJ...20..230T | postscript=. }} This source estimates a density of {{nowrap|7 × 10<sup>−29</sup> g/cm<sup>3</sup>}} for the [[Local Group]]. An [[atomic mass unit]] is {{nowrap|1.66 × 10<sup>−24</sup> g}}, for roughly 40 atoms per cubic meter.</ref>
<ref name=pasj20_230>{{citation | last=Tadokoro | first=M. | title=A Study of the Local Group by Use of the Virial Theorem | journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan | volume=20 | page=230 | date=1968 | bibcode=1968PASJ...20..230T | postscript=. }} This source estimates a density of {{nowrap|7 × 10<sup>−29</sup> g/cm<sup>3</sup>}} for the [[Local Group]]. An [[atomic mass unit]] is {{nowrap|1.66 × 10<sup>−24</sup> g}}, for roughly 40 atoms per cubic meter.</ref>
<ref name=spp22_15>{{citation | first1=Nick | last1=Kanas | first2=Dietrich | last2=Manzey | title=Basic Issues of Human Adaptation to Space Flight | journal=Space Psychology and Psychiatry | series=Space Technology Library | date=2008 | volume= 22 | pages=15–48 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6770-9_2 | postscript=. | isbn=978-1-4020-6769-3 | bibcode=2008spp..book.....K }}</ref>


<ref name=cmaj180_13_1317>{{citation | display-authors=1 | first1=David | last1=Williams | first2=Andre | last2=Kuipers | first3=Chiaki | last3=Mukai | first4=Robert | last4=Thirsk | title=Acclimation during space flight: effects on human physiology | journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal | date=June 23, 2009 | volume=180 | issue=13 | pages=1317–1323 | doi=10.1503/cmaj.090628 | pmid=19509005 | postscript=. | pmc=2696527 }}</ref>
<ref name=cmaj180_13_1317>{{citation | display-authors=1 | first1=David | last1=Williams | first2=Andre | last2=Kuipers | first3=Chiaki | last3=Mukai | first4=Robert | last4=Thirsk | title=Acclimation during space flight: effects on human physiology | journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal | date=June 23, 2009 | volume=180 | issue=13 | pages=1317–1323 | doi=10.1503/cmaj.090628 | pmid=19509005 | postscript=. | pmc=2696527 }}</ref>
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<ref name=bmj286>{{citation | first1=R. M. | last1=Harding | first2=F. J. | last2=Mills | title=Aviation medicine. Problems of altitude I: hypoxia and hyperventilation | journal=British Medical Journal | volume=286 | issue=6375 | pages=1408–1410 | doi=10.1136/bmj.286.6375.1408 | pmid=6404482 | date=April 30, 1983 | postscript=. | pmc=1547870 }}</ref>
<ref name=bmj286>{{citation | first1=R. M. | last1=Harding | first2=F. J. | last2=Mills | title=Aviation medicine. Problems of altitude I: hypoxia and hyperventilation | journal=British Medical Journal | volume=286 | issue=6375 | pages=1408–1410 | doi=10.1136/bmj.286.6375.1408 | pmid=6404482 | date=April 30, 1983 | postscript=. | pmc=1547870 }}</ref>


<ref name=jramc157_1_85>{{citation |last1=Hodkinson |first1=P. D. |title=Acute exposure to altitude |journal=Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps |date=March 2011 |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=85–91 |pmid=21465917 |url=http://www.ramcjournal.com/2011/mar11/hodkinson.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/65ae1f4IO?url=http://www.ramcjournal.com/2011/mar11/hodkinson.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-20 |access-date=2011-12-16 |postscript=. |doi=10.1136/jramc-157-01-15 |s2cid=43248662 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name=jramc157_1_85>{{citation |last1=Hodkinson |first1=P. D. |title=Acute exposure to altitude |journal=Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps |date=March 2011 |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=85–91 |pmid=21465917 |url=http://www.ramcjournal.com/2011/mar11/hodkinson.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426054930/http://www.ramcjournal.com/2011/mar11/hodkinson.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-26 |access-date=2011-12-16 |postscript=. |doi=10.1136/jramc-157-01-15 |s2cid=43248662 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


<ref name=garros>{{citation | title=Index of Online General Assembly Resolutions Relating to Outer Space | publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs | date=2011 | url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/gares/index.html | access-date=2009-12-30 | postscript=. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115120820/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/gares/index.html | archive-date=2010-01-15 }}</ref>
<ref name=garros>{{citation | title=Index of Online General Assembly Resolutions Relating to Outer Space | publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs | date=2011 | url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/gares/index.html | access-date=2009-12-30 | postscript=. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115120820/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/gares/index.html | archive-date=2010-01-15 }}</ref>
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<ref name=ssr69_3_215>{{citation | last1=Johnson | first1=R. E. | title=Plasma-Induced Sputtering of an Atmosphere | journal=Space Science Reviews | volume=69 | issue=3–4 | pages=215–253 |date=August 1994 | doi=10.1007/BF02101697 | bibcode=1994SSRv...69..215J | s2cid=121800711 | postscript=. }}</ref>
<ref name=ssr69_3_215>{{citation | last1=Johnson | first1=R. E. | title=Plasma-Induced Sputtering of an Atmosphere | journal=Space Science Reviews | volume=69 | issue=3–4 | pages=215–253 |date=August 1994 | doi=10.1007/BF02101697 | bibcode=1994SSRv...69..215J | s2cid=121800711 | postscript=. }}</ref>


<ref name=krebs_pilmanis1996>{{citation | first1=Matthew B. | last1=Krebs | first2=Andrew A. | last2=Pilmanis | date=November 1996 | publisher=United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory | title=Human pulmonary tolerance to dynamic over-pressure | url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA318718 | access-date=2011-12-23 | postscript=. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130045759/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA318718 | archive-date=2012-11-30 }}</ref>
<ref name=krebs_pilmanis1996>{{citation | first1=Matthew B. | last1=Krebs | first2=Andrew A. | last2=Pilmanis | date=November 1996 | publisher=United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory | title=Human pulmonary tolerance to dynamic over-pressure | url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA318718.pdf | access-date=2011-12-23 | postscript=. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130045759/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA318718 | archive-date=2012-11-30 }}</ref>


<ref name=slsa>{{citation | first1=John | last1=Kennewell | first2=Andrew | last2=McDonald | date=2011 | publisher=Commonwealth of Australia Bureau of Weather, Space Weather Branch | title=Satellite Lifetimes and Solar Activity | url=http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/1/3/8 | access-date=2011-12-31 | postscript=. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228025141/http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/1/3/8 | archive-date=2011-12-28 }}</ref>
<ref name=slsa>{{citation | first1=John | last1=Kennewell | first2=Andrew | last2=McDonald | date=2011 | publisher=Commonwealth of Australia Bureau of Weather, Space Weather Branch | title=Satellite Lifetimes and Solar Activity | url=http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/1/3/8 | access-date=2011-12-31 | postscript=. | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228025141/http://www.ips.gov.au/Educational/1/3/8 | archive-date=2011-12-28 }}</ref>
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<ref name=unoosa2>{{citation |date=March 23, 2017 |title=Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as of 1 January 2017 |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs/ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space |url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf |access-date=2018-03-22 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322130911/http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf |archive-date=March 22, 2018 }}</ref>
<ref name=unoosa2>{{citation |date=March 23, 2017 |title=Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as of 1 January 2017 |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs/ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space |url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf |access-date=2018-03-22 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322130911/http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2017_CRP07E.pdf |archive-date=March 22, 2018 }}</ref>


<ref name=unoosa>{{citation |date=January 1, 2008 |title=Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/outerspt.html |access-date=2009-12-30 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5whITsteH?url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/outerspt.html |archive-date=February 22, 2011 }}</ref>
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<ref name=esf20071105>{{citation|title=Columbus launch puts space law to the test |date=November 5, 2007 |publisher=European Science Foundation |url=http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/news/ext-news-singleview/article/columbus-launch-puts-space-law-to-the-test-358.html |access-date=2009-12-30 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215174524/http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/news/ext-news-singleview/article/columbus-launch-puts-space-law-to-the-test-358.html |archive-date=December 15, 2008 }}</ref>
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== External links ==
== External links ==
{{sister project links|voy=Space|v=Category:Astronomy|d=Q4169|n=Category:Space|s=Category:Astronomy|b=Category:Subject:Astronomy}}
{{sister project links|voy=Space|v=Category:Astronomy|d=Q4169|n=Category:Space|s=Category:Astronomy|b=Category:Subject:Astronomy}}
* [https://www.newscientist.com/subject/space/ Newscientist Space]
* [http://space.com/ Space.com]


{{Inspace}}
{{Inspace}}
{{Molecules detected in outer space}}
{{Molecules detected in outer space}}
{{Portal bar|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Solar System}}
 
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


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[[Category:Outer space| ]]
[[Category:Outer space| ]]
[[Category:Space]]
[[Category:Environments]]
[[Category:Environments]]
[[Category:Vacuum]]
[[Category:Vacuum]]
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