Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty: Difference between revisions

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{{Use Indian English}}

| leader1                = [[Nagabhata I]] (''first'')

| year_leader1          = {{circa| 730}} – c. 760

| leader2                = [[Yasahpala (king)|Yasahpala]] (''last'')

| year_leader2          = c. 1024 – c. 1036

|caption={{center|Extent of the Pratihara Empire at its peak ({{circa|800—950}} CE) and neighbouring polities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (i)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183}}</ref>}}

| symbol_type            = Gurjara-Pratihara coinage of [[Mihira Bhoja]], King of [[Kanauj]]. Obv: Boar, incarnation of [[Vishnu]], and solar symbol. Rev: Traces of [[Indo-Sasanian coinage|Sasanian type]]. Legend: ''Srímad Ādi Varāha'' "The fortunate primaeval boar".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent Arthur |last2=Edwardes |first2=S. M. (Stephen Meredyth) |title=The early history of India : from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan conquest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great |publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press |page=Plate 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofi00smit/page/76}}</ref><ref name="HPR164">{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000227932 |pages=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT162 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr B. |title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18074-8 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref>

The origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term "Gurjara" in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan [[Gurjaras]].{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=188}} They claimed descent from the legendary hero [[Lakshmana]], who is said to have acted as a ''pratihara'' ("door-keeper") for his brother [[Rama]].{{sfn|Tripathi|1959|p=223}}{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=7}} Some modern scholars theorize that a Pratihara ancestor served as a "minister of defense" (or Pratihara) in a Rasthrakuta court, and that is how the dynasty came to be known as Pratihara.<ref>{{cite book |last=Agnihotri |first=V. K. |year=2010 |title=Indian History |volume=26 |page=B8 |quote=Modern historians believed that the name was derived from one of the kings of the line holding the office of Pratihara in the Rashtrakuta court}}</ref>

Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or foreigners.{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=1-2}} The proponents of the foreign origin theory point out that the Gurjara-Pratiharas suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the [[Hunas]] invasion of that region.{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=2}} The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the [[Alchon Huns]] ("White Huns") and native Indian elements, and can probably be considered as a [[Hunas|Hunnic state]], although its precise origins remain unclear.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun Jin |title=The Huns |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34091-1 |pages=62–64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |language=en|quote="Although it is not certain, it also seems likely that the formidable Gurjara Pratihara regime (ruled from the seventh-eleventh centuries AD) of northern India, had a powerful [[Hephthalite|White Hunnic]] element. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries..."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |title=Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |page=279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA279 |language=en}}</ref> Critics of the foreign origin theory argue that there is no conclusive evidence of their foreign origin: they were well-assimilated in the Indian culture. Moreover, if they invaded Indian through the north-west, it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Puri|1957|pp=4–6}}

[[File:Yaksha Gomukha and his beloved.jpg|thumb|[[Yaksha]] [[Gomukha]] and his beloved. Gurjara-Pratihara consort, eighth century CE.]]

The original centre of Pratihara power is a matter of controversy. R. C. Majumdar, on the basis of a verse in the Harivamsha-Purana, 783 CE, the interpretation of which he conceded was not free from difficulty, held that Vatsaraja ruled at Ujjain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Majumdar|first1=R.C.|title=The Age of Imperial Kanauj|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|pages=21–22|edition=First}}</ref> Dasharatha Sharma, interpreting it differently located the original capital in the Bhinmala Jalor area.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Dasharatha|title=Rajasthan through the Ages|publisher=Rajasthan State Archives|location=Bikaner|pages=124–30}}</ref> M. W. Meister<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meister|first1=M.W|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt.2, North India: Period of Early Maturity, c. AD 700–900|publisher=American Institute of Indian Studies|location=Delhi|isbn=0195629213|page=153|edition=first}}</ref> and Shanta Rani Sharma<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Shanta Rani|title=Origin and Rise of the Imperial Pratihāras of Rajasthan: Transitions, Trajectories and Historical Chang|publisher=University of Rajasthan|location=Jaipur|isbn=978-93-85593-18-5|pages=77–78|edition=First}}</ref> concur with his conclusion in view of the fact that the writer of the Jaina narrative ''[[Kuvalayamala]]'' states that it was composed at Jalor in the time of Vatsaraja in 778 CE, which is five years before the composition of Harivamsha-Purana.

Nagabhata I (739–760), was originally perhaps a feudatory of the [[Chavda dynasty|Chavdas]] of Bhillamala. He gained prominence after the downfall of the Chavda kingdom in the course of resisting the invading forces led by the Arabs who controlled Sindh. [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata Pratihara I]] (730–756) later extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering [[Malwa]] as far as [[Gwalior]] and the port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at [[Ujjain|Avanti]] in Malwa, and checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in [[History of Sindh|Sind]]. In this battle (738 CE), Nagabhata led a confederacy of Pratiharas to defeat the Muslim Arabs who had till then been pressing on victorious through [[West Asia]] and [[Iran]]. An inscription by [[Mihira Bhoja]] ascribes Nagabhata with having appeared like [[Vishnu]] "in response to the prayers of the oppressed people to crush the large armies of the powerful [[Mleccha]] ruler, the destroyer of virtue".<ref>A New History of Rajasthan, Rima Hooja pg – 270–274 University of Rajasthan</ref> Nagabhata I was followed by two weak successors, his nephews Devraj and Kakkuka, who were in turn succeeded by [[Vatsraj]]a (775–805).

In the Gwalior inscription, it is recorded that Gurjara-Pratihara emperor Nagabhata "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king." This large army consisted of cavalry, infantry, siege artillery, and probably a force of camels. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of [[Syria]]n cavalry from [[Damascus]], local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the [[Turkic peoples|Turkics]]. All together the invading army may have had anywhere between 10 and 15,000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and 2000 camels.{{citation needed}}

Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva (c. 780–793) crossed the [[Narmada River]] into Malwa, and from there tried to capture Kannauj. Vatsraja was defeated by the [[Dhruva Dharavarsha]] of the Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800. Vatsaraja was succeeded by [[Nagabhata II]] (805–833), who was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler [[Govinda III]] (793–814), but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] as far as [[Bihar]] from the Palas, and again checked the [[Muslim]]s in the west. He rebuilt the great [[Shiva]] temple at [[Somnath]] in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from [[Sindh]]. Kannauj became the center of the Gurjara-Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their power, c. 836–910.{{citation needed}}

[[File:Teli ka mandir fort Gwalior - panoramio - Gyanendrasinghchauha… (1).jpg|thumb|[[Teli ka Mandir]] is a Hindu Temple built by [[Mihira Bhoja]].<ref name="Bajpai2006">{{cite book|author=K. D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa Through The Ages |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |pages=429–430 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA429 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rajan |first1=K. V. Soundara |title=Early Kalinga Art and Architecture |publisher=Sundeep |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ydojAAAAMAAJ |language=en|quote="When we have to compare a khākhärä temple of Kalinga with anything outside its borders, the most logical analogue coming to our mind will be that of Teli ka Mandir at Gwalior of the time of Pratihara Mihira Bhoja."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Dr Shiv |title=India – A Travel Guide |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. |isbn=978-81-284-0067-4 |page=531 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COHI7LlpkSAC&pg=PA531 |language=en}}</ref>]]

[[File:Periodo gurjara pratihara, mahishasuramardini, dal madhya pradesh, IX secolo.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mahishasura]]mardini, Madhya Pradesh, Gurjara-Pratihara, ninth century.]]

His son [[Mahenderpal I]] (890–910), expanded further eastwards in [[Magadha]], Bengal and [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian History |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-81-8424-568-4 |page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=RA1-PA9 |language=en}}</ref>

{{South Asia in 1000||Much reduced territory of the Gurjara-Pratihara in 1000, and neighbouring South Asian polities, on the eve of the [[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavid]] invasions of the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=32, 146|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=069}}</ref>|{{Annotation|128|86|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|50px]]}}}}

[[Bhoja II (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Bhoja II]] (910–912) was overthrown by [[Mahipala I]] (912–944). Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the [[Paramara]]s of Malwa, the [[Chandela]]s of [[Bundelkhand]], the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuris]] of [[Mahakoshal]], the [[Tomaras]] of [[Haryana]], and the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]].<ref name="SC19"/> The south Indian Emperor [[Indra III]] (c. 914–928) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly captured Kannauj in 916, and although the Pratiharas regained the city, their position continued to weaken in the tenth century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the south and the Pala advances in the east.<ref name="SC19"/> The Gurjara-Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India around 950.<ref name="SC19"/> By the end of the tenth century the Gurjara-Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on Kannauj.<ref name="SC19">{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref>

* [[Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh]] was constructed during the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire between 8th to 11th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/asi-to-resume-restoration-of-bateshwar-temple-complex-in-chambal/story-kBaxGfcRWVsrNbw3Vw8dLN.html |title=ASI to resume restoration of Bateshwar temple complex in Chambal |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>

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* {{cite book|last1=Sircar|first1=Dineschandra|title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120806900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC|language=en }}

* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n-sycLo3XQC|title=Art of Osian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 8th–12th Centuries A.D.|first=Asha |last=Kalia|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 9780391025585}}

* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC|title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History|first=John E.  |last= Cort | author-link=John E. Cort |publisher=SUNY Press|isbn= 9780791437865}}