Jagannath: Difference between revisions

| weapon = [[Sudarshana Chakra]], [[Panchajanya Sankha]]

| spouse = [[Lakshmi|Sridevi]] and [[Bhūmi|Bhudevi]]

{{Vaishnavism}}{{Infobox Hindu term|sa=जगन्नाथ (Jagannātha)|or=ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ (Jagannātha)|bn=জগন্নাথ (Jôgônnath)|as=জগন্নাথ (Jagannāth)|hi=जगन्नाथ (Jagannāth)}}

The origin and evolution of Jagannath worship is unclear.{{sfn|Patra|2011|pp=5–16}} Some scholars interpret hymn 10.155.3 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' as a possible origin, but others disagree and state that it is a syncretic/synthetic deity with tribal roots.{{sfn|Starza|1993|p=72}}{{sfn|Patnaik|1994|loc=chapter 6. Sanatana Dharma: The Great Synthesis}}{{sfn|Patra|2011|pp=5–16}} The English word ''[[juggernaut]]'' comes from the negative image of the deity presented by [[Christian mission|Christian missionaries]] in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Jagannath is considered a non-sectarian deity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pradhan|first=Atul Chandra|title=Evolution of Jagannath Cult|journal=Orissa Review|date=June 2004|pages=74–77|url=http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/jun2004/englishpdf/evolution2.pdf|access-date=21 October 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Miśra|2005|p=97|loc=chapter 9, Jagannāthism}}<ref name="Patnaik">{{cite news|last=Patnaik|first=Bibhuti|title=My friend, philosopher and guide|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110703/jsp/orissa/story_14191152.jsp|access-date=1 December 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=3 July 2011}}</ref> He is significant regionally in the Indian states of [[Odisha]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], [[Gujarat]], [[Assam]], [[Manipur]] and [[Tripura]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tripathy|first=B|author2=Singh P.K.|title=Jagannath Cult in North-east India|journal=Orissa Review|date=June 2012|pages=24–27|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2012/June/engpdf/27-30.pdf|access-date=10 March 2013}}</ref> He is also significant to the Hindus of Bangladesh. The [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath temple]] in Puri, Odisha is particularly significant in Vaishnavism, and is regarded as one of the [[Char Dham]] pilgrimage sites in India.<ref>See: Chakravarti 1994, p 140</ref> The Jagannath temple is massive, over {{convert|200|ft|order=flip}} high in the ''Nagara'' Hindu temple style, and one of the best surviving specimens of [[Kalinga architecture]], namely Odisha art and architecture.<ref name=misra139/> It has been one of the major pilgrimage destinations for Hindus since about 800 CE.<ref name=misra139>{{cite book|author=Bijoy M Misra|editor=Edwin Francis Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0z02cZe8PU8C |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803400-1|pages=139–141}}</ref>

The annual festival called the [[Ratha yatra]] celebrated in June or July every year in eastern states of India is dedicated to Jagannath. His image, along with the other two associated deities, is ceremoniously brought out of the sacrosanctum ([[Garbhagriha]]) of his chief temple in [[Jagannath Puri|Puri]] ({{lang|or|ଶ୍ରୀ ମନ୍ଦିର}}, {{transl|or|Śrī Mandir}}). They are placed in a chariot which is then pulled by numerous volunteers to the [[Gundicha Temple]], (located at a distance of nearly {{cvt|3|km|disp=or}}). They stay there for a few days, after which they are returned to the main temple. Coinciding with the Ratha Yatra festival at Puri, similar processions are organized at Jagannath temples throughout the world. During the festive public procession of Jagannath in Puri lakhs of devotees visit Puri to see Lord Jagganath in chariot.<ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduikm: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year= 2002|publisher= Rosen Publishing|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/n123 567]}}</ref>

When shown with Balabhadra and Subhadra, he is identifiable from his circular eyes compared to the oval or almond shape of the other two abstract icons. Further, his icon is dark, while Balabhadra's face is white, and Subhadra's icon is yellow. The third difference is the flat head of Jagannath icon, compared to semi-circular carved heads of the other two.<ref name=donaldson779>{{cite book|author=Thomas E. Donaldson|title=Tantra and Śākta Art of Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2otOAAAAYAAJ|year=2002|publisher=DK Printworld|isbn=978-81-246-0198-3|pages=779–780}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The shape of Balabhadra's head, also called Balarama or Baladeva, varies in some temples between somewhat flat and semi-circular.<ref name=donaldson779/>}} They are accompanied by the Sudarshana Chakra, the iconic weapon of Vishnu. It is approximately the same height as Balabhadra, is red in colour, carved from a wooden pillar and clothed, unlike its traditional representation as a chakra in other Vishnu temples.<ref name="Pattanaik 2002 58–60">{{cite journal|last=Pattanaik|first=Shibasundar|title=Sudarsan of Lord Jagannath|journal=Orissa Review|date=July 2002|pages=58–60|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2008/July-2008/engpdf/58_Sudarsan_of_Lord_Jagannath.pdf|access-date=27 November 2012}}</ref> Jagannath iconography, when he is depicted without companions, shows only his face, neither arms nor torso. This form is sometimes called Patita Pavana,<ref name="The origin of Patita Pavana">{{cite web|title=The origin of Patita Pavana|url=http://www.gopaljiu.org/excerpts/kk_13_patita-pavana_pp_6-9.pdf|work=Sri Krishna Kathamrita|publisher=Sri Gopaljiu|access-date=30 November 2012}}</ref> or ''Dadhi Vaman''.<ref>{{cite news|last=Das|first=Madhavananda|title=The Story of Gopal Jiu|url=http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET0406/ET08-8635.html|access-date=27 November 2012|newspaper=Vaishnav News|date=8 June 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913150950/http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET0406/ET08-8635.html|archive-date=13 September 2010}}</ref>

Jagannath is considered as equivalent to the Hindu metaphysical concepts of [[Brahman]]/[[Para Brahman]] and [[Purushottama]]/Shunya Purusha, wherein he then is the Avatarī, i.e., the cause and equivalence of all avatars and the infinite existence in space and time.{{sfn|Eschmann|Kulke|Tripathi|1978|pp=31–98}}{{sfn|Rajaguru|1992}}{{sfn|Starza|1993|pp=72–77|loc=Cult Purusottama at Puri}}{{sfn|Patnaik|2005|pp=111–119}}{{sfn|Miśra|2005|p=99|loc=chapter 9, Jagannāthism}}<ref name="Mishra">{{cite news |last=Mishra|first=Kabi|title=He is the infinite Brahman|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110703/jsp/orissa/story_14191119.jsp|access-date=1 December 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph, Kolkata|date=3 July 2011}}</ref> According to author Dipti Ray in ''Prataparudra Deva'', the Suryavamsi King of Odisha:

According to [[Verrier Elwin]], a Christian missionary and colonial era historian, Jagannatha in a local legend was a tribal deity who was coopted by a Brahmin priest.<ref name=elwin597>{{cite book|last=Elwin|first=Verrier|title=The Religion of an Indian Tribe|year=1955|publisher=Oxford University Press (Reprint)|page=597}}</ref> The original tribal deity, states Elwin, was ''Kittung'' which too is made from wood. According to the Polish Indologist Olgierd M. Starza, this is an interesting parallel but a flawed one because the ''Kittung'' deity is produced by burning a piece of wood and too different in its specifics to be the origin of Jagannath.{{sfn|Starza|1993|pp=65–67 with footnotes}} According to another proposal by [[Stella Kramrisch]], log as a symbol of ''Anga pen'' deity is found in central Indian tribes and they have used it to represent features of the Hindu goddess [[Kali]] with it. However, states Starza, this theory is weak because the ''Anga pen'' features a bird or snake like attached head along with other details that make the tribal deity unlike the Jagannath.{{sfn|Starza|1993|pp=65–67 with footnotes}}

According to H.S. Patnaik and others, Jagannath is a syncretic/synthetic deity that combined aspects of major faiths like [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]].<ref name="Patnaik"/>{{sfn|Patnaik|1994|loc=chapter 6. Sanatana Dharma: The Great Synthesis}}{{sfn|Mukherjee|1981|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Miśra|2005|p=97|loc=chapter 9, Jagannāthism}} Jagannath is worshipped as Purushottama form of Vishnu,<ref>{{cite web|title=History od deities|url=http://jagannath.nic.in/histdaities.asp|publisher=Jagannath temple, Puri administration|access-date=2 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402173714/http://jagannath.nic.in/histdaities.asp|archive-date=2 April 2013}}</ref> [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] sampradayas, as example, Gaudiya Vaishnavs, have identified him strongly with Krishna.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref name="Bryant 2007 142">{{cite book|last=Bryant|first=Edwin F|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195148916|page=142}}</ref> In Gaudiya Vaishnav tradition, Balabhadra is the elder brother [[Balaram]], Jagannath is the younger brother [[Krishna]], and Subhadra is the youngest sister.<ref name="Das 2010 89"/>

Balabhadra considered the elder brother of Jagannath is sometimes identified with and worshipped as [[Shiva]].<ref name="Bryant 2007 142"/> Subhadra now considered Jagannath's sister has also been considered as a deity who used to be [[Brahma]].<ref name="Bryant 2007 142"/><ref name="History of deities">{{cite web|title=History of deities|url=http://jagannath.nic.in/histdaities.asp|publisher=Jagannath temple, Puri administration|access-date=2 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402173714/http://jagannath.nic.in/histdaities.asp|archive-date=2 April 2013}}</ref> Finally the fourth deity, Sudarsana [[Chakra]] symbolizes the wheel of Sun's Chariot, a syncretic absorption of the [[Saura (Hinduism)|Saura]] (Sun god) tradition of Hinduism. The conglomerate of Jagannath, Balabhadra, Subhadra and Sudarshan Chakra worshipped together on a common platform are called the Chaturdha Murty or the "Four-fold Form".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Behera|first=Prajna Paramita|title=The Pillars of Homage to Lord Jagannatha|journal=Orissa Review|date=June 2004|pages =65|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/jun2004/englishpdf/pillar.pdf |access-date=2 December 2012}}</ref>

O.M. Starza states that the Jagannath Ratha Yatra may have evolved from the syncretism of procession rituals for Siva lingas, Vaishnava pillars, and tribal folk festivities.{{Sfn|Starza|1993|pp=70, 97, 105}} The [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] element in the tradition of Jagannath overlap with the rites and doctrines of [[Tantrism]] and [[Shaktism]]. According to the Shaivas, Jagannath is Bhairava.<ref name="OR-CultOfJ">{{cite web |url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2012/June/engpdf/44-47.pdf |title=The Cult of Jagannath |first=Rabindra Kumar |last=Behuria |publisher=Orissa Review |pages=42–43 |date=June 2012 | access-date=28 April 2013}}</ref> [[Shiva Purana]] mentions Jagannatha as one of the 108 names of Shiva.<ref>{{cite web |author=Shiva Purana |title=Shiva Shahasranama |url=http://www.harekrsna.de/1000Shiva.htm |website=harekrsna.de |access-date=27 March 2019 |ref=(Book IV), Chapter 35, 1-133}}</ref> The tantric literary texts identify Jagannath with Mahabhairav.<ref name="Das 2010 89">{{cite book|last=Das|first=Suryanarayan|title=Lord Jagannath|year=2010|publisher=Sanbun|isbn=978-93-80213-22-4|page=89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFn8wSDfSxEC&q=jagannath+as++jain&pg=PA82}}</ref> Another evidence that supports syncretism thesis is the fact that Jagannath sits on the abstract tantric symbols of [[Shri Yantra]]. Further, his Shri Chakra ("holy wheel") is worshipped in the Vijamantra 'Klim', which is also the Vijamantra of Kali or Shakti. The representation of Balaram as Sesanaga or Sankarsana bears testimony to the influence of Shaivism on the cult of Jagannath. The third deity, Devi Subhadra, who represents the Sakti element is still worshipped with the Bhuvaneshwari Mantra.<ref name="OR-CultOfJ"/>

The Tantric texts claim Jagannath to their own, to be Bhairava, and his companion to be same as [[Vimala Temple|Goddess Vimala]] is the Shakti. The offerings of Jagannath becomes ''Mahaprasad'' only after it is re-offered to Goddess Vimala. Similarly, different tantric features of Yantras have been engraved on the Ratna vedi, where Jagannath, Balabhadra and Devi Subhadra are set up. The [[Kalika Purana]] depicts Jagannath as a Tantric deity.<ref name="OR-CultOfJ"/> According to Avinash Patra, the rituals and special place accepted for non-Brahmin ''Daitas'' priests in Jagannath tradition, who co-exist and work together with Brahmin priests suggests that there was a synthesis of Tribal and Brahmanical traditions.{{sfn|Patra|2011|pp=17–18}}

According to the Jain version, the image of Jagannath (Black colour) represents sunya, Subhadra symbolizes the creative energy and Balabhadra (White colour) represents the phenomenal universe. All these images have evolved from the Nila Madhava, the ancient Kalinga Jina. "Sudarshana Chakra" is contended to be the Hindu name of the [[Dharma Chakra]] of Jaina symbol. {{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

The [[Madala Panji]] observes that Neela Madhav transformed into Jagannath and was worshipped alone as a unitary figure, not as the part of a triad. It is significant to note that the early epigraphic and literary sources refer only to a unitary deity [[Purushottama]] Jagannath.<ref name="Tripathy 2012 30">{{cite journal|last=Tripathy|first=Manorama|title=A Reassessment of the origin of the Jagannath cult of Puri|journal=Orissa Review|date=June 2012|pages=30|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2012/June/engpdf/31-39.pdf|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref> The Sanskrit play "Anargharaghava" composed by Murari mentioned only Purushottama Jagannath and his consort Lakshmi with no references to Blabhadra and Subhadra.<ref name="Tripathy 2012 30"/> The Dasgoba copper plated inscription dating to 1198 also mentions only Purushottama Jagannath in the context that the Puri temple had been originally built by Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga (1078–1147) for Vishnu and [[Lakshmi]].<ref name="Tripathy 2012 30"/> These sources are silent on the existence of Balabhadra and Subhadra. Such state of affairs has led to arguments that Purushottama was the original deity and Balabhadra and Subhadra were subsequently drawn in as additions to a unitary figure and formed a triad.

The [[theology]] and rituals associated with the Jagannatha tradition combine Vedic, Puranic and tantric themes. He is the Vedic-Puranic [[Purushottama]] (lit.: the Upper Person),{{sfn|Rajaguru|1992}}{{sfn|Starza|1993|pp=72–77|loc=Cult Purusottama at Puri}} as well as the Puranic [[Narayana]] and the tantric [[Bhairava]].<ref name=misra139/> According to the ''Vishnudharma Purana'' (ca. 4th century), Krishna is woshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odra (Odisha).{{sfn|Starza|1993|p=76}} He is same as the metaphysical [[Para Brahman]], the form of Krishna that prevades as abstract ''kāla'' (time) in Vaishnava thought. He is abstraction which can be inferred and felt but not seen, just like time. Jagannath is ''chaitanya'' (consciousness), and his companion Subhadra represent [[Shakti]] (energy) while Balabhadra represents [[Jnana]] (knowledge).<ref name=misra139/> According to Salabega, the Jagannath tradition assimilates the theologies found in Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Buddhism, Yoga and Tantra traditions.{{sfn|Sālabega|1998|pp=13–14}}

The Skanda Purana and [[Brahma Purana]] have attributed the creation of the Jagannathpuri during the reign of [[Indradyumna]], a pious king and an ascetic who ruled from [[Ujjain]]. According to the second legend, associated with the [[Vaishnava]]s, when Lord Krishna ended the purpose of his Avatar with the illusionary death by Jara and his "mortal" remains were left to decay, some pious people saw the body, collected the bones and preserved them in a box. They remained in the box till it was brought to the attention of Indrdyumna by Lord Vishnu himself who directed him to create the image or a murti of Jagannath from a log and consecrate the bones of Krishna in its belly. Then King Indradyumna, appointed [[Vishwakarma]], the architect of gods, a divine carpenter to carve the murti of the deity from a log which would eventually wash up on the shore at Puri. Indradyumna commissioned Vishwakarma (also said to be the divine god himself in disguise) who accepted the commission on the condition that he could complete the work undisturbed and in private.<ref name="Deshpande2005">{{cite book | last = Deshpande| first = Aruna | title = India: A Divine Destination| publisher = Crest Publishing House | year = 2005 <!-- | location = Delhi --> | isbn = 978-81-242-0556-3 |page=203}}</ref>

According to Prabhat Nanda, the [[Valmiki]] ''[[Ramayana]]'' mentions Jagannath.<ref name="Nanda 2007 110–111">{{cite book|last=Nanda|first=Prabhat Kumar|title=Shree Jagannath and Shree Ram|journal=Orissa Review|date=June–July 2007|pages=110–111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFn8wSDfSxEC&pg=PA26 |access-date=28 November 2012|isbn=9789380213224}}</ref> Some believe that the mythical place where King [[Janak]] performed a [[yajna]] and tilled land to obtain [[Sita]] is the same as the area in which the Gundicha temple is situated in Puri, according to Suryanarayan Das.<ref name="Das 2010 13">{{cite book|last=Das|first= Suryanarayan|title= Lord Jagannath|year= 2010|publisher= Sanbun|isbn=978-93-80213-22-4|page =13|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=gFn8wSDfSxEC&pg=PA26 }}</ref> The [[Mahabharata]], states Das, describes King [[Indradyumna]]'s Ashvamedh Yajna and the advent of the four deities of the Jagannath cult.<ref name="Das 2010 13"/>

Shree Jagannath has always been very close to the people of [[Bengal]]. In fact, upon visiting the main temple at [[Puri]], almost 60% of the present pilgrims can be found to be from [[Bengal]]. Besides, Ratha Yatra is pompously celebrated in [[West Bengal]], where Lord Jagannath is worshipped extensively in Bengal homes and temples. The day also marks the beginning of preparations for Bengal's biggest religious festival, the [[Durga Puja]]. This extensive popularity of Shree Jagannath among Bengalis can be related to Shree [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]].

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu spent the last 20 years of his life in Puri dedicating it to the ecstatic worship of Jagannath whom he considered a form of Krishna.<ref name="Kulke 2004 150">{{cite book|last=Kulke|first=Herman|title=A History of India, 4th edition|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=150|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA150}}</ref> Mahaprabhu propagated the [[Sankirtan]] movement which laid great emphasis on chanting God's name in Puri. He converted noted scholars like Sarvabhauma Bhattacharya to his philosophy. He left a great influence on the then king of [[Odisha]], Prataprudra Deva, and the people of Odisha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bryant|first=Edwin Francis|title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|year=2004|publisher=Columbia University Press|pages=68–71|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&q=chaitanya+mahaprabhu&pg=PA65|isbn=9780231508438}}</ref> According to one version Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is said to have merged with the idol of Jagannath in Puri after his death<ref name="Kulke 2004 150"/>

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu changed the course of Oriya Vaishnav tradition emphasising Bhakti and strongly identifying Jagannath with Krishna.<ref name="Bryant 2007 142"/> His Gaudiya Vaishnav school of thought strongly discouraged Jagannath's identification with other cults and religions, thus re-establishing the original identity of Lord Jagannath as Supreme Personality of Godhead Shri Krishna.

These views are picked up in [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]'s posthumous poetical illustration to The Temple of Juggernaut,<ref>{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1840|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=5lQFAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA20-IA6|section=poetical illustration|year=1839|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1840|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=5lQFAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA20-IA9|section=picture|year=1839|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref> a picture by [[Alfred Gomersal Vickers]]. However, she counters them not so much with hostility but with the Christian doctrine of 'Faith, Hope, and Love'.

* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Dalal |given=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |year=2010 |url={{Google books|DH0vmD8ghdMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=New Delhi |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6}}

* Das, Suryanarayan (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gFn8wSDfSxEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Jagannath Through the Ages]'', Sanbun Publishers, New Delhi.  

* {{cite book |editor-surname1=Eschmann |editor-given1=Anncharlott |editor-link1=Anncharlott Eschmann |editor-surname2=Kulke |editor-given2=Hermann |editor-link2=Hermann Kulke |editor-surname3=Tripathi |editor-given3=Gaya Charan |year=1978 |orig-year=Rev. ed. 2014 |title=The Cult of Jagannath and the regional tradition of Orissa |series=South Asian Studies, 8 |publisher=Manohar |place=New Delhi |url={{Google books|rnlCAAAAYAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=9788173046179}}

* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |surname=Hardy |given=Friedhelm E. |author-link=Friedhelm Hardy |title=Kṛṣṇaism |editor=Mircea Eliade |editor-link=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |pages=387–392|place=New York |publisher=MacMillan |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-02897-135-3 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/krsnaism |via=[[Encyclopedia.com]]}}

* {{cite book |editor-surname1=Kulke |editor-given1=Hermann |editor-link1=Hermann Kulke |editor-surname2=Schnepel |editor-given2=Burkhard |title=Jagannath Revisited: Studying Society, Religion, and the State in Orissa |series=Studies in Orissan society, culture, and history, 1 |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-7304-386-4 |url={{Google books|JIzXAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=New Delhi |publisher=Manohar}}

* {{cite book |surname=Miśra |given=Narayan |title=Annals and Antiquities of the Temple of Jagannātha |editor=Durga Nandan Mishra |year=2005 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |place=New Delhi |url={{Google books|WKUkLzqNv64C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=81-7625-747-8}}

* {{citation|last=Mitter|first= P.|year=1977|title=Much Maligned Monsters: A History of European Reactions to Indian Art|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226532394 |url={{Google books|Mv59F9FoY2MC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}

* {{cite book|surname=Mukherjee |given=Prabhat |title=The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa |year=1981 |orig-year=1940 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |place=New Delhi |isbn=8120602293 |url={{Google books|7LFzfbhmJcMC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}

* {{cite book|surname=Patnaik |given=Himanshu S. |year=1994 |title=Jagannath: His Temple, Cult and Festivals |place=New Delhi |publisher=Aryan Books International |url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/lord-jagannath-his-temple-cult-and-festivals-IDD772/ |isbn=81-7305-051-1}}

* {{cite book|surname=Patnaik |given=Tandra |title=Śūnya Puruṣa: Bauddha Vaiṣṇavism of Orissa |url={{Google books|tlEvAAAAYAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2005 |publisher=DK Printworld |isbn=978-81-246-0345-1}}

* {{cite book|surname=Patra |given=Avinash |editor=Maria Joseph (Vishnupriya Dasi) |title=Origin & Antiquity of the Cult of Lord Jagannath |year=2011 |url=https://oxford.academia.edu/AvinashPatra/Papers/1125327/Origin_and_Antiquity_of_the_Cult_of_Lord_Jagannath. |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University weekly Journal |archive-url=https://archive.org/stream/OriginAntiquityOfTheCultOfLordJagannath/OriginAntiquityOfTheCultOfLordJagannath_djvu.txt |archive-date=2011-06-23 |url-status=live}}

* {{cite book|surname=Rajaguru |given=S.N. |title=Inscriptions of Jagannath Temple and Origin of Sri Purusottam Jagannath |year=1992|volume=1–2 |place=Puri |publisher=[[Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya]] |url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/inscriptions-of-temples-of-puri-and-origin-of-sri-purusottama-jagannath-in-2-volumes-bound-in-one-rare-book-NAC960/}}

* Ray, B. C., Aioswarjya Kumar Das, ed. (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sQHc3v_qC10C&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=daru+Plavate+sayana&source=bl&ots=5crycIpdmG&sig=_1s4Kb66wTfe9L2SpMsitSjSUp4&hl=en&ei=m7zWTeWCDMPjrAer5bWSBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=daru%20Plavate%20sayana&f=false Tribals of Orissa: The changing Socio-Economic Profile]'', Centre for Advanced Studies in History and Culture, Bhubaneswar.  

* {{cite book |surname=Ray |given=Dipti |title=Prataparudradeva, the Last Great Suryavamsi King of Orissa (A.D. 1497 to A.D. 1540) |year=2007 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |url={{Google books|to_U9I6Ol9wC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=9788172111953}}

* {{cite book|author=Sālabega |title=White Whispers: Selected Poems of Salabega |year=1998 |url={{Google books|uFQcO-pRaCkC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-0483-6}}

* Sircar, D.C. (1965). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC&pg=PA297&lpg=PA297&dq=bhaumakara&source=bl&ots=LdSZgTwpnm&sig=uSNd-X4KujqMcf4hJbcAtsfpGoo&hl=en&ei=5vfXTdf6HdDLrQfqvJWUBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false Indian Epigraphy]'', New Delhi: [[Motilal Banarsidass]].  

* {{cite book|surname=Starza |given=O. M. |title=The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art and Cult |series=Studies in South Asian culture, 15 |url={{Google books|v4bV3beb0n8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=Leiden; New York; Köln |year=1993 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-09673-6}}