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In 1018 CE, the [[Ghaznavid]] king [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] invaded [[Kannauj]], whose [[Gurjara-Pratihara|Pratihara]] king (possibly Rajyapala) fled the city, allowing the Ghaznvids to sack it without facing much resistance. According to the 12th century Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir]], Bida, the king of [[Khajuraho]] killed the king of Kannauj as a punishment for this cowardice. Bida is believed to be a variant of "Vidya" (that is, Vidyadhara). Some later Muslim historians misread this name as "Nanda", based on which [[British India|British-era]] scholars identified the killer of the Kannauj king as Vidyadhara's predecessor Ganda. However, an inscription discovered at Mahoba confirms that it was Vidyadhara who defeated the ruler of Kannauj.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=72-73}}{{sfn|Dikshit|1976|p=72}} The Dubkund inscription of Arjuna of [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghata]] family claims that Arjuna killed Rajyapala in a great battle. The Kachchhapaghatas were feudatories of the Chandelas, so it appears that Arjuna was acting as an agent of Vidyadhara.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=74-75}}
In 1018 CE, the [[Ghaznavid]] king [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] invaded [[Kannauj]], whose [[Gurjara-Pratihara|Pratihara]] king (possibly Rajyapala) fled the city, allowing the Ghaznvids to sack it without facing much resistance. According to the 12th century Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir]], Bida, the king of [[Khajuraho]] killed the king of Kannauj as a punishment for this cowardice. Bida is believed to be a variant of "Vidya" (that is, Vidyadhara). Some later Muslim historians misread this name as "Nanda", based on which [[British India|British-era]] scholars identified the killer of the Kannauj king as Vidyadhara's predecessor Ganda. However, an inscription discovered at Mahoba confirms that it was Vidyadhara who defeated the ruler of Kannauj.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=72-73}}{{sfn|Dikshit|1976|p=72}} The Dubkund inscription of Arjuna of [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghata]] family claims that Arjuna killed Rajyapala in a great battle. The Kachchhapaghatas were feudatories of the Chandelas, so it appears that Arjuna was acting as an agent of Vidyadhara.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=74-75}}


== Struggle against the Ghaznavids ==
It is possible that Vidyadhara appointed Rajyapala's successor Trilochanapala on the Pratihara throne.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|p=75}} In 1019 CE, Mahmud launched a fresh invasion of India, and defeated the [[Hindu Shahi|Kabul Shahi]] ruler Trilochanapala (not to be confused with the Pratihara ruler of same name). He then advanced towards Bari, the new Pratihara capital. According to [[Abu Sa'id Gardezi]]'s ''Zayn al-Akhbar'', the Pratihara ruler Trilochanapala fled from the town. After sacking Bari, Mahmud encountered the army of Vidyadhara (variously named "Bida" or "Nanda" in Muslim chronicles).{{sfn|Mitra|1977|p=78}}


==Against Mahmud of Ghazna==
After an unsuccessful invasion of Kalinjar in 1019 CE, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] again invaded the [[Chandela|Chandela kingdom]] in 1022 CE and the war was fought outside of [[Kalinjar Fort|Kalinjar fort]]. After a long battle Mahmud surrendered and made a peace with Kalinjar. Later, [[Vidyadhara (Chandela ruler)|Vidyadhara]] celebrated his success over Mahmud of Ghazni, [[Bhoja]] and other rulers by building [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple|Kandhariya Mahadev temple]].{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=468}}{{sfn|Mitra|1977|p=82}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balakrishna |first=Sandeep |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=lzALEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT69&dq=the+proud+kshatriya+king+vidyadhara&hlpg=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXkeOC7r_5AhU7R2wGHaaUAikQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=the%20proud%20kshatriya%20king%20vidyadhara&f=falsePT69 |title=Invaders and Infidels (Book 1): From Sindh to Delhi: The 500-Year Journey of Islamic Invasions |date=2020-11-28 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-90077-22-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gopal |first=Dr Krishna |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=GAfgAAAAMAAJ&q=Vidyadhar+Chandel&dq=Vidyadhar+Chandel&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjP5PHy-9f9AhU4xTgGHc-wAeY4HhDoAXoECAoQAw#Vidyadhar |title=Fairs and Festivals of India |date=2003 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-212-0810-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakraberty |first=Chandra |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=w-g9AAAAIAAJ&q=Vidyadhara+Chandel&dq=Vidyadhara+Chandel&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibtfXD_tf9AhUH1jgGHVGSDwg4HhDoAXoECAYQAw#Vidyadhara |title=The Racial History of India |date=1944 |publisher=Vijaya Krishna Brothers |language=en}}</ref>
According to [[Nizamuddin Ahmad]]'s ''Tabaqat-i-Akbari'', the two armies were encamped on the opposite banks of a river. Mahmud sent an envoy to Vidyadhara (called "Nanda" by Ahmad), asking him to accept [[Islam]] and Mahmud's suzerainty. Vidyadhara refused to make a submission. After seeing the Chandela ruler's vast army from an elevated spot, Mahmud became worried. However, at night, Vidyadhara withdrew with some of his companions, leaving behind his army. According to this account, there was no fight between the two armies. After Vidyadhara's withdrawal, Mahmud's army sacked his camp, and procured a great amount of wealth, including 580 elephants. Gardezi, in his ''Zayn al-Akhbar'', states that the Chandela ruler (called "Ganda" in this account) had already deserted his camp by the time Mahmud's envoy reached there. [[Ali ibn al-Athir]] offers a different account, stating that the two armies fought a battle before retreating at the nightfall. {{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=78-79}}
According to [[Nizamuddin Ahmad]]'s ''Tabaqat-i-Akbari'', the two armies were encamped on the opposite banks of a river. Mahmud sent an envoy to Vidyadhara (called "Nanda" by Ahmad), asking him to accept [[Islam]] and Mahmud's suzerainty. Vidyadhara refused to make a submission. After seeing the Chandela ruler's vast army from an elevated spot, Mahmud became worried. However, at night, Vidyadhara withdrew with some of his companions, leaving behind his army. According to this account, there was no fight between the two armies. After Vidyadhara's withdrawal, Mahmud's army sacked his camp, and procured a great amount of wealth, including 580 elephants. Gardezi, in his ''Zayn al-Akhbar'', states that the Chandela ruler (called "Ganda" in this account) had already deserted his camp by the time Mahmud's envoy reached there. [[Ali ibn al-Athir]] offers a different account, stating that the two armies fought a battle before retreating at the nightfall. {{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=78-79}}
 
== Conflict with Bhoja ==
In 1022 CE, Mahmud invaded the Chandela kingdom again, besieging the [[Gwalior Fort]] (Gopadri), which was controlled by a [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghata]] feudatory of Vidyadhara. This feudatory is identified with Kirtiraja. According to ''Tabaqat-i-Akbari'' Mahmud lifted the siege after four days, in return for a tribute of 35 elephants. He then proceeded to besiege the Chandela fortress of [[Kalanjara]]. After a long siege, the Kalanjara ruler (called "Nanda" in this account), offered Mahmud a tribute of 300 elephants and "begged for safety". According to [[Firishta]]'s account, the Chandela king intoxicated the elephants and sent them to Mahmud's camp without any riders. These wild elephants were tamed by Mahmud's [[Tatars|Tatar]] soldiers. The Chandela king, on seeing this act of bravery, sent a [[panegyric]] praising Mahmud and his army. In return, Mahmud also complimented the Vidyadhara, and awarded him 15 fortresses and other presents before turning to his capital [[Ghazna]].{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pp=80-82}}
{{Main|Invasion on Malwa & Tripuri}}
 
An inscription of Gwalior [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghata]] king Kirtiraja, who was vassal of Chandelas, tell us that he defeated the forces of the [[Malwa]] ruler. At that time, Malwa was ruled by the powerful [[Paramara]] king [[Bhoja]]. It is unlikely that Kirtiraja could have defeated him alone. Thus, S. K. Mitra theorizes that Kirtiraja must have received help from his overlord Emperor Vidyadhara in this campaign.<ref>{{Cite book |last=नागोरी |first=एस एल |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=b2wMAQAAMAAJ&q=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8+%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE+%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D+%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8:+Guptottarak%C4%81l%C4%ABna+Bh%C4%81rata&dq=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8+%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4+%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE+%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D+%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8:+Guptottarak%C4%81l%C4%ABna+Bh%C4%81rata&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwitr9Hh9tf9AhWmxjgGHR-iB04Q6AF6BAgJEAM#%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0 |title=प्राचीन भारत का वृहत् इतिहास: Guptottarakālīna Bhārata |date=2007 |publisher=पोइन्टर पब्लिशर्स |isbn=978-81-7132-509-2 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pāṇḍeya |first=Vimala Candra |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=XULRAAAAMAAJ&q=Vimala+Candra+P%C4%81%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Deya&dq=Vimala+Candra+P%C4%81%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Deya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj059uB-Nf9AhXMxDgGHbRGDkEQ6AF6BAgHEAM#%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0 |title=Prācīna Bhārata kā itihāsa, 500 ī.-1200 ī. dakshiṇa sahita: vikrama, Jabbalapura tathā anya viśvavidyālayoṃ ke liye |date=1962 |publisher=Kedāra Nātha Rāma |language=hi}}</ref>
S. K. Mitra theorizes that the encounter between Vidyadhara and Mahmud ended with an "exchange of gifts", which must have been depicted as "tribute" by the Muslim historians.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|p=82}}
The [[Mahoba]] inscription of the Chandelas states that Bhoja and Kalachuri-Chandra, like scared pupils, worshipped Vidhyadhara, a master of warfare. {{sfn|Mitra|1977|p=75}} Kalachuri-Chandra (literally "Moon of the Kalachuris") is identified with the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] king [[Gangeyadeva|Gangeya-deva]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Awasthi |first=A. B. L. |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?redir_esc=y&id=fb05AQAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0+ |title=प्राचीन भारत का इतिहास: राजपूत राजवंश |date=1969 |publisher=Kailāśa Prakāśana |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=Mālavīya |firstfirst1=Lakshmīkānta |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=6xQ-AAAAMAAJ&q=Uttar%C4%AB+Bh%C4%81rata+k%C4%81+itih%C4%81sa:+History+of+northern+India&dq=Uttar%C4%AB+Bh%C4%81rata+k%C4%81+itih%C4%81sa:+History+of+northern+India&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0 |title=Uttarī Bhārata kā itihāsa: History of northern India |last2=Mālavīya |first2=Pradhī |date=1971 |publisher=Prakāśana Kendra |language=hi}}</ref>
Aound 1025, Vidyadhara defeated the united forces of Paramara king [[Bhoja]] and kalachuri king [[kalachuris of Tripuri|Gangeya-deva]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.co.incom/books?id=cfgdAAAAMAAJ&q=Gv%C4%81liyara+dar%C5%9Bana+-+Volume+1+-+%7C1980&dq=Gv%C4%81liyara+dar%C5%9Bana+-+Volume+1+-+%7C1980&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjM6c_L79f9AhV43jgGHX7WBREQ6AF6BAgCEAM#%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0 |title=Gvāliyara darśana |date=1980 |publisher=Gvāliyara Śodha Saṃsthāna, Jīvājī Viśvavidyālaya |language=hi}}</ref>


== Conflict with Bhoja ==
== Conflict with Bhoja ==

Revision as of 17:49, 31 March 2023

Vidyādhara
Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja Parameshvara
Chandela king
Reignr. c. 1003-1035 CE
PredecessorGanda
SuccessorVijayapala
DynastyChandela
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, commissioned by Vidyadhara

Vidyadhara (Hindi: विद्याधर:)(reign 1003-1035 c.) popularly known as Vidyadhar-Varman or Chandra Vida, was a emperor from Chandel dynasty of Central India who is born in Vrishni clan[1] who ruled from region Jejakabhukti , with his capital at Kalinjar in present-day Uttar Pradesh. In early period he streched Chandela kingdom from Chambal river in the northwest and Narmada River in south. In 1018 CE, he defeated Kannauj ruler Rajapala.[2] He celebrated his success over Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna, Bhoja of Malwa, and other rulers by building Kandhariya Mahadev temple.[3][4][5]

Ascension

Until the 1970s, scholars such as R. K. Dikshit assigned the beginning of Vidyadhara's reign to 1018 CE.[6] However, later, a copper-plate issued by Vidyadhara's queen Satyabhama was discovered at Kundeshwar. This inscription is dated 1004 CE, which proves that Vidyadhara was already ruling in 1004 CE. Based on this, scholar S. K. Sullerey dates Vidyadhara's reign as 1003-1035 CE.[7][8]

Invasion of Kannauj

In 1018 CE, the Ghaznavid king Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Kannauj, whose Pratihara king (possibly Rajyapala) fled the city, allowing the Ghaznvids to sack it without facing much resistance. According to the 12th century Muslim historian Ali ibn al-Athir, Bida, the king of Khajuraho killed the king of Kannauj as a punishment for this cowardice. Bida is believed to be a variant of "Vidya" (that is, Vidyadhara). Some later Muslim historians misread this name as "Nanda", based on which British-era scholars identified the killer of the Kannauj king as Vidyadhara's predecessor Ganda. However, an inscription discovered at Mahoba confirms that it was Vidyadhara who defeated the ruler of Kannauj.[2][9] The Dubkund inscription of Arjuna of Kachchhapaghata family claims that Arjuna killed Rajyapala in a great battle. The Kachchhapaghatas were feudatories of the Chandelas, so it appears that Arjuna was acting as an agent of Vidyadhara.[10]


Against Mahmud of Ghazna

After an unsuccessful invasion of Kalinjar in 1019 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni again invaded the Chandela kingdom in 1022 CE and the war was fought outside of Kalinjar fort. After a long battle Mahmud surrendered and made a peace with Kalinjar. Later, Vidyadhara celebrated his success over Mahmud of Ghazni, Bhoja and other rulers by building Kandhariya Mahadev temple.[3][4][11][12][13]

According to Nizamuddin Ahmad's Tabaqat-i-Akbari, the two armies were encamped on the opposite banks of a river. Mahmud sent an envoy to Vidyadhara (called "Nanda" by Ahmad), asking him to accept Islam and Mahmud's suzerainty. Vidyadhara refused to make a submission. After seeing the Chandela ruler's vast army from an elevated spot, Mahmud became worried. However, at night, Vidyadhara withdrew with some of his companions, leaving behind his army. According to this account, there was no fight between the two armies. After Vidyadhara's withdrawal, Mahmud's army sacked his camp, and procured a great amount of wealth, including 580 elephants. Gardezi, in his Zayn al-Akhbar, states that the Chandela ruler (called "Ganda" in this account) had already deserted his camp by the time Mahmud's envoy reached there. Ali ibn al-Athir offers a different account, stating that the two armies fought a battle before retreating at the nightfall. [14]

Conflict with Bhoja

Main article: Invasion on Malwa & Tripuri

An inscription of Gwalior Kachchhapaghata king Kirtiraja, who was vassal of Chandelas, tell us that he defeated the forces of the Malwa ruler. At that time, Malwa was ruled by the powerful Paramara king Bhoja. It is unlikely that Kirtiraja could have defeated him alone. Thus, S. K. Mitra theorizes that Kirtiraja must have received help from his overlord Emperor Vidyadhara in this campaign.[15][16]

The Mahoba inscription of the Chandelas states that Bhoja and Kalachuri-Chandra, like scared pupils, worshipped Vidhyadhara, a master of warfare. [17] Kalachuri-Chandra (literally "Moon of the Kalachuris") is identified with the Kalachuri king Gangeya-deva[18][19]

Aound 1025, Vidyadhara defeated the united forces of Paramara king Bhoja and kalachuri king Gangeya-deva.[20]

Conflict with Bhoja

An inscription of Gwalior Kachchhapaghata king Kirtiraja, who was vassal of Chandelas, tell us that he defeated the forces of the Malwa ruler. At that time, Malwa was ruled by the powerful Paramara king Bhoja. It is unlikely that Kirtiraja could have defeated him alone. Thus, S. K. Mitra theorizes that Kirtiraja must have received help from his overlord Emperor Vidyadhara in this campaign.[21][22] [23]

The Mahoba inscription of the Chandelas states that Bhoja and Kalachuri-Chandra, like scared pupils, worshipped Vidhyadhara, a master of warfare. [17] Kalachuri-Chandra (literally "Moon of the Kalachuris") is identified with the Kalachuri king Gangeya-deva.[24][25]

Around 1027, Vidyadhara defeated the united forces of Paramara king Bhoja and kalachuri king Gangeya-deva.[26][27]

Cultural contributions

Vidyadhara commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho.[28] Vidhyadhara celebrated his success over Mahmud of Ghazni, Bhoja and other rulers by building the Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva Temple, dedicated to his family deity Shiva. Epigraphic inscriptions on a pilaster of the mandapa in the temple mentions the name of the builder of the temple as Virimda, which is interpreted as the pseudonym of Vidhyadhara.[3] Its construction is dated to the period from 1025 and 1050 AD.[29]

References

  1. ↑ Dikshit 1976, p. 3.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Mitra 1977, pp. 72-73.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Ring, Salkin & Boda 1994, p. 468.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mitra 1977, p. 82.
  5. ↑ Balakrishna, Sandeep (28 November 2020). Invaders and Infidels (Book 1): From Sindh to Delhi: The 500-Year Journey of Islamic Invasions. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-93-90077-22-9.
  6. ↑ Dikshit 1976, pp. 71-72.
  7. ↑ Sullerey 2004, p. 25.
  8. ↑ Indian Archaeology: A Review. Archaeological Survey of India. 1975. p. 55.
  9. ↑ Dikshit 1976, p. 72.
  10. ↑ Mitra 1977, pp. 74-75.
  11. ↑ Balakrishna, Sandeep (28 November 2020). Invaders and Infidels (Book 1): From Sindh to Delhi: The 500-Year Journey of Islamic Invasions. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-93-90077-22-9.
  12. ↑ Gopal, Dr Krishna (2003). Fairs and Festivals of India. Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-212-0810-9.
  13. ↑ Chakraberty, Chandra (1944). The Racial History of India. Vijaya Krishna Brothers.
  14. ↑ Mitra 1977, pp. 78-79.
  15. ↑ नागोरी, एस एल (2007). प्राचीन भारत का वृहत् इतिहास: Guptottarakālīna Bhārata (in हिन्दी). पोइन्टर पब्लिशर्स. ISBN 978-81-7132-509-2.
  16. ↑ Pāṇḍeya, Vimala Candra (1962). Prācīna Bhārata kā itihāsa, 500 ī.-1200 ī. dakshiṇa sahita: vikrama, Jabbalapura tathā anya viśvavidyālayoṃ ke liye (in हिन्दी). Kedāra Nātha Rāma.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Mitra 1977, p. 75.
  18. ↑ Awasthi, A. B. L. (1969). प्राचीन भारत का इतिहास: राजपूत राजवंश (in हिन्दी). Kailāśa Prakāśana.
  19. ↑ Mālavīya, Pradhī (1971). Uttarī Bhārata kā itihāsa: History of northern India (in हिन्दी). Prakāśana Kendra. {{cite book}}: Missing |author1= (help); Unknown parameter |firstfirst1= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |lastlast1= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ Gvāliyara darśana (in हिन्दी). Gvāliyara Śodha Saṃsthāna, Jīvājī Viśvavidyālaya. 1980.
  21. ↑ Prācīna Bhārata kā itihāsa, 500 ī.-1200 ī. dakshiṇa sahita: ... - & sfn.
  22. ↑ Vimala Candra Pāṇḍeya & 1962 sfn.
  23. ↑ प्राचीन भारत का वृहत् इतिहास: Guptottarakālīna Bhārata sfn.
  24. ↑ Prācīna Bhārata kā itihāsa: - Volume 2, A. B. L. Awasthi & 1969 sfn.
  25. ↑ Uttarī Bhārata kā itihāsa: History of northern India & 2007 sfn.
  26. ↑ Singh 1984, p. 69.
  27. ↑ Gvāliyara darśana - Volume 1 -, 1980 & sfn.
  28. ↑ Sullerey 2004, p. 26.
  29. ↑ Abram 2003, pp. 420–21.

Bibliography

Template:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti

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