Languages of India: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Overview of the languages spoken in the Republic of India}}

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  | country    = India  

  | official  = {{hlist| [[Assamese language|Assamese]]| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]| [[Bodo language|Bodo]]| [[Dogri]]| [[English language|English]]<ref name="constitution1"/><ref name="governmentministry1" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gFHBAAAQBAJ|title=Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology|first1=Zdenek|last1=Salzmann|first2=James|last2=Stanlaw|first3=Nobuko|last3=Adachi|date=8 July 2014|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=9780813349558|via=Google Books}}</ref>| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]||[[Hindi]]<ref name="constitution1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/profile.php?id=33|title=Official Language – The Union -Profile – Know India: National Portal of India|website=Archive.india.gov.in|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> | [[Kannada]]| [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]| [[Konkani]]| [[Maithili language|Maithili]]| [[Malayalam]]| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]| [[Meitei language|Meitei]]| [[Nepali language|Nepali]]| [[Odia language|Odia]]| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]| [[Sanskrit]]| [[Santali language|Santali]]| [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]| [[Urdu]]|(total: 23, including 22 [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution|8th Schedule]] languages and additional official language, English)}}

| sign = {{Plainlist|

  | regional  =

  | indigenous =

  | minority  =

  | foreign    = [[English language|English]] – 200 million ([[second language|L2]] speakers 2003)<ref>{{cite web |title=India |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IN/status |website=Ethnologue |access-date=12 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

Languages spoken in [[India]] belong to several [[language families]], the major ones being the [[Indo-Aryan languages]] spoken by 78.05% of [[Indian people|Indians]] and the [[Dravidian languages]] spoken by 19.64% of Indians,<ref name="EBCIndoAryanLanguages">{{cite web|title=Indo-Aryan languages |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286348/Indo-Aryan-languages |access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="EBCDravidianLanguages">{{cite web|title= Hindi languages |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/171083/Dravidian-languages |access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> both families together are sometimes known as [[Languages of Indian subcontinent|Indic languages]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kak|first=Subhash|title=Indic Language Families and Indo-European|url=https://www.academia.edu/45150016|journal=Yavanika|quote=The Indic family has the sub-families of North Indian and Dravidian}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Reynolds|first1=Mike|title=Indic languages|date=2007|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-in-the-british-isles/indic-languages/8343FABC094E91986DBD68A492FFEA1B|work=Language in the British Isles|pages=293–307|editor-last=Britain|editor-first=David|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79488-6|access-date=2021-10-04|last2=Verma|first2=Mahendra}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kak|first=Subhash|title=On The Classification Of Indic Languages|url=https://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/indic.pdf|journal=Louisiana State University}}</ref> Languages spoken by the remaining 2.31% of the population belong to the [[Austroasiatic]], [[Sino–Tibetan]], [[Tai–Kadai]] and a few other minor language families and [[language isolate|isolates]].<ref name="Moseley2008">{{cite book|last=Moseley|first=Christopher|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT528|date=10 March 2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79640-2}}</ref>{{rp|283}} India has the world's fourth highest number of languages (447), after [[Nigeria]] (524), [[Indonesia]] (710) and [[Papua New Guinea]] (840).<ref name="ethnologue_world">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/countries-most-languages|title=What countries have the most languages?|date=22 May 2019|website=Ethnologue}}</ref>

The [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution]] lists 22 languages,<ref>[http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MTUz Languages Included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604094122/http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MTUz |date=4 June 2016 }}</ref> which have been referred to as ''scheduled'' languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of ''[[classical language]]'' to [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. [[#Classical|Classical language status]] is given to languages which have a rich heritage and independent nature.

According to the [[Census of India 2001|Census of India of 2001]], India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. However, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the terms "language" and "dialect". The 2001 Census recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people.<ref name="Census2001"/> Two [[lingua franca|contact languages]] have played an important role in the [[history of India]]: [[Persian language|Persian]]<ref name="KachruKachru2008">{{cite book|last1=Abidi|first1=S.A.H.|last2=Gargesh|first2=Ravinder|editor=Kachru, Braj B.|others=Kachru, Yamuna & Sridhar, S.N.|title=Language in South Asia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89aPZJ3qCD4C&pg=PA106|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78141-1|pages=103–120|chapter=4. Persian in South Asia}}</ref> and [[English language|English]].<ref name="contact-lingo">Bhatia, Tej K and William C. Ritchie. (2006) Bilingualism in South Asia. In: Handbook of Bilingualism, pp. 780-807. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing</ref> [[Persian language|Persian]] was the court language during the [[Mughal period]] in India. It reigned as an [[administrative language]] for several centuries until the era of [[British Raj|British colonisation]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Decline of Farsi language – The Times of India|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Decline-of-Farsi-language/articleshow/11395425.cms|website = The Times of India|access-date = 2015-10-26}}</ref> English continues to be an important language in India. It is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government. [[Hindi]], which has the largest number of first-language speakers in [[India]] today,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Hindi mother tongue of 44% in India, Bangla second most spoken – The Times of India|url = https://m.timesofindia.com/india/hindi-mother-tongue-of-44-in-india-bangla-second-most-spoken/amp_articleshow/64755458.cms|website = The Times of India|access-date = 2021-11-06}}</ref> serves as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' across much of [[North India|North]] and [[Central India]]. However, there have been concerns raised with Hindi being imposed in [[South India]], most notably in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref name="nehru1">{{cite book|last1=Nehru|first1=Jawaharlal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5upQgAACAAJ|title=The question of language: Issue 6 of Congress political and economic studies|last2=Gandhi|first2=Mohandas|publisher=K. M. Ashraf|year=1937|author-link=Jawaharlal Nehru}}</ref><ref name="Hardgrave1965" /> [[Maharashtra]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and other non-Hindi regions have also started to voice concerns about Hindi.<ref>{{Cite web|last=News|first=Nagpur|title=Maharashtra to join 'anti – Hindi' stir at Bengaluru|url=https://www.nagpurtoday.in/maharashtra-to-join-anti-hindi-stir-at-bengaluru/08031021,%20https://www.nagpurtoday.in/maharashtra-to-join-anti-hindi-stir-at-bengaluru/08031021|website=www.nagpurtoday.in}}</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is the second most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant amount of speakers in [[East India|eastern]] and [[Northeast India|northeastern regions]]. [[Marathi language|Marathi]] is the third most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant amount of speakers in South-Western regions.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The World Factbook|url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|website = www.cia.gov|access-date = 2015-10-25}}</ref>

The [[South India|Southern Indian]] languages are from the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian family]]. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y88nzRtTNUAC|title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200|last=Avari|first=Burjor|date=2007-06-11|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134251629|language=en}}</ref> [[Proto-Dravidian language]]s were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhB60gYvnLgC|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages|last=Andronov|first=Mikhail Sergeevich|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=9783447044554|language=en}}</ref> The Dravidian languages are classified in four groups: North, Central (Kolami–Parji), South-Central (Telugu–Kui), and South Dravidian (Tamil-Kannada).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dravidian Languages|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=0521771110}}</ref>

The [[North India|Northern Indian]] languages from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family]] evolved from Old [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] by way of the [[Middle Indo-Aryan]] [[Prakrit]] languages and [[Apabhraṃśa]] of the [[Middle Ages]]. The Indo-Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages&nbsp;— Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE to 600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan stage (600 BCE and 1000 CE) and New Indo-Aryan (between 1000 CE and 1300 CE). The modern north Indian Indo-Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo-Aryan Age.<ref name="Kachru2006">{{cite book|last=Kachru|first=Yamuna|title=Hindi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooH5VfLTQEQC|series=London Oriental and African language library|date=1 January 2006|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=90-272-3812-X|page=1}}</ref>

!First language<br />speakers<ref name="1971-2001">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|title=Census of India: Comparative speaker's strength of Scheduled Languages-1951, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 ,2001 and 2011|last=ORGI}}</ref>

!Total speakers as a<br />percentage of total<br />population<ref name="fulllangdatacensus 2011">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7XvCumRzlYL.html|title=How languages intersect in India|publisher=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

|0.3

The following list consist of [[Indian subcontinent]] languages' total speakers worldwide in the 2019 edition of [[SIL Ethnologue|''Ethnologue'']], a language reference published by [[SIL International]], which is based in the [[United States]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|title=Summary by language size|website=Ethnologue|language=en|access-date=2019-03-12}} For items below #26, see individual ''Ethnologue'' entry for each language.</ref>

|5

Ethnolinguistically, the languages of South Asia, echoing the complex history and geography of the region, form a complex patchwork of [[language families]], language phyla and [[language isolate|isolates]].<ref name="Moseley2008"/> Languages spoken in [[India]] belong to several [[language families]], the major ones being the [[Indo-Aryan languages]] spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the [[Dravidian languages]] spoken by 19.64% of Indians. The languages of India belong to several language families, the most important of which are:<ref name="EBIndiaLanguages">{{cite web |title=India : Languages | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46398/Languages |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=2 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="EBCIndoAryanLanguages"/><ref name="EBCDravidianLanguages"/><ref name="Moseley2008"/><ref>[https://www.indiastat.com, INDIA STATISTICS REPORT]</ref>

The most widely spoken languages of this group are [[Hindi]],<ref group=n>Although linguistically Hindi and Urdu is a same language called [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], the government classifies them as separate languages instead of different [[Register (sociolinguistics)|standard registers]] of same language.</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Urdu]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Assamese language|Assamese (Asamiya)]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]] and [[Odia language|Odia]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286348/Indo-Aryan-languages|title=Indo-Aryan languages|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Aside from the Indo-Aryan languages, other Indo-European languages are also spoken in India, the most prominent of which is English, as a ''[[lingua franca]]''.

The second largest language family is the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language family]], accounting for some 277 million speakers, or approximately 20.5% as per 2018 estimate. The Dravidian languages are spoken mainly in [[South India|southern India]] and parts of [[East India|eastern]] and [[central India]] as well as in parts of northeastern [[Sri Lanka Tamils (native)|Sri Lanka]], Pakistan, [[Nepal]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]] and [[Malayalam]].<ref name="EBCDravidianLanguages"/> Besides the mainstream population, Dravidian languages are also spoken by small [[List of Scheduled Tribes in India|scheduled tribe]] communities, such as the [[Kurukh people|Oraon]] and [[Gondi people|Gond]] tribes.<ref name="West2009">{{cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A.|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA713|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7|page=713}}</ref> Only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, [[Brahui language|Brahui]] in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] and [[Dhangar language|Dhangar]], a dialect of [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], in [[Nepal]].<ref name="LevinsonChristensen2002">{{cite book|last1=Levinson|first1=David|last2=Christensen|first2=Karen|title=Encyclopedia of Modern Asia: China-India relations to Hyogo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jFQYAAAAIAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=978-0-684-31243-9|page=299}}</ref>

Families with smaller numbers of speakers are [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and numerous small [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 3% of the population.<ref name="Ishtiaq 1999">{{cite book|last=Ishtiaq|first=M.|title=Language Shifts Among the Scheduled Tribes in India: A Geographical Study|year=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=Delhi|isbn=9788120816176|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkIgsfb95rAC|access-date=7 September 2012|pages=26–27}}</ref>

Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of [[Ladakh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Sikkim]], [[Bhutan]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], and also in the Indian states of [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] (hills and autonomous councils),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm|title=Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)|website=www.satp.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89aPZJ3qCD4C&q=tibeto-burman+language+hills+of+assam&pg=PA157|title=Language in South Asia|isbn=9780521781411|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Kachru|first1=Braj B.|last2=Kachru|first2=Yamuna|last3=Sridhar|first3=S. N.|date=27 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/burling1999kamarupan.pdf|title=On "Kamarupan"|author=Robbins Burling|website=Sealang.net|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> [[Meghalaya]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]], [[Tripura]] and [[Mizoram]]. Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in India include the scheduled languages [[Meitei language|Meitei]] and [[Bodo language|Bodo]], the non-scheduled languages of [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], and many varieties of several related [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]], [[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish]], [[Tani languages|Tani]], [[Sal languages|Brahmaputran]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], [[Tangkhul languages|Tangkhul]], [[Zeme languages|Zeme]], [[Kukish languages|Kukish]] language groups, amongst many others.

[[Ahom language]], a [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern Tai language]], had been once the dominant language of the [[Ahom Kingdom]] in modern-day [[Assam]], but was later replaced by the [[Assamese language]] (known as [[Kamarupi Prakrit|Kamrupi]] in ancient era which is the pre-form of the [[Kamrupi dialect]] of today). Nowadays, small Tai communities and their languages remain in [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] together with Sino-Tibetans, e.g. [[Tai Phake language|Tai Phake]], [[Tai Aiton language|Tai Aiton]] and [[Khamti language|Tai Khamti]], which are similar to the [[Shan language]] of [[Shan State]], [[Myanmar]]; the [[Tai Lü language|Dai language]] of [[Yunnan]], [[China]]; the [[Lao language]] of [[Laos]]; the [[Thai language]] of [[Thailand]]; and the [[Zhuang language]] in [[Guangxi]], [[China]].

* the [[Great Andamanese languages]], comprising a number of extinct, and one highly endangered language [[Aka Jeru language|Aka-Jeru]].

* the [[Ongan languages|Ongan]] family of the southern [[Andaman Islands]], comprising two extant languages, [[Önge language|Önge]] and [[Jarawa language (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], and one extinct language, [[Jangil]].

The only language found in the Indian mainland that is considered a [[language isolate]] is [[Nihali language|Nihali]].<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|337}} The status of Nihali is ambiguous, having been considered as a distinct Austroasiatic language, as a dialect of [[Korku language|Korku]] and also as being a "thieves' argot" rather than a legitimate language.<ref name="Anderson2007">{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D. S.|title=The Munda Verb: Typological Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVL2FrA6WboC&pg=PA6|year=2007|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-018965-0|page=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=G. D. S.|editor=Brown, Keith |editor2=Ogilvie, Sarah|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA94|date=6 April 2010|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-087775-4|page=94|chapter=Austro-asiatic languages}}</ref>

In the [[2001 Census of India|2001 census]], 422 million (422,048,642) people in India reported Hindi to be their native language.<ref name="CensusData2001S1">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.aspx |title=Statement 1 – Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues – 2001 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=11 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014133158/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.aspx |archive-date=14 October 2013 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> This figure not only included Hindi speakers of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], but also people who identify as [[first language|native speakers]] of related languages who consider their speech to be a dialect of Hindi, the [[Hindi language (Hindi belt)|Hindi belt]]. Hindi (or Hindustani) is the native language of most people living in [[Delhi]], [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="ELL2">{{ELL2|Hindi}}</ref>

[[Hindi languages|Varieties of Hindi]] spoken in India include [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Haryanvi]], [[Bundeli]], [[Kannauji]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Awadhi]], [[Bagheli]], [[Bhojpuri]], [[Magahi]], [[Sadri language|Nagpuri]] and [[Chhattisgarhi]]. By virtue of its being a ''[[lingua franca]]'', Hindi has also developed regional dialects such as [[Bambaiya Hindi]] in [[Mumbai]]. In addition, a trade language, [[Andaman Creole Hindi]] has also developed in the [[Andaman Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Digital vitality of Uralic languages|year=2017|doi=10.1556/2062.2017.64.3.1|last1=Ács|first1=Judit|last2=Pajkossy|first2=Katalin|last3=Kornai|first3=András|journal=Acta Linguistica Academica|volume=64|issue=3|pages=327–345|url=http://real.mtak.hu/65041/1/2062.2017.64.3.1.pdf}}</ref>

In addition, by use in popular culture such as songs and films, Hindi also serves as a ''lingua franca'' across both North and Central India{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

British colonial legacy has resulted in English being a language for governance, business, and education. English, along with Hindi, is one of the two languages permitted in the Constitution of India for business in Parliament. Despite the fact that Hindi has official Government patronage and serves as a ''lingua franca'' over large parts of India, there was considerable opposition to the use of Hindi in the southern states of India, and English has emerged as a [[de facto]] ''[[lingua franca]]'' over much of India.<ref name="Guha2011"/><ref name="Hardgrave1965"/> Journalist [[Manu Joseph]], in a 2011 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'', wrote that due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth."<ref>{{cite web|author=Joseph, Manu|author-link=Manu Joseph|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/world/asia/17iht-letter17.html|title=India Faces a Linguistic Truth: English Spoken Here|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=2011-02-17}}</ref>

[[File:Indian-languages-map.jpg|thumb|Main languages of India and their relative size according to how many speakers each has.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://calloftravel.com/20-maps-of-india-that-explain-the-country/|title=20 maps of India that explain the country|last=Snoj|first=Jure|website=Call Of Travel|language=en-US|access-date=2016-04-17|archive-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817164557/http://calloftravel.com/20-maps-of-india-that-explain-the-country/|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]Until the [[Twenty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India]] in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule]] and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]], thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, as of 1 December 2007, lists 22 languages,<ref name="cons" />{{rp|330}} which are given in the table below together with the regions where they are used.<ref name="CensusData2001S1" />

| '''[[Bodo language|Bodo]]''' || [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] || brx

| '''[[Meitei language|Meitei (Manipuri)]]''' || [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] || mni

| '''[[Santali language|Santali]]''' || [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] || sat

The individual [[States and territories of India|states]], the borders of most of which are or were drawn on socio-linguistic lines, can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically significant languages spoken in that state. Certain states having a linguistically defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its official language, examples being [[Karnataka]] and [[Gujarat]], which have [[Kannada]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] as their sole official language respectively. [[Telangana]], with a sizeable Urdu-speaking Muslim population, and [[Andhra Pradesh]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=correspondent |first=dc |date=2022-03-24 |title=Urdu second official language in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/240322/assembly-passes-two-bills-of-minorities-component-and-urdu-as-2nd-offi.html |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref> has two languages, [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Urdu]], as its official languages.

;Lists of Official Languages of States and Union Territories of India

{{#lst:Languages with official status in India|Lists of Official Languages of States and Union Territories of India}}

[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is an [[Indo-Aryan language]]. It is the official language and co-official language in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Goa]] states of Western India respectively, and is one of the official languages of India. There were 83 million speakers of the language in 2011.<ref name="Language and Mother Tongue">{{cite web|title=Language and Mother Tongue|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|publisher=MHA, Gov. of India}}</ref> Marathi has the third-largest number of native speakers in India and ranks 10th in the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|list of most spoken languages in the world]]. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages; Oldest stone inscriptions from 8th century & literature dating from about 1100 AD (Mukundraj's ''Vivek Sindhu'' dates to the 12th century). The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. There are other related languages such as Khandeshi, Dangi, [[Vadvali language|Vadvali]], [[Samavedi language|Samavedi]]. [[Malvani Konkani]] has been heavily influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi is one of several languages that descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. The further change led to the Apabhraṃśa languages like [[Old Marathi]].

[[Marathi Language Day]] (मराठी दिन/मराठी दिवस (transl. Marathi Dina/Marathi Diwasa) is celebrated on 27 February every year across the Indian states of Maharashtra and Goa. This day is regulated by the State Government. It is celebrated on the Birthday of eminent Marathi Poet Vi. Va. Shirwadkar, popularly known as Kusumagraj.<!-- Citation for this is in the article linked -->

Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In [[Goa]], [[Konkani]] is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for all official purposes.<ref name="goa">The Goa, Daman, and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani the official language but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes". The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, [http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm], pp. para 11.3 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919055657/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm|date=19 September 2009}}</ref>

Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of [[Prakrit]], [[Maharashtri]], [[Apabhraṃśa]] and [[Sanskrit]] is understandable. Marathi has also influenced by the [[Austroasiatic]], [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] and foreign languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]]. Marathi contains loanwords from Persian, Arabic, [[English language|English]] and a little from [[French language|French]] & [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].

Tamil (also spelt as ''Thamizh'': தமிழ்) is a [[Dravidian language]] predominantly spoken in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and many parts of [[Sri Lanka]]. It is also spoken by large minorities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Mauritius]] and throughout the world. Tamil ranks fifth by the number of native speakers in India (61 million in the 2001 Census)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2001|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/census_data_2001/census_data_online/language/Statement4.htm|url-status=live|website=www.censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> and ranks 20th in the [[List of languages by number of native speakers#Nationalencyklopedin|list of most spoken languages]].{{Citation needed|reason=Contradicted by other articles which have reliable sources|date=November 2016}} It is one of the 22 [[scheduled languages of India]] and was the first Indian language to be declared a [[Classical language of India|classical language]] by the [[Government of India]] in 2004. Tamil is one of the longest surviving [[classical language]]s in the world.<ref name="Circulation and the Historical Geog">{{Citation | first= Burton |last=Stein |date=November 1977 | title = Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country | journal = The Journal of Asian Studies | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–26| doi = 10.2307/2053325 | jstor=2053325}}</ref><ref>Steever, Sanford B. ''"The Dravidian languages"'', First Published (1998), pp. 6–9. {{ISBN|0-415-10023-2}}</ref> It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognisably continuous with a classical past".<ref name="richestClassical">Kamil Zvelebil, ''The Smile of Murugan'' Leiden 1973, p11-12</ref> The two earliest manuscripts from India,<ref>{{Citation |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23087&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027173647/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D23087%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 October 2008 |title=The I.A.S. Tamil Medical Manuscript Collection |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 September 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23084&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804195118/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D23084%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 August 2009 |title=Saiva Manuscript in Pondicherry |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 September 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> acknowledged and registered by [[Memory of the World Programme|UNESCO Memory of the World register]] in 1997 and 2005, are in Tamil.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=26531&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012181205/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D26531%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2009 |title=Memory of the World Register: India |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 September 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

After independence, [[Modern Standard Urdu]], the Persianised register of Hindustani became the [[national language of Pakistan]]. During British colonial times, knowledge of Hindustani or Urdu was a must for officials. Hindustani was made the second language of British Indian Empire after English and considered as the language of administration.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} The British introduced the use of Roman script for Hindustani as well as other languages. Urdu had 70 million speakers in India (as per the Census of 2001), and, along with Hindi, is one of the 22 officially recognised regional languages of India and also an official language in the Indian states of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Andhra Pradesh]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=correspondent |first=dc |date=2022-03-24 |title=Urdu second official language in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/240322/assembly-passes-two-bills-of-minorities-component-and-urdu-as-2nd-offi.html |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref>[[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|, Jammu and Kashmir]], [[National Capital Territory of Delhi|Delhi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Telangana]] that have significant Muslim populations.

Odia (formerly spelled ''Oriya'')<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/orissa-to-odisha-negotiable-instruments-act/1/158874.html|title=Mixed views emerge as Orissa becomes Odisha|work=India Today|access-date=10 November 2011}}</ref> is the only modern language officially recognized as a classical language from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] group. Odia is primarily spoken and has official language status in the Indian state of [[Odisha]] and has over 40 million speakers. It was declared as a classical language of India in 2014. Native speakers comprise 91.85% of the population in Odisha.<ref>{{cite web|title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength – 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=CENSUS OF INDIA 2011 |title=LANGUAGE |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |publisher=Government of India |page=12}}</ref> Odia originated from Odra Prakrit which developed from [[Magadhi Prakrit]], a language spoken in eastern India over 2,500 years ago. The history of Odia language can be divided to Old Odia (3rd century BC −1200 century AD),<ref>{{cite book |title= Classical Odia |first1=Debi Prasanna |last1= Pattanayak |first2=Subrat Kumar |last2= Prusty |publisher= KIS Foundation |location= [[Bhubaneswar]] |url= http://www.orissalinks.com/odia/classical3.pdf#16 |page=54 |access-date= 26 July 2016}}</ref> Early Middle Odia (1200–1400), Middle Odia (1400–1700), Late Middle Odia (1700–1870) and Modern Odia (1870 till present day). The [[National Mission for Manuscripts|National Manuscripts Mission of India]] have found around 213,000 unearthed and preserved manuscripts written in Odia.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kumarl|first1=Chethan|title=Manuscript mission: Tibetan beats all but three Indian languages – Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Manuscript-mission-Tibetan-beats-all-but-three-Indian-languages/articleshow/53284630.cms|access-date=11 November 2016|work=The Times of India|date=19 July 2016}}</ref>

Asamiya or Assamese language is most popular in the state of [[Assam]].<ref name="india-travel-agents.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.india-travel-agents.com/india-guide/languages.html|title=Common Languages of India – Popular Indian Language – Languages Spoken in India – Major Indian Languages|website=India-travel-agents.com|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> It's an [[Eastern Indo-Aryan language]] with more than 23 million total speakers including more than 15 million native speakers and more than 7 million [[L2 speakers]] as per 2011 Census of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html|title=C-17 POPULATION BY BILINGUALISM AND TRILINGUALISM|first=Ministry of Home Affairs|last=Government of India|access-date=2021-08-22}}</ref> Along with other [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]], Assamese evolved at least before the 7th century CE<ref>Sen, Sukumar (1975), ''Grammatical sketches of Indian languages with comparative vocabulary and texts, Volume 1'', P 31</ref> from the middle Indo-Aryan [[Magadhi Prakrit]]. Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the {{IPA|/x/}} (which, phonetically, varies between velar ({{IPAblink|x}}) and a uvular ({{IPAblink|χ}}) pronunciations). The first characteristics of this language are seen in the [[Charyapada]]s composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's [[Saptakanda Ramayana]] composed during 14th century CE.

[[Maithili language|Maithili]] ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|aɪ|t|ᵻ|l|i}};<ref>{{OED|Maithili}}</ref> ''Maithilī'') is an [[Indo-Aryan language]] native to India and Nepal. In India, it is widely spoken in the [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]] states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ndtv.in/india-news/prakash-javadekar-likely-to-call-meeting-of-experts-to-promote-maithili-script-1826774|title=मैथिली लिपि को बढ़ावा देने के लिए विशेषज्ञों की जल्द ही बैठक बुला सकते हैं प्रकाश जावड़ेकर|website=NDTVIndia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/story-maithili-will-get-second-state-language-status-in-jharkhand-1835624.html,|title=मैथिली को भी मिलेगा दूसरी राजभाषा का दर्जा|website=Hindustan}}</ref> Native speakers are also found in other states and union territories of India, most notably in [[Uttar Pradesh]] and the [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/bihar-jharkhand/bjp-trying-to-influence-maithil-voters-in-delhi/635693/amp?espv=1,|title=BJP trying to influence Maithil voters in delhi &#124; मैथिल मतदाताओं को मोहने की कोशिश में है बीजेपी, दिल्ली में हैं कुल 40 लाख वोटर्स&#124; Hindi News, बिहार एवं झारखंड|website=zeenews.india.com}}</ref> In the [[2011 census of India]], It was reported by 1,35,83,464 people as their mother tongue comprising about 1.12% of the total population of India.<ref>[https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/language-census-2011-surge-in-hindi-speakers-south-indian-language-and-urdu-speakers-decline-1530869001-1, Rise in Hindi language speakers, ''Statement-4'' Retrieved on 22 February 2020]</ref>  

In 2004, the [[Government of India]] declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language" of India.<ref name="bbcclassical">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3667032.stm |publisher=BBC |title=India sets up classical languages |access-date=1 May 2007 | date=17 September 2004}}</ref> Over the next few years, several languages were granted the Classical status, and demands have been made for other languages, including [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2013/jun/23/Didi-Naveen-face-off-over-classical-language-status-489514.html|title=Didi, Naveen face-off over classical language status|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/bobbbc/posts/1109896535705445 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/405846476110458/1109896535705445 |archive-date=2022-02-26 |url-access=limited|title=Bangla O Bangla Bhasha Banchao Committee|website=www.facebook.com|language=en|access-date=2020-02-12}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and [[Marathi language|Marathi]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/clamour-grows-for-marathi-to-be-given-classical-language-status/articleshow/63776578.cms |title=Clamour grows for Marathi to be given classical language status |author=Clara Lewis |date=16 April 2018 |newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref>

{{Further|Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu |Pure Tamil movement|Gokak agitation}}

==Writing systems==

{{Main|Brahmic scripts|Nastaliq}}

Most languages in India are written in scripts derived from [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmi]].<ref name="DanielsBright1996">{{cite book|author1=Peter T. Daniels|author2=William Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA384|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507993-7|pages=384–}}</ref> These include [[Devanagari]], [[Tamil alphabet|Tamil]], [[Telugu alphabet|Telugu]], [[Kannada alphabet|Kannada]], [[Meitei Mayek]], [[Odia alphabet|Odia]], [[List of languages by writing system#Eastern Nagari script (Assamese/Bengali)|Eastern Nagari – Assamese/Bengali]], [[Gurumukhi]] and other. Urdu is written in [[Urdu alphabet|a script derived from Arabic]]. A few minor languages such as [[Santali language|Santali]] use independent scripts (see [[Ol Chiki script]]).

Various Indian languages have their own scripts. [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/17/language/mai/ |title=Archived copy |website=www.ethnologue.com |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205942/http://www.ethnologue.com/17/language/mai/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Angika]] are languages written using the [[Devanagari]] script. Most major languages are written using a script specific to them, such as [[Assamese language|Assamese (Asamiya)]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&q=asamiya+language&pg=PA430|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|isbn=9781135797119|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Jain|first1=Danesh|last2=Cardona|first2=George|date=26 July 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkguECp3vKEC&q=asamiya+language&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopaedia of Scheduled Tribes in India|isbn=9788182050525|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Mohanty|first1=P. K.|year=2006}}</ref> with [[Assamese alphabet|Asamiya]],<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUXrVyUk0RAC&q=asamiya+language&pg=PA348|title=The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources|isbn=9781402017377|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Singh|first1=Vijay|last2=Sharma|first2=Nayan|last3=Ojha|first3=C. Shekhar P.|date=29 February 2004}}</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] with [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] with [[Gurmukhi]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] with [[Meitei Mayek]], [[Odia language|Odia]] with [[Odia script]], Gujarati with [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]], etc. [[Urdu]] and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] are written in modified versions of the [[Urdu alphabet|Perso-Arabic script]]. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. Languages like [[Kodava language|Kodava]] that didn't have a script whereas [[Tulu language|Tulu]] which had a script adopted Kannada due to its readily available printing settings; these languages have taken up the scripts of the local official languages as their own and are written in the [[Kannada script]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/kfa/|title=Kodava|newspaper=Ethnologue|access-date=2016-10-14}}</ref>

*[[Languages of Maldives]]

*[https://www.himachalpariksha.in/2020/03/languages-spoken-in-himachal-pradesh.html Languages Spoken in Himachal Pradesh - Himachal Pariksha]