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{{Short description|610–642 ruler of Vatapi (Badami, India)}} | {{Short description|610–642 ruler of Vatapi (Badami, India)}} | ||
{{Redirect|Immadi Pulikeshi|the 1967 Indian film|Immadi Pulikeshi (film)}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | {{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | ||
{{Infobox royalty | |||
| name | | name = Pulakeshin | ||
| title | | title = Satyashraya, Shri-prithvi-vallabha, Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Karnateshwara{{sfn|Rimjhim Sharma, Anish Kumar|2012|p=134}} | ||
| succession | | succession = Chalukya king | ||
| reign | | reign = {{circa|610|642}} | ||
| predecessor | | predecessor = [[Mangalesha]] | ||
| successor | | successor = [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] | ||
| house | | house = [[Chalukyas of Vatapi]] | ||
| house-type | | house-type = Dynasty | ||
| father | | father = [[Kirttivarman I]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{Chalukyas|Vatapi}} | {{Chalukyas|Vatapi}} | ||
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A son of the Chalukya king [[Kirttivarman I]], Pulakeshin overthrew his uncle [[Mangalesha]] to gain control of the throne. He suppressed a rebellion by Appayika and Govinda, and decisively defeated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]] in the south. The [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] and the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu]] recognized his suzerainty. He consolidated the Chalukya control over the western coast by subjugating the Mauryas of [[Konkan]]a. His [[Aihole inscription]] also credits him with subjugating the [[Lata (region)|Latas]], the [[Malavas]], and the [[Gurjaras of Nandipuri|Gurjaras]] in the north. | A son of the Chalukya king [[Kirttivarman I]], Pulakeshin overthrew his uncle [[Mangalesha]] to gain control of the throne. He suppressed a rebellion by Appayika and Govinda, and decisively defeated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]] in the south. The [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] and the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu]] recognized his suzerainty. He consolidated the Chalukya control over the western coast by subjugating the Mauryas of [[Konkan]]a. His [[Aihole inscription]] also credits him with subjugating the [[Lata (region)|Latas]], the [[Malavas]], and the [[Gurjaras of Nandipuri|Gurjaras]] in the north. | ||
The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful northern emperor [[Harshavardhana | The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful northern emperor [[Harshavardhana]], whose failure to conquer the Chalukya kingdom is attested by the Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]]. In the east, Pulakeshin subjugated the rulers of [[Dakshina Kosala]] and [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. After defeating the [[Vishnukundina dynasty|Vishnukundina]] ruler, he appointed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of eastern Deccan; this brother later established the independent [[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Vengi]]. Pulakeshin also achieved some successes against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] in the south, but was ultimately defeated during an invasion by the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman I]]. | ||
Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], but was tolerant of other faiths, including [[Shaivism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]]. He patronized several scholars, including Ravikirtti, who composed his Aihole inscription. | Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], but was tolerant of other faiths, including [[Shaivism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]]. He patronized several scholars, including Ravikirtti, who composed his Aihole inscription. | ||
== Names and titles == | == Names and titles == | ||
Two variants of Pulakeshin's name appear in the Chalukya records: Pulikeshin ([[IAST]]: Pulikeśin) and Polekeshin (IAST: Polekeśin).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} "Ereya" appears to have been another of his names: the [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription calls him "Ereyatiyadigal"{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=77}} (or "Ereyitiyadigal"{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=279}}), and the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription mentions the variant "Eraja".{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} Historian [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] theorizes that Ereya was the pre-coronation name of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=76}} | Two variants of Pulakeshin's name appear in the Chalukya records: Pulikeshin ([[IAST]]: Pulikeśin) and Polekeshin (IAST: Polekeśin).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} "Ereya" appears to have been another of his names: the [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription calls him "Ereyatiyadigal"{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=77}} (or "Ereyitiyadigal"{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=279}}), and the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription mentions the variant "Eraja".{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} Historian [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] theorizes that Ereya was the pre-coronation name of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=76}} | ||
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== Early life == | == Early life == | ||
Pulakeshin was a son of the Chalukya king [[Kirttivarman I]]. When Kirttivarman died, Pulakeshin appears to have been a minor, as Kirttivarman's younger brother [[Mangalesha]] became the next king.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=59}} | Pulakeshin was a son of the Chalukya king [[Kirttivarman I]]. When Kirttivarman died, Pulakeshin appears to have been a minor, as Kirttivarman's younger brother [[Mangalesha]] became the next king.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=59}} | ||
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=== Date of ascension === | === Date of ascension === | ||
Pulakeshin's [[Hyderabad]] inscription is dated 613 CE ([[Shaka era|Shaka]] year 534), and was issued during the third year of his reign, which suggests that he must have ascended the throne in c. 610–611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48, 51}} | Pulakeshin's [[Hyderabad]] inscription is dated 613 CE ([[Shaka era|Shaka]] year 534), and was issued during the third year of his reign, which suggests that he must have ascended the throne in c. 610–611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48, 51}} | ||
The exact year of his ascension is debated among modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} The 610–611 CE [[Goa]] grant inscription, which refers to an unnamed Chalukya overlord titled ''Shri-prithvi-vallabha Maharaja'', was probably issued during the reign of Pulakeshin's predecessor Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48–49}} It is dated to the Shaka year 532: assuming it was issued after 532 years of the Shaka era had expired, the date of issue was 4 January 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=51}} However, if we assume that it was issued when the 532rd year of the Shaka era was current, it can be dated to 5 July 610 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} Based on this inscription, the end of Mangalesha's reign is variously dated to 610 CE or 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | The exact year of his ascension is debated among modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} The 610–611 CE [[Goa]] grant inscription, which refers to an unnamed Chalukya overlord titled ''Shri-prithvi-vallabha Maharaja'', was probably issued during the reign of Pulakeshin's predecessor Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=48–49}} It is dated to the Shaka year 532: assuming it was issued after 532 years of the Shaka era had expired, the date of issue was 4 January 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=51}} However, if we assume that it was issued when the 532rd year of the Shaka era was current, it can be dated to 5 July 610 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} Based on this inscription, the end of Mangalesha's reign is variously dated to 610 CE or 611 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | ||
The matter is complicated by the Maruturu inscription, which is dated to Pulakeshin's | The matter is complicated by the Maruturu inscription, which is dated to Pulakeshin's eighth regnal year, and was issued on the occasion of a [[solar eclipse]] on the [[new moon]] day (''[[amavasya]]'') of the [[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyeshtha]] month. According to modern calculations, this solar eclipse took place on 21 May 616 CE, which would mean that Pulakeshin ascended the throne in 609 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | ||
== Military conquests == | == Military conquests == | ||
After Mangalesha's death, Pulakeshin appears to have faced opposition from multiple rivals, including those who were loyal to Mangalesha and those who wanted to take advantage of the turmoil resulting from the Chalukya war of succession.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The [[Aihole inscription]] declares that "the whole world was enveloped in the darkness that was the enemies". Pulakeshin subjugated these enemies, and established the Chalukyas as the dominant power in the Indian peninsula.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} | |||
After | |||
=== Appayika and Govinda === | === Appayika and Govinda === | ||
The Aihole inscription suggests that two rulers named Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The identity of these rulers is uncertain, but they are said to have approached the core Chalukya territory from the north of the Bhimarathi (modern [[Bhima River|Bhima]]) river in present-day [[Maharashtra]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=73}} According to historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], the way they are mentioned in the inscription suggests that they were military adventurers and not from a royal background.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=212}} However, according to historian Durga Prasad Dikshit, their names suggest that they may have belonged to a Rashtrakuta branch, which was distinct from the imperial [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]. This branch may have become subordinate to the Chalukyas after facing invasions from the [[Nala dynasty|Nala]] and Mauryas of Konkan, and later rebelled taking advantage of the conflict between Pulakeshin and Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=73–74}} | The Aihole inscription suggests that two rulers named Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The identity of these rulers is uncertain, but they are said to have approached the core Chalukya territory from the north of the Bhimarathi (modern [[Bhima River|Bhima]]) river in present-day [[Maharashtra]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=73}} According to historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], the way they are mentioned in the inscription suggests that they were military adventurers and not from a royal background.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=212}} However, according to historian Durga Prasad Dikshit, their names suggest that they may have belonged to a Rashtrakuta branch, which was distinct from the imperial [[Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta]]. This branch may have become subordinate to the Chalukyas after facing invasions from the [[Nala dynasty|Nala]] and Mauryas of Konkan, and later rebelled taking advantage of the conflict between Pulakeshin and Mangalesha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=73–74}} | ||
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=== Recapture of Banavasi === | === Recapture of Banavasi === | ||
Pulakeshin's predecessors had subjugated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]], but the Kadambas no longer recognized the Chalukya suzerainty during his reign. Pulakeshin marched against them, and besieged their capital of Banavasi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=74}} The Aihole inscription suggests that the Kadambas put up a strong resistance, but were ultimately defeated. The Kadamba ruler at this time was probably Bhogivarman.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} | Pulakeshin's predecessors had subjugated the [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadambas]] of [[Banavasi]], but the Kadambas no longer recognized the Chalukya suzerainty during his reign. Pulakeshin marched against them, and besieged their capital of Banavasi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=74}} The Aihole inscription suggests that the Kadambas put up a strong resistance, but were ultimately defeated. The Kadamba ruler at this time was probably Bhogivarman.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} | ||
Pulakeshin ended the Kadamba dynasty, and annexed their territory to his empire. He divided this territory among his vassals: the major part of the Kadamba kingdom was granted to the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] under the name kadamba-mandala; the Nagarakhanda division of Banavasi was given to the Sendrakas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} | Pulakeshin ended the Kadamba dynasty, and annexed their territory to his empire. He divided this territory among his vassals: the major part of the Kadamba kingdom was granted to the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]] under the name kadamba-mandala; the Nagarakhanda division of Banavasi was given to the Sendrakas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} | ||
=== Repulsion of First Arab Invasion === | |||
The first Arab invasion of India was an expedition by sea to conquer Thana near Mumbai as early as 636 A.D. It was undertaken during the vigorous expansionist regime of the second Caliph, Umar-bin-Akhtab, who was on a proselytizing mission to spread Islam to all corners of the world. He appointed Usman, of the tribe of Sakif, to capture Bahrain and Oman. Usman sent his brother Hakam to Bahrain and himself proceeded to Oman. Upon reaching Oman, Usman sent a naval expedition to capture Thana on the western coast of India. The Arab naval expedition was successfully repulsed by Chalukyan Navy under Pulakeshin II and they returned to Oman. The first ever Arab raid on India was defeated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=Dr. Ram Gopal |title=Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders Up to 1206 A.D |date=December 1992 |isbn=9788185126463}}</ref>{{page needed|reason=Also, what are the credentials of this author?|date=September 2022}} | |||
=== Alupas === | === Alupas === | ||
According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshin subjugated the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]], who had earlier served as Kadamba vassals. However, according to the Chalukya inscriptions, the Alupas had already been subjugated by Pulakeshin's predecessors. Therefore, it appears that the Aihole inscription simply refers to Pulakeshin reaffirming the Chalukya suzerainty over the Alupas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} Another possibility is that the Alupas had not been completely subdued by the Pulakeshin's predecessors.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshin subjugated the [[Alupa dynasty|Alupas]], who had earlier served as Kadamba vassals. However, according to the Chalukya inscriptions, the Alupas had already been subjugated by Pulakeshin's predecessors. Therefore, it appears that the Aihole inscription simply refers to Pulakeshin reaffirming the Chalukya suzerainty over the Alupas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=75}} Another possibility is that the Alupas had not been completely subdued by the Pulakeshin's predecessors.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | ||
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=== Gangas of Talakad === | === Gangas of Talakad === | ||
The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu|Talakad]], who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated the Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu|Talakad]], who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated the Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | ||
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=== Mauryas of Konkana=== | === Mauryas of Konkana=== | ||
Pulakeshin's father Kirttivarman had defeated the Mauryas of Konkana (modern [[Konkan]]), who ruled in the coastal region of present-day Goa and Maharashtra. The Mauryas acknowledged the Chalukya suzerainty during Mangalesha's reign, but seem to have declared independence during the Chalukya war of succession. After consolidating his power in southern Deccan, Pulakeshin successfully besieged the Mauryan capital Puri, which is variously identified as [[Gharapuri]] (Elephanta) or Rajapuri (near [[Murud-Janjira|Janjira]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | Pulakeshin's father Kirttivarman had defeated the Mauryas of Konkana (modern [[Konkan]]), who ruled in the coastal region of present-day Goa and Maharashtra. The Mauryas acknowledged the Chalukya suzerainty during Mangalesha's reign, but seem to have declared independence during the Chalukya war of succession. After consolidating his power in southern Deccan, Pulakeshin successfully besieged the Mauryan capital Puri, which is variously identified as [[Gharapuri]] (Elephanta) or Rajapuri (near [[Murud-Janjira|Janjira]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | ||
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=== Victory over Harsha === | === Victory over Harsha === | ||
{{see also|Battle of Narmada}} | |||
The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful emperor [[Harshavardhana|Harsha-vardhana]], who ruled over much of northern India. The inscriptions of Pulakeshin's successors prominently mention this victory even when they ignore his other military achievements.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} | The most notable military achievement of Pulakeshin was his victory over the powerful emperor [[Harshavardhana|Harsha-vardhana]], who ruled over much of northern India. The inscriptions of Pulakeshin's successors prominently mention this victory even when they ignore his other military achievements.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} | ||
==== Date ==== | ==== Date ==== | ||
The date of the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin has been debated by modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's fifth regnal year (c. 615 CE), mentions the conflict, but this inscription is regarded as spurious by modern scholars.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} | |||
The date of the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin has been debated by modern scholars.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's | |||
Some scholars, such as [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] and [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], date the battle to c. 612 CE or before, based on the 612–613 CE Hyderabad inscription of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This inscription boasts that Pulakeshin defeated a king who had fought a hundred battles (presumably Harsha).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=83}} The later Chalukya inscriptions, dating from the reign of [[Vikramaditya I]] onwards, mention Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha using similar expressions.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This early date for the war is also supported by the writings of Xuanzang, who states that Harsha fought wars for six years, and then ruled in peace for thirty years.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} | Some scholars, such as [[K. V. Ramesh (archaeologist)|K. V. Ramesh]] and [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], date the battle to c. 612 CE or before, based on the 612–613 CE Hyderabad inscription of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This inscription boasts that Pulakeshin defeated a king who had fought a hundred battles (presumably Harsha).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=83}} The later Chalukya inscriptions, dating from the reign of [[Vikramaditya I]] onwards, mention Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha using similar expressions.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=214}} This early date for the war is also supported by the writings of Xuanzang, who states that Harsha fought wars for six years, and then ruled in peace for thirty years.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=83–84}} | ||
Scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni date the battle to the winter of 618–619 CE. These scholars note that the Bijapur-Mumbai grant inscription, dated to 4 April 619 CE, mentions Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha, which proves that the conflict definitely took place sometime before this date. The earlier Satara inscription of Pulakeshin's brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], issued during his | Scholars Shreenand L. Bapat and Pradeep S. Sohoni date the battle to the winter of 618–619 CE. These scholars note that the Bijapur-Mumbai grant inscription, dated to 4 April 619 CE, mentions Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha, which proves that the conflict definitely took place sometime before this date. The earlier Satara inscription of Pulakeshin's brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]], issued during his eighth regnal year (c. 618 CE) does not mention the conflict. Based on this, Bapat and Sohoni theorize that the conflict took place between November 618 CE and February 619 CE.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}} | ||
Some earlier scholars, such as D. Devahuti dated the conflict to 630s CE, but this is no longer considered correct after the publication of the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription in 2017.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}} | Some earlier scholars, such as D. Devahuti dated the conflict to 630s CE, but this is no longer considered correct after the publication of the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription in 2017.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=208}} | ||
==== Cause of the war ==== | ==== Cause of the war ==== | ||
The cause for the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin is not certain. Historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] suggests that Harsha's growing influence may have driven the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras to accept Pulakeshin's suzerainty.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=213}} Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit adds that these three kingdoms are known to have been enemies of Harsha's father [[Prabhakaravardhana|Prabhakara-vardhana]], as attested by Harsha's court poet [[Banabhatta|Bana]]: this enmity probably continued during the reign of Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} The Malava king played a role in the murder of Harsha's predecessor [[Rajyavardhana|Rajya-vardhana]], and also killed Harsha's brother-in-law, the [[Maukhari dynasty|Maukhari]] ruler Graha-varman. The [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjara]] ruler Dadda II aided the [[Maitraka dynasty]] against Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} When Harsha decided to take action against these three kingdoms, their rulers probably sought protection of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} Pulakeshin may have granted asylum to Harsha's adversaries.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=87–88}} | The cause for the war between Harsha and Pulakeshin is not certain. Historian [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] suggests that Harsha's growing influence may have driven the Latas, the Malavas, and the Gurjaras to accept Pulakeshin's suzerainty.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=213}} Historian Durga Prasad Dikshit adds that these three kingdoms are known to have been enemies of Harsha's father [[Prabhakaravardhana|Prabhakara-vardhana]], as attested by Harsha's court poet [[Banabhatta|Bana]]: this enmity probably continued during the reign of Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} The Malava king played a role in the murder of Harsha's predecessor [[Rajyavardhana|Rajya-vardhana]], and also killed Harsha's brother-in-law, the [[Maukhari dynasty|Maukhari]] ruler Graha-varman. The [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjara]] ruler Dadda II aided the [[Maitraka dynasty]] against Harsha.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} When Harsha decided to take action against these three kingdoms, their rulers probably sought protection of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=82}} Pulakeshin may have granted asylum to Harsha's adversaries.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=87–88}} | ||
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=== Result === | === Result === | ||
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin boasts the ''harsha'' (mirth) of Harsha melted away by fear, as his elephants fell in the battle.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} The only other inscription from his reign that mentions this battle is the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=209}} Harsha's court poet Bana does not mention this conflict in his biography ''Harsha-charita'', presumably to avoid portraying his patron in a negative light.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} However, Pulakeshin's success against Harsha is confirmed by other independent sources.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} | The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin boasts the ''harsha'' (mirth) of Harsha melted away by fear, as his elephants fell in the battle.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=80}} The only other inscription from his reign that mentions this battle is the Bijapur-Mumbai inscription.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=209}} Harsha's court poet Bana does not mention this conflict in his biography ''Harsha-charita'', presumably to avoid portraying his patron in a negative light.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} However, Pulakeshin's success against Harsha is confirmed by other independent sources.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=81}} | ||
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=== Dakshina Kosala and Kalinga === | === Dakshina Kosala and Kalinga === | ||
The Aihole inscription states that the rulers of Koshala and Kalinga accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty without offering any resistance.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=90}} | The Aihole inscription states that the rulers of Koshala and Kalinga accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty without offering any resistance.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=90}} | ||
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=== Vishnukundina dynasty === | === Vishnukundina dynasty === | ||
According to the Aihole inscription and the Maruturu inscription, Pulakeshin invaded and captured [[Pishtapura]] (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} The Maruturu inscription suggests that this event took place around or before 617–618 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Aihole inscription states that subsequently, a fierce battle was fought near Kunala lake (identified with modern [[Kolleru Lake]]), whose water turned red with the blood of those killed in the war. These inscriptions do not name Pulakeshin's rival in these conflicts, but modern scholars identify him as a king of the [[Vishnukundina dynasty]], which ruled in Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} | According to the Aihole inscription and the Maruturu inscription, Pulakeshin invaded and captured [[Pishtapura]] (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} The Maruturu inscription suggests that this event took place around or before 617–618 CE.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Aihole inscription states that subsequently, a fierce battle was fought near Kunala lake (identified with modern [[Kolleru Lake]]), whose water turned red with the blood of those killed in the war. These inscriptions do not name Pulakeshin's rival in these conflicts, but modern scholars identify him as a king of the [[Vishnukundina dynasty]], which ruled in Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} | ||
Pulakeshin probably subjugated Vishnukundina vassals during his eastern campaign in Kalinga, which may have brought him in conflict with the Vishnukundina dynasty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} Pulakeshin conquered the Vishnukundina kingdom, located in the lower [[Godavari River|Godavari]]-[[Krishna River|Krishna]] valley, and appointed his younger brother 'Kubja' [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of the newly | Pulakeshin probably subjugated Vishnukundina vassals during his eastern campaign in Kalinga, which may have brought him in conflict with the Vishnukundina dynasty.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=91}} Pulakeshin conquered the Vishnukundina kingdom, located in the lower [[Godavari River|Godavari]]-[[Krishna River|Krishna]] valley, and appointed his younger brother 'Kubja' [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] as the governor of the newly conquered territory.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Chalukya conquest in this region is corroborated by Vishnu-vardhana's 631 CE Kopparam copper-plate inscription, which records a land grant in the Karma-rashtra region of present-day Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} | ||
The Vishnukundina ruler defeated by Pulakeshin was probably Indravarman: he appears to have ultimately accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty, and was allowed to rule as a Chalukya vassal.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin assigned some of the newly | The Vishnukundina ruler defeated by Pulakeshin was probably Indravarman: he appears to have ultimately accepted Pulakeshin's suzerainty, and was allowed to rule as a Chalukya vassal.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} Pulakeshin assigned some of the newly conquered territories to his own feudatories. For example, the Maruturu inscription states that the Aluka ruler Gunasagara, a Chalukya vassal, came from Mangalapura (identified with modern Mangalagiri in Guntur district) to Kallura after undergoing several hardships.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=92}} | ||
== Xuanzang's visit == | == Xuanzang's visit == | ||
The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] visited Pulakeshin's kingdom in 641–642 CE.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} He calls the Chalukya kingdom "Mo-ho-la-cha" (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), and corroborates Pulakeshin's success against Harsha ([[#Result|see above]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} He had visited the Pallava kingdom before arriving in the Chalukya kingdom, but he doesn't mention any conflict between the two kingdoms, presumably because he was not aware of major political changes or because his main interest was Buddhism rather than politics.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} | The Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] visited Pulakeshin's kingdom in 641–642 CE.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} He calls the Chalukya kingdom "Mo-ho-la-cha" (the Chinese transcription of "Maharashtra"), and corroborates Pulakeshin's success against Harsha ([[#Result|see above]]).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=80–81}} He had visited the Pallava kingdom before arriving in the Chalukya kingdom, but he doesn't mention any conflict between the two kingdoms, presumably because he was not aware of major political changes or because his main interest was Buddhism rather than politics.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=218}} | ||
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According to Xuanzang, the kingdom's capital (not named by Xuanzang) was situated to the east of a large river, around 1000 [[li (unit)|li]] from [[Bharukachchha]] (modern Bharuch).{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} This description does not fit the Chalukya capital Vatapi (modern Badami).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=218–219}} Modern scholars identify the city mentioned by Xuanzang as [[Nashik]], although this identification is not conclusive.{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} It is possible that Xuanzang spent some time in Nashik, which was an important centre of Buddhism, and mistook it as the kingdom's capital.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=219}} Xuanzang mentions that there were five [[stupas]] in and around the capital city: these stupas had been built by the earlier king [[Ashoka]], and were several hundred feet high.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|pp=266–267}} Around 5,000 Buddhist monks lived in over 100 monasteries in the kingdom;{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} in particular, Xuanzang describes a large monastery identified with the [[Ajanta Caves]] by modern scholars.{{sfn|Sally Wriggins|2008|pp=132–134}} Xuanzang adds that the kingdom also had temples of "heretics" who "[[vibhuti|smeared dust]] on their bodies".{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} | According to Xuanzang, the kingdom's capital (not named by Xuanzang) was situated to the east of a large river, around 1000 [[li (unit)|li]] from [[Bharukachchha]] (modern Bharuch).{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} This description does not fit the Chalukya capital Vatapi (modern Badami).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=218–219}} Modern scholars identify the city mentioned by Xuanzang as [[Nashik]], although this identification is not conclusive.{{sfn|G. H. Malandra|1993|p=7}} It is possible that Xuanzang spent some time in Nashik, which was an important centre of Buddhism, and mistook it as the kingdom's capital.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=219}} Xuanzang mentions that there were five [[stupas]] in and around the capital city: these stupas had been built by the earlier king [[Ashoka]], and were several hundred feet high.{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|pp=266–267}} Around 5,000 Buddhist monks lived in over 100 monasteries in the kingdom;{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} in particular, Xuanzang describes a large monastery identified with the [[Ajanta Caves]] by modern scholars.{{sfn|Sally Wriggins|2008|pp=132–134}} Xuanzang adds that the kingdom also had temples of "heretics" who "[[vibhuti|smeared dust]] on their bodies".{{sfn|Sandhya Jain|2011|p=266}} | ||
== War with the Pallavas and | == War with the Pallavas and defeat == | ||
{{see also|Battle of Pullalur|Battle of Vatapi}} | {{see also|Battle of Pullalur|Battle of Vatapi}} | ||
[[File:The defeat of Pulikesin II, the Chalukhya, byMahamalla Pallava at Badami.jpg|thumb|300px|''"The defeat of Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya, by Mahamalla Pallava at Badami''", an artistic depiction of Pulakeshin's | [[File:The defeat of Pulikesin II, the Chalukhya, byMahamalla Pallava at Badami.jpg|thumb|300px|''"The defeat of Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya, by Mahamalla Pallava at Badami''", an artistic depiction of Pulakeshin's defeat]] | ||
The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava king. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=93}} | The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava king. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=93}} | ||
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The Aihole inscription states that the Pallava ruler opposed the rise of Pulakeshin, who caused the enemy's splendour to be "obscured by the dust of his army" and forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the Pallava capital [[Kanchipuram]].{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Kashakudi inscription of the Pallavas states that the Pallava King Mahendravarman defeated an unnamed enemy at Pallalura (modern [[Pullalur]]).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=215–216}} These two accounts appear to refer to the same battle, which must have been inconclusive: the Pallava army was probably forced to retreat to Kanchipuram, but inflicted enough damage on the Chalukya army to force Pulakeshin to retreat to Vatapi.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=216}} | The Aihole inscription states that the Pallava ruler opposed the rise of Pulakeshin, who caused the enemy's splendour to be "obscured by the dust of his army" and forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the Pallava capital [[Kanchipuram]].{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} The Kashakudi inscription of the Pallavas states that the Pallava King Mahendravarman defeated an unnamed enemy at Pallalura (modern [[Pullalur]]).{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=215–216}} These two accounts appear to refer to the same battle, which must have been inconclusive: the Pallava army was probably forced to retreat to Kanchipuram, but inflicted enough damage on the Chalukya army to force Pulakeshin to retreat to Vatapi.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=216}} | ||
The undated [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription records Pulakeshin's grant of the Elpattu Simbhige village in Bana-raja-vishaya ("Bana king's province") after the subjugation of Ranavikrama. Assuming that Ranavikrama was a Bana king, it appears that Pulakeshin defeated the Banas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} (An alternative theory identifies Ranavikrama as Mangalesha; see [[#Early life|Early life]] section above.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|pp=76–77}}) The Banas appear to have been Pallava feudatories before their submission to Pulakeshin, as suggested by the name of the inscription's engraver: Mahendra Pallavachari.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} Pulakeshin's subjugation of a Pallava feudatory must have renewed his conflict with the Pallavas.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=217–218}} | The undated [[Peddavadugur]]u inscription records Pulakeshin's grant of the Elpattu Simbhige village in Bana-raja-[[vishaya]] ("Bana king's province") after the subjugation of Ranavikrama. Assuming that Ranavikrama was a Bana king, it appears that Pulakeshin defeated the Banas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}}{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} (An alternative theory identifies Ranavikrama as Mangalesha; see [[#Early life|Early life]] section above.{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|pp=76–77}}) The Banas appear to have been Pallava feudatories before their submission to Pulakeshin, as suggested by the name of the inscription's engraver: Mahendra Pallavachari.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} Pulakeshin's subjugation of a Pallava feudatory must have renewed his conflict with the Pallavas.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=217–218}} | ||
The Aihole inscription suggests that Pulakeshin won over the Chola, the Chera, and the Pandya kings as his allies in his struggle against the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|pp=58–59}} He marched towards Kanchipuram, but the Pallava inscriptions suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala, near Kanchipuram.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=96-97}} | The Aihole inscription suggests that Pulakeshin won over the Chola, the Chera, and the Pandya kings as his allies in his struggle against the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|pp=58–59}} He marched towards Kanchipuram, but the Pallava inscriptions suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala, near Kanchipuram.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=96-97}} | ||
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== Succession == | == Succession == | ||
By 641 CE, during Pulakeshin's lifetime, his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Chalukya dynasty of Vengi]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of Pulakeshin, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} | By 641 CE, during Pulakeshin's lifetime, his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Chalukya dynasty of Vengi]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of Pulakeshin, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} | ||
Pulakeshin had | Pulakeshin had multiple sons, and the order of succession after him is not clear from the available historical evidence: | ||
* [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] (c.643-645?) is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]] (c.645-646?).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}} | * [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] (c.643-645?) is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]] (c.645-646?).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}} | ||
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== Extent of the kingdom == | == Extent of the kingdom == | ||
[[File:Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg|thumb|Chalukya territories during the reign of Pulakeshin II, as estimated by historian [[Suryanath U. Kamath]].{{sfn|Suryanath U. | [[File:Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg|thumb|Chalukya territories during the reign of Pulakeshin II, as estimated by historian [[Suryanath U. Kamath]].{{sfn|Suryanath U. Kamath|1980|p=327}}]] | ||
The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang attests that Pulakeshin ruled an extensive, militarily powerful and economically prosperous kingdom through several loyal vassals.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} The Aihole inscription states that Pulakeshin's kingdom was bound by the oceans on three sides, suggesting that he ruled a vast portion of the Indian peninsula to the south of the Vindhyas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} However, there is no evidence that he was able to annex the extreme southern kingdoms of the Cholas, the Keralas (Cheras), and the Pandyas to his empire.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}} | The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang attests that Pulakeshin ruled an extensive, militarily powerful and economically prosperous kingdom through several loyal vassals.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} The Aihole inscription states that Pulakeshin's kingdom was bound by the oceans on three sides, suggesting that he ruled a vast portion of the Indian peninsula to the south of the Vindhyas.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} However, there is no evidence that he was able to annex the extreme southern kingdoms of the Cholas, the Keralas (Cheras), and the Pandyas to his empire.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}} | ||
After his victory over Harsha, Pulakeshin appears to have acquired control of a large part of western Deccan to the south of the Narmada river. The Aihole inscription states that he gained control of the "three | After his victory over Harsha, Pulakeshin appears to have acquired control of a large part of western Deccan to the south of the Narmada river. The Aihole inscription states that he gained control of the "three Maharashtrakas" which included 99,000 villages. The identity of these "three Maharashtras" is not certain: according to historian [[D. C. Sircar]], they may have been the Maharashtra proper (a large part of present-day Maharashtra), Konkana, and Karnata.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=90}} | ||
Pulakeshin could not administer this large kingdom centrally, and therefore, ruled through governors from the Chalukya family and loyal vassals, who included the rulers defeated by him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Sendraka prince Sena-nanda-raja ruled the [[Konkan]]a and neighbouring areas as his loyal feudatory. The family of Alla-shakti ruled the [[Khandesh]] and neighbouring areas as his vassal, as attested by the Abhona and Kasare inscriptions.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}} | Pulakeshin could not administer this large kingdom centrally, and therefore, ruled through governors from the Chalukya family and loyal vassals, who included the rulers defeated by him.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=94}} The Sendraka prince Sena-nanda-raja ruled the [[Konkan]]a and neighbouring areas as his loyal feudatory. The family of Alla-shakti ruled the [[Khandesh]] and neighbouring areas as his vassal, as attested by the Abhona and Kasare inscriptions.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=96}} | ||
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== Foreign relations == | == Foreign relations == | ||
[[File:The Persian embassy.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Original frescoes in Ajanta Cave 1, and corresponding artistic depiction of Pulakeshin receiving envoys from Persia. Earlier scholars believed that Pulakeshin received an envoy from the Sasanian emperor of Persia, based on the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] cave painting, but this theory is no longer considered correct.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}}]] | [[File:The Persian embassy.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Original frescoes in Ajanta Cave 1, and corresponding artistic depiction of Pulakeshin receiving envoys from Persia. Earlier scholars believed that Pulakeshin received an envoy from the Sasanian emperor of Persia, based on the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] cave painting, but this theory is no longer considered correct.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}}]] | ||
According to the | According to the ninth-century Persian historian [[Al-Tabari]], Pulakeshin ("Pharmis") maintained diplomatic relations with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] ruler [[Khosrow II]] of present-day Iran. Pulakeshin sent expensive presents and letters to Khusrow and his sons, during the 26th regnal year of the Sasanian monarch.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=98}} This embassy can be dated to c. 625 CE.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | ||
In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian king sent a return embassy to the Chalukya kingdom.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=181}} This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct:{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}} the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sassanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana [[Jataka tales|Jataka]], in which the enthroned king can be identified as the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous births as a King.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} The inclusions of numerous men in Sassanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sassanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an object of intense interest by the Indians.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian king sent a return embassy to the Chalukya kingdom.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=181}} This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct:{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}} the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sassanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana [[Jataka tales|Jataka]], in which the enthroned king can be identified as the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous births as a King.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} The inclusions of numerous men in Sassanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sassanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an object of intense interest by the Indians.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | ||
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== Religion == | == Religion == | ||
Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature [[varaha]], an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature [[varaha]], an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | ||
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== Cultural activities == | == Cultural activities == | ||
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin states that he was generous in "bestowing gifts and honours on the brave and the learned". The inscription's composer Ravikirrti, a court poet of Pulakeshin, describes himself as an equal of the famous Sanskrit poets [[Bhasa]] and [[Kalidasa]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=554}} | The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin states that he was generous in "bestowing gifts and honours on the brave and the learned". The inscription's composer Ravikirrti, a court poet of Pulakeshin, describes himself as an equal of the famous Sanskrit poets [[Bhasa]] and [[Kalidasa]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=554}} | ||
== Inscriptions == | == Inscriptions == | ||
[[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|The Aihole inscription composed by Pulakeshin's court poet Ravikirtti]] | [[File:Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti.jpg|thumb|The Aihole inscription composed by Pulakeshin's court poet Ravikirtti]] | ||
Following inscriptions from Pulakeshin's reign have been discovered: | Following inscriptions from Pulakeshin's reign have been discovered: | ||
* The Yekkeri rock inscription, which was probably issued in Pulakeshin's first regnal year, contains land records in certain towns said to be owned by the god [[Shiva|Mahadeva]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | * The Yekkeri rock inscription, which was probably issued in Pulakeshin's first regnal year, contains land records in certain towns said to be owned by the god [[Shiva|Mahadeva]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | ||
* The Hyderabad copper-plate grant inscription is dated to the Shaka year 532 (expired), and was issued during Pulakeshin's | * The Hyderabad copper-plate grant inscription is dated to the Shaka year 532 (expired), and was issued during Pulakeshin's third regnal year. It was issued during the solar eclipse on the Amavasya of the Bhadrapada month, which corresponds to 23 July 613.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=51}} It records a village grant.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=71}} | ||
* The Maruturu grant inscription records the grant of the Maruturu village at the instance of the Aluka vassal ruler, and notices the occupation of Pishtapura.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | * The Maruturu grant inscription records the grant of the Maruturu village at the instance of the Aluka vassal ruler, and notices the occupation of Pishtapura.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | ||
* The Satara grant inscription of Vishnu-vardhana refers to him as the crown-prince.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | * The Satara grant inscription of Vishnu-vardhana refers to him as the crown-prince.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} | ||
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Following inscriptions are attributed to Pulakeshin's reign, but are considered spurious by modern scholars: | Following inscriptions are attributed to Pulakeshin's reign, but are considered spurious by modern scholars: | ||
* The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's fifth regnal year, records the grant of the Pirigipa village on Revati island. It is considered spurious because its script features irregular characters and its language is very inaccurate.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=69}} Additionally, its seal and opening matter are different from other Chalukya inscriptions, and it contains a faulty description of Pulakeshin.{{sfn|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017|p=207}} | |||
* The Kandalgaon copper-plate inscription, dated to Pulakeshin's | |||
* The Lakshmeshvara inscription records the grant of a field to the chaitya of Shankha Jinendra. It is considered spurious because of "late script and irregular dating".{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The Lakshmeshvara inscription records the grant of a field to the chaitya of Shankha Jinendra. It is considered spurious because of "late script and irregular dating".{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
* The Pimpalner copper-plate inscription, considered spurious for the same reasons as the Lakshmeshvara inscription, records the grant of the Pippalanagara to Nagarasvami Dikshita.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | * The Pimpalner copper-plate inscription, considered spurious for the same reasons as the Lakshmeshvara inscription, records the grant of the Pippalanagara to Nagarasvami Dikshita.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=70}} | ||
==In popular culture== | |||
Several Kannada groups demanded the installation of Pulakeshin statue at Badami, Karnataka, to celebrate the great Kannada ruler of past who is being ignored by present government<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/top-karnataka-stories/seeing-beyond-shivaji-activists-push-for-pulikeshi-ii-1055994.html | title=Seeing beyond Shivaji: Activists push for Pulikeshi II. Learn More. | date=30 Nov 2021}}</ref> | |||
[[File:Pulakeshin statue, badami.png|thumb|Statue of Pulakeshin II in Badami]] | |||
[[File:Pulakeshin painting bengaluru.jpg|thumb|Painting of Pulakeshin II in Bengaluru]] | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]] | |||
* [[Timeline of Karnataka]] | |||
* [[History of South India]] | * [[History of South India]] | ||
* [[Sivagamiyin sabadham]], a historical novel featuring Pulakeshin II | * [[Sivagamiyin sabadham]], a historical novel featuring Pulakeshin II | ||
| Line 246: | Line 237: | ||
=== Bibliography === | === Bibliography === | ||
{{commons category|Pulakeshin II}} | {{commons category|Pulakeshin II}} | ||
{{ | {{refbegin}} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Rimjhim Sharma, Anish Kumar |title=History: BA (Hons) Semester II Course Pack, University of Delhi |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/History_BA_Hons_Semester_II_Course_Pack/cyI8BAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-93-325-1157-6 }} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |author-link=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA58 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 }} | * {{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |author-link=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA58 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 }} | ||
* {{cite book |editor=B. Chaitanya Deva |title=Musical instruments in sculpture in Karnataka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gIAQAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study / Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0641-2 }} | * {{cite book |editor=B. Chaitanya Deva |title=Musical instruments in sculpture in Karnataka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2gIAQAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study / Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0641-2 }} | ||
| Line 262: | Line 254: | ||
* {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA554 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 }} | * {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA554 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Walter M. Spink |chapter=The Persian Embassy |title=Ajanta: The end of the Golden Age |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjgq2OivwmkC&pg=PA181 |year=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-14832-9 }} | * {{cite book |author=Walter M. Spink |chapter=The Persian Embassy |title=Ajanta: The end of the Golden Age |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjgq2OivwmkC&pg=PA181 |year=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-14832-9 }} | ||
{{ | {{refend}} | ||
{{Karnataka topics}} | {{Karnataka topics}} | ||