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{{Short description|Islamic mysticism}}
{{complex|date=May 2013}}
{{About|Sufism||Sufism (disambiguation)}}
{{Islam}}
{{Redirect|Sufi|other uses|Sufi (disambiguation)}}
'''Sufism''' (also known as '''Tassawuf''') is a group or branch in Islam with a [[mysticism|mystic]] path or system. Someone who practices Sufism is called a Sufi, and may be a ''[[Dervish]]'' or a ''[[Fakir]]''.
{{Redirect|Tasawuf|the idea of sanctification in Islam|Tazkiah}}
{{Distinguish|Sophist{{!}}Sophism|Salafi movement{{!}}Salafism}}
{{Islam |expanded=culture}}
{{Sufism|all|width=19.0em}}


[[File:Six Sufi masters.jpg|thumb|Six Sufi masters, c.1760]]
==Origins==
'''Sufism''' ({{lang-ar|ٱلصُّوفِيَّة}}), also known as '''Tasawwuf'''<ref name="qamar">{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1ORAgAAQBAJ|title=Striving for Divine Union: Spiritual Exercises for Suhraward Sufis|author=Qamar-ul Huda|pages=1–4|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|year=2003|isbn=9781135788438}}</ref> ({{lang-ar|ٱلتَّصَوُّف|link=no}}), is [[mysticism]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ANJUM|first=TANVIR|date=2006|title=Sufism in History and its Relationship with Power|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20839016|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=45|issue=2|pages=221–268|jstor=20839016|issn=0578-8072}}</ref> in [[Islam]], "characterized ... [by particular] values, ritual practices,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sebottendorff|first=Baron Rudolf von|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bV4oDwAAQBAJ|title=Secret Practices of the Sufi Freemasons: The Islamic Teachings at the Heart of Alchemy|date=2013-01-17|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-62055-001-4|language=en}}</ref> doctrines and institutions".<ref name=EQ>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Knysh |author-first=Alexander D. |year=2006 |title=Ṣūfism and the Qurʾān |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=V |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00196 |isbn=90-04-14743-8}}</ref> It is variously defined as "[[Islamic mysticism]]",<ref name=EQ/><ref name="Milani 2012">{{cite book |author-last=Milani |author-first=Milad |year=2012 |chapter=The Cultural Products of Global Sufism |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carol |editor2-last=Norman |editor2-first=Alex |title=Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=4 |doi=10.1163/9789004226487_027 |pages=659–680 |isbn=978-90-04-22187-1 |issn=1874-6691}}</ref><ref name="Martin Lings 1983, p.15">Martin Lings, ''What is Sufism?'' (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p.15</ref> "the mystical expression of Islamic faith",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Halligan |first=Fredrica R. |year=2014 |title=Sufis and Sufism |editor-last=Leeming |editor-first=David A. |editor-link=David Adams Leeming |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion |pages=1750–1751 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Verlag]] |location=[[Boston]] |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_666 |isbn=978-1-4614-6087-9}}</ref> "the inward dimension of Islam",<ref>Titus Burckhardt, ''Art of Islam: Language and Meaning'' (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2009), p. 223</ref><ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ''The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr'', ed. William C. Chittick (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2007), p. 74</ref> or "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam".<ref name=EI2>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Massington, L. |author2=Radtke, B. |author3=Chittick, W. C. |author4=Jong, F. de. |author5=Lewisohn, L. |author6=Zarcone, Th. |author7=Ernst, C. |author8=Aubin, Françoise |author9=Hunwick, J. O. |year=2012 |origyear=2000 |title=Taṣawwuf |editor1-last=Bosworth |editor1-first=C. E. |editor1-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor2-last=van Donzel |editor2-first=E. J. |editor2-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor3-last=Heinrichs |editor3-first=W. P. |editor3-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1188 |volume=10 |isbn=978-90-04-11211-7}}</ref><ref>Martin Lings, ''What is Sufism?'' (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p.12: "Mystics on the other hand-and Sufism is a kind of mysticism-are by definition concerned above all with 'the mysteries of the Kingdom of Heaven'".</ref> Sufism began very early in [[Islamic history]]<ref name=EI2/> and represents "the main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization of" mystical practice in Islam.<ref>
At first, Sufism only meant making Islam more personal and internal. Some say it first came from constantly reciting the Qur'an, meditating, and through experience. Others believe that Sufism is trying to live as the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] did, to be closer to God. This is how the Prophet taught his disciples.<ref>Sheikh Abu Bakr Muhammad Sibahi, ''{{lang|ur|Tareekhi Tassawuf aur uss ka Irtaqa}}'' (''Historical Tassawuf/Sufism and its Later Evolution'') Lahore: Qurtaba Press, 1966, pp.23-28</ref> Additionally, the Muslim conquests had brought large numbers of [[Christian]] monks and hermits, especially in [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]], under Muslim rule.<ref name="Sibahi, p.28">Sibahi, p.28</ref> They believed in a deeply spiritual and mystical (even '[[Platonic]]') way of life and many of their ways became part of early Sufism.<ref name="Sibahi, p.28"/>
Compare:
{{cite book
| last1 = Nasr
| first1 = Seyyed Hossein
| author-link1 = Seyyed Hossein Nasr
| editor1-last = Chittick
| editor1-first = William C.
| editor1-link = William Chittick
| title = The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0YQhoPEih04C
| series = The perennial philosophy series
| location = Bloomington, Indiana
| publisher = World Wisdom, Inc
| date = 2007
| page = 74
| isbn = 9781933316383
| access-date = 2017-06-24
| quote = Sufism is the esoteric or inward dimension of Islam [...] Islamic esoterism is, however [...]  not exhausted by Sufism [...] but the main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization of Islamic esotericism is to be found in Sufism.
}}
</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shah|1964–2014|p=30}}. "According to Idries Shah, Sufism is as old as Adam and is the essence of all religions, monotheistic or not." See [[Perennial philosophy]]</ref> Practitioners of Sufism have been referred to as "Sufis" (from {{rtl-lang|ar|صُوفِيّ}}, ''ṣūfīy'').<ref name=EI2/>


Historically, Sufis have often belonged to different ''[[tariqa|ṭuruq]]'' or "orders" – congregations formed around a grand master referred to as a ''[[wali]]'' who traces a direct [[Silsilah|chain of successive teachers]] back to the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa &#124; Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 2014-02-04 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> These orders meet for spiritual sessions (''[[majalis]]'') in meeting places known as ''[[Zawiya (institution)|zawiyas]]'', ''[[khanqah]]s'' or ''tekke''.{{sfn|Glassé|2008|p= 499}} They strive for ''[[ihsan]]'' (perfection of worship), as detailed in a ''[[hadith]]'': "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you."<ref>{{cite book|last= Bin Jamil Zeno|first= Muhammad|title= The Pillars of Islam & Iman |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=u-bNf9xCULsC&pg=PA19 |year= 1996|publisher= Darussalam|isbn= 978-9960-897-12-7|pages= 19–}}</ref> Sufis [[Muhammad in Islam|regard Muhammad]] as ''[[al-Insān al-Kāmil]]'', the complete human who personifies the [[Names of God in Islam|attributes]] of [[God|Absolute Reality]],{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p= 446}} and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Spiritual Healing and Sufi Practices|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272027008|access-date=2021-06-12|website=ResearchGate|language=en}}</ref>
Some of these teachings were summarized in texts (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] initially). Important contributions in writing are attributed to [[Uwais al-Qarni]], Harrm bin Hian, [[Hasan Basri]] and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as among the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was the first one to write about moral psychology. [[Rabia Basri]] was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. [[Bayazid Bastami]] was among the first theorists of Sufism.


Sufi orders (''[[tariqa]]'') trace most of their original precepts from Muhammad through [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=ʿAlī - Shiʿism, Sufism, and the chivalric orders|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph|access-date=2021-06-12|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> with the notable exception of the [[Naqshbandi]] order, who trace their original precepts to Muhammad through [[Abu Bakr]].
Sufism already had a long history when some teachers began to set up formal schools or orders (''[[Tarika]]'' or ''[[Tariqah]]'')  in the early Middle Ages. Almost all existing Sufi orders today trace their roots and chain of transmission (''silsila'') back to Muhammad, via one of these orders.


Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, were and are adherents of [[Sunni Islam]], there also developed certain strands of Sufi practice within the ambit of [[Shia Islam]] during the late medieval period, particularly after the [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|Safavid conversion of Iran from majority Sunni to Shia]].<ref name=EI2/> Traditional Sufi orders during the first five centuries of Islam were all based in [[Sunni Islam]]. Although Sufis were opposed to dry [[Legalism (theology)|legalism]], they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|last= Schimmel|first= Annemarie|url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism|title= Sufism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date= 2018-06-26|quote=Opposed to the dry casuistry of the lawyer-divines, the mystics nevertheless scrupulously observed the commands of the divine law. [...] the mystics belonged to all schools of Islamic law and theology of the times.}}</ref>
==Sufi ideas and principles==
The main idea in Sufism is that people can have 'personal knowledge' or oneness with God in their lives.<ref>See Idries Shah, ''The Sufis'', 1971 ed {{ISBN|9780385079662}}; , also on the Sufi Studies Today website, http://www.sufis.org  Retrieved 2.11.2012</ref> In order to be one with God, you have to destroy your idea of yourself, or your ego. This is known as ''fanaa'' (annihilation).<ref>O.Tarin, 'Some Basic Sufi Practices: An Introduction', in ''Spirals'', 1992, pp.169-178</ref> Apart from saying Sufi prayers, that vary according to different orders, you should be humble, considerate, and only act in order to control your desires.


Sufis have been characterized by their [[Asceticism#Islam|asceticism]], especially by their attachment to ''[[dhikr]]'', the practice of remembrance of God, often performed after prayers.<ref>''A Prayer for Spiritual Elevation and Protection'' (2007) by Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi, Suha Taji-Farouki</ref> They gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750)<ref name="FirstDynasty">
After ''fanaa'' is achieved, the you are reborn to live with, in, through and for God, (''baqaa'', permanency). This is the state where you have achieved the divine love of God, and come ever closer to a unity with God.<ref>O.Tarin, p.170</ref> You should now strive to be one with God. A person who has crossed the various Sufi 'stages' and achieved this sort of mystic union with Allah, is called a ''Wali'' (a saint or friend of God) and the state is termed ''Wilayat'' (friendship/union).<ref>O.Tarin, p.171</ref>
{{cite book
|author= G. R Hawting
|title= The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate 661-750
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-wFp_Gv8GDYC
|year= 2002|publisher= Taylor & Francis
|isbn= 978-0-203-13700-0
}}
</ref> and have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, initially expressing their beliefs in Arabic and later expanding into [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Urdu]], among others.{{sfn|Sells|1996|p= 1}} Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name="britannica"/> According to [[William Chittick]], "In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, and intensification of Islamic faith and practice."{{sfn|Chittick|2007|p= 22}}


Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in the modern era and criticism of some aspects of Sufism by [[Islamic Modernism|modernist thinkers]] and [[Salafi movement|conservative Salafists]], Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world, and has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West.<ref name=howell/><ref name=sedgwick2012/><ref name=voll-OEIW/>
==Sufic Orders==
In Sufism there exist many different orders (''[[tarika]]s''), that were founded from the 12th and 13th centuries until today/contemporary times. Some of the major Sufi orders are:


==Definitions==
* [[Qadiri]] or ''Qadiriyya'';
The Arabic word ''tasawwuf'' (lit. being or becoming a Sufi), generally translated as Sufism, is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism.<ref name=chittick-OEIW>{{cite encyclopedia|author=William C. Chittick|title=Sufism. ṢūfĪ Thought and Practice|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0759}}</ref><ref name=ernst-EIMW>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Carl W. Ernst|title=Tasawwuf|editor=Richard C. Martin|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|publisher=MacMillan Reference USA|year=2004}}</ref> The Arabic term ''sufi'' has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism.<ref name=chittick-OEIW/> Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the [[Quran]] and the [[sunnah]] (exemplary teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]), gave definitions of ''tasawwuf'' that described ethical and spiritual goals{{refn|group=note|The following are among definitions of Sufism quoted in an early Sufi treatise by [[Abu Nasr as-Sarraj]]:<ref>{{cite web|author=Alan Godlas|title=Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths|website=University of Georgia (personal website)|url=http://islam.uga.edu/sufism/sufismlumdef.html}}</ref>
* [[Chishti]] or ''Chishtiyya'';
<br />{{•}} "Sufism is that you should be with God--without any attachment." ([[Junayd of Baghdad]])
* [[Suhrawardi]] or ''Suhrawardiyya'';
<br />{{•}} "Sufism consists of abandoning oneself to God in accordance with what God wills."  ([[Ruwaym ibn Ahmad]])
* [[Naqshbandi]] or ''Naqshbandiyya'';
<br />{{•}} "Sufism is that you should not possess anything nor should anything possess you." (Samnun)
* [[Mevlevi]] or ''Mevleviyya'';
<br />{{•}}  "Sufism consists of entering every exalted quality (khulq) and leaving behind every despicable quality." (Abu Muhammad al-Jariri)
* [[Rifai]] or ''Rifaiyya'';
<br />{{•}} "Sufism is that at each moment the servant should be in accord with what is most appropriate (awla) at that moment." ('Amr ibn 'Uthman al-Makki)
* [[Saifia]] or ''Saifiya'';
}} and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts.<ref name=chittick-OEIW/><ref name=ernst-EIMW/>
* [[Bektashi]] or ''Bektashiya'';


Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism such as "intensification of Islamic faith and practice"<ref name=chittick-OEIW/> and "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals".<ref name=ernst-EIMW/>
==Notable Sufis==
Some of the major, notable Sufis in history, from the 'classical age' of Sufism,  include:<ref>The classical reference volume which gives the biographies of most of the great early Sufi saints is Sheikh Farid-ud-din Attar's, ''Tazkirat al-Aulia'''' (A Mention/Remembrance of the Saints), English translation by Prof AJ Arberry, n.d.; the online version is available at http://www.maktabah.org/biography/sufi-saints/392-tazkirat-al-aulia-by-fariduddin-attar.html{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Maktabah Islamic E-Librray site, Retrieved 2.10.2012</ref>


The term Sufism was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as sterile monotheism of Islam. In modern scholarly usage the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political and religious phenomena associated with Sufis.<ref name=ernst-EIMW/>
* [[Uwais al-Qarni]]
* [[Dhul Nun Misri]]
* [[Junaid of Baghdad]]
* [[Rabia Basri]]
* [[Hasan Basri]]
* [[Bayazid Bastami]]
* [[Ibn ul-Arabi]]<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7437/ |title = The Meccan Revelations |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1900–1999 |accessdate = 2013-07-14 }}</ref>
* [[Al-Ghazali]]
* [[Abd al-Qadir al-Gillani]]
* [[Ahmed Ar-Rifai]]
* [[Shahab-ud-din Suhrawardi]]
* [[Farid-ud-din Attar]]
* [[Baha-ud-din Naqshband]]
* [[Ali al-Hajvery]]
* [[Jalal-ud-din Rumi]]
* [[Moin-ud-din Chishti]]
* [[Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar]]
* [[Nizam-ud-din Auliya]]
* [[Lal Shahbaz Qalandar]]
* Hakim [[Omar Khayyam]]


==Etymology==
Modern practitioners, who have achieved the degree of ''sheikh'' (Master/Preceptor) and are accounted to have a high spiritual status, are still found in various places.<ref>Tarin, p.176</ref>
The original meaning of ''sufi'' seems to have been "one who wears wool (''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṣūf}}'')", and the [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable".<ref name=EI2/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=William C. Chittick|title=Sufism. Sūfī Thought and Practice|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0759}}</ref> Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics.<ref name=EI2/> [[Al-Qushayri]] and [[Ibn Khaldun]] both rejected all possibilities other than ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṣūf}}'' on linguistic grounds.<ref name=exeg>Rashid Ahmad Jullundhry, ''Qur'anic Exegesis in Classical Literature'', pg. 56. [[New Westminster]]: [[The Other Press]], 2010. {{ISBN|9789675062551}}</ref>


Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word to ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ṣafā}}'' ''({{lang|ar|صفاء}})'', which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea of ''tasawwuf'' as considered in Islam is ''[[tazkiyah]]'' ({{lang|ar|تزكية}}, meaning: self-purification), which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi ''al-Rudhabari'' (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity."<ref>''The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions'', p. 83, Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, 2004</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mac.abc.se/home/onesr/f/Sufism%20in%20Islam.htm |title=Sufism in Islam |publisher=Mac.abc.se |access-date=13 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417203708/http://mac.abc.se/home/onesr/f/Sufism%20in%20Islam.htm |archive-date=April 17, 2012}}</ref>
==Sufism and Islamic orthodoxy==
Sufi practices are usually defined within the basic tenets of Islam, the ''[[Sharia]]'' (or ''Shariah'')  although some orders include singing and dancing in the love of God, something some Muslims frown on. Hence some Muslims of a more orthodox mind-set believe that any actions outside the scope of ''Sharia'', or Sufi activities practised by non-Muslims are 'wrong'. However the underlying message and aim of the quest for the love of God is true for all humanity. For a non-Muslim the most important ideas in Sufism are love for fellow human beings (which reflects one's love of God) and living ones life in such a way where all actions are against the self. This automatically starts him on the path of ''fanaa''. In terms of discipleship and training, almost all the major Sufi orders are themselves quite willing to take students who are not Muslims.<ref>Tarin, p.27</ref>


Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ''{{transl|ar|DIN|[[Ashab al-Suffa|ahl aṣ-ṣuffah]]}}'' ("the people of the [[suffah]] or the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of ''dhikr'', one of the most prominent companion among them was [[Abu Huraira]]. These men and women who sat at [[al-Masjid an-Nabawi]] are considered by some to be the first Sufis.<ref>The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies by Clinton Bennett, p 328</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sufiway.net/1sec4=ORigSUF811326.html |title=Origin of sufism – Qadiri |publisher=Sufi Way |year=2003 |access-date=13 August 2012 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127235314/http://www.sufiway.net/1sec4=ORigSUF811326.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
There are some Muslim schools of thought, such as the [[Wahhabi]] for example, who oppose Sufism because they feel it obliterates the difference between God and man and bypasses the common method of salvation as prescribed by their interpretations of ''Sharia''. Although there are non-Islamic versions of Sufism too (generally defined as 'Universal Sufism') puritanical and rigid people in Islam tend to view them with considerable hatred and anger. As a result, we often see a great deal of misunderstanding and conflict regarding Sufism and Sufic practices.


==History==
Historically speaking, orthodox Islam, especially fundamentalist groups like the Wahhabi and Salafi have been the most intolerant and violent against what they think of as 'Deviant Sufism'.<ref>Ehsan Ur Rehman, ''{{lang|ur|Islam ya Kufr? Deen mein biddat ke maamlay}}'' (''Islam or Unbelief? Some innovations in the Faith'') Monograph, Lahore and Karachi, 1992, pp.51-52</ref> In the past centuries, severe persecution has been carried out by them against the [[Kharijite]]s, the [[Ismaili]] [[Shia]] cult (sometimes termed the 'Assassins'), the [[Ahmadiyya]] movement and several other groups and individuals with Sufi-like mystical tendencies and practices. During the time of the later [[Mughal Empire]] in [[India]], even the early ''gurus'' of [[Sikhism]] were persecuted by orthodox Islamic ''mullahs'' (theologians) since they had chosen to incorporate some of the ideas and poetic verses of the Sufi saint [[Baba Farid]] into their holy scriptures. In more recent times, over the last two decades, considerable persecution has been made of the spiritual reformer and sage [[Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi]] and his followers in [[Pakistan]].<ref>''The Daily Times'' Lahore, Pakistan, 8 July 2004</ref> He was opposed and threatened and forced to flee the country and his books banned there, and anyone publicly supporting him is liable to immediate arrest.<ref>http://www.dawn.com/2002/06/26/nat33.htm Daily ''Dawn'' Karachi, Pakistan, news item, 26 June 2002, Retrieved 2 Nov 2012</ref>
{{main|History of Sufism}}


===Origins===
Even proper, formal Sufi orders have suffered persecution for various reasons. In recent times the most notorious example was the outright banning of Sufism in [[Iran]].<ref>See ''US Report on International Religious Freedom'' May 2009, Section on Iran</ref> This happened in spite of the famous ''Amman Message'', a joint declaration made by over 200 of the most noted moderate Islamic scholars in a conference in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], in 2005, stressing that Sufism is very much 'part' of Islam.<ref>http://ammanmessage.com/ The Amman Message Summary Retrieved 2 Nov 2012</ref>
Sufism existed as an individual inner practice of [[Muslims]] since early Islamic history.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Abdurahman Abdullahi Baadiyow]]|title=Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1dDDwAAQBAJ|date=2017|publisher=Adonis & Abbey Publishers|isbn=9781909112797|page=70}}</ref> According to [[Carl W. Ernst]] the earliest figures of Sufism are Muhammad himself and his companions (''[[Sahabah]]'').<ref name="carl1">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Tasawwuf [Sufism]|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|year=2003|author=Carl W. Ernst}}{{full citation needed|date=February 2020}}</ref> Sufi orders are based on the ''bay‘ah'' (<big>بَيْعَة</big> ''bay‘ah'', <big>مُبَايَعَة</big> ''mubāya‘ah'' 'pledge, allegiance') that was given to Muhammad by his ''Ṣahabah''. By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the Sahabah had committed themselves to the service of God.<ref name="carl1"/><ref>{{cite book|url=http://naqshbandi.org/teachings/topics/taking-initiation-bayah/|title=Taking Initiation (Bay'ah)|publisher=Naqshbandi Sufi Way}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4VswAAAAYAAJ|title=Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi tradition|page=644|publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America|author=Muhammad Hisham Kabbani|isbn=9781930409231|date=June 2004}}</ref>


{{quote|Verily, those who give Bai'âh (pledge) to you (O Muhammad) they are giving Bai'âh (pledge) to Allâh. The Hand of Allâh is over their hands. Then whosoever breaks his pledge, breaks it only to his own harm, and whosoever fulfils what he has covenanted with Allâh, He will bestow on him a great reward. — [Translation of [[Quran, 48]]:10]}}
==Further reading==
 
Some volumes for further reading on Sufism include:
Sufis believe that by giving ''bayʿah'' (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufi [[Shaykh]], one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://naqshbandi.org/teachings/topics/taking-initiation-bayah/|title=Taking Initiation (Bay'ah) {{!}} The Naqshbandiyya Nazimiyya Sufi Order of America: Sufism and Spirituality|website=naqshbandi.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-12}}</ref> Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the ''Sahaba'' who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the ''hadith'', which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8HbK6QUhl8C&pg=PA461|title=Journal of a Sufi Odyssey|author=Shaykh Tariq Knecht|publisher=Tauba Press|isbn=9781450554398|date=2018-11-09}}</ref> Eminent Sufis such as [[Ali Hujwiri]] refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in ''Tasawwuf''. Furthermore, [[Junayd of Baghdad]] regarded Ali as [[Sheikh]] of the principals and practices of ''Tasawwuf''.<ref name="alim.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KAL/79/1|title=Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib - Ali, The Father of Sufism - Alim.org|access-date=27 September 2014}}</ref>
* Abu-Nasr, J (2007) ''Muslim Communities of Grace:Sufi Brotherhoods in Islam'' London;
 
* Burckhardt, T (1963) ''An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine'' Lahore;
Historian [[Jonathan A. C. Brown|Jonathan A.C. Brown]] notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine mysteries" more than Islam required, such as [[Abu Dhar al-Ghifari|Abu Dharr al-Ghifari]]. [[Hasan al-Basri]], a [[Tabi‘un|tabi]]', is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart".<ref name=brown-58>{{cite book|last1 = Brown|first1 = Jonathan A.C.|author-link = Jonathan A.C. Brown|title = Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy|date = 2014|publisher = [[Oneworld Publications]]|isbn = 978-1780744209|url = https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/58|access-date = 4 June 2018|ref = JACBMM2014|page = [https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/58 58]}}</ref>
* Godlas, A (2000) ''Sufism's Many Paths'' U of Georgia Press;
 
* Shah, Idries (1971) ''The Sufis'' New York;
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.<ref>{{cite web|title="Sufism": A Tradition of Transcendental Mysticism|author=Nancy Emara|date=2002-08-30|url=http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/08/article03.shtml|website=IslamOnline.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724160152/http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/08/article03.shtml|archive-date=July 24, 2009}}</ref> According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.<ref>Massignon, Louis. ''Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane''. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. 104.</ref> Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.<ref>[[Imam Birgivi]], ''The Path of Muhammad'', WorldWisdom, {{ISBN|0-941532-68-2}}</ref>
* Schimmel, A (1983) ''Mystical Dimensions of Islam'' Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina Press;
 
* Smoley, Richard & Kinney, Jay. 2006. ''Hidden wisdom: a guide to the western inner traditions''. 2nd ed; Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books. {{ISBN|978-0-8356-0844-2}} (Chapter 10 deals with Sufism in the West)
Modern academics and scholars have rejected early Orientalist theories asserting a non-Islamic origin of Sufism;<ref name="britannica"/> the consensus is that it emerged in [[Western Asia]]. Many have asserted Sufism to be unique within the confines of the Islamic religion, and contend that Sufism developed from people like [[Bayazid Bastami]], who, in his utmost reverence to the [[sunnah]], refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it.{{sfn|Chittick|2007}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Hossein|author-link=Hossein Nasr|title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IgVtq3kNCrYC&pg=PA192|year=1993|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3}}</ref> According to the late medieval mystic, the Persian poet [[Jami]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jami|title = Jāmī &#124; Persian poet and scholar}}</ref> [[Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah]] (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi".<ref name=exeg/>
* Chopra, R. M., "SUFISM" (Origin, Growth, Eclipse, Resurgence), 2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi, {{ISBN|978-93-85083-52-5}}.
 
Important contributions in writing are attributed to [[Uwais al-Qarani]], [[Hasan of Basra]], [[Harith al-Muhasibi]], [[Abu Nasr as-Sarraj]] and [[Said ibn al-Musayyib]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sufism The Formative Period|last=Karamustafa|first=Ahmet|publisher=University of California Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0520252691|location=Berkeley}}</ref> [[Ruwaym]], from the second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure,<ref>{{cite book|last=Ridgeon|first=Lloyd|title=Morals and Mysticism in Persian Sufism: A History of Sufi-Futuwwat in Iran|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBnHBQAAQBAJ|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-97058-0}}, p. 32</ref><ref>[[Ibn Khallikan]]'s Biographical Dictionary, translated by [[William McGuckin de Slane]]. [[Paris]]: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by [[Institut de France]] and [[Royal Library of Belgium]]. Vol. 3, p. 209.</ref> as was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.<ref>Ahmet T. Karamustafa, ''Sufism: The Formative Period'', pg. 58. [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]: [[University of California Press]], 2007.</ref>
 
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (''tarîqât'') in the early Middle Ages.<ref name=Trimingham>{{cite book|first=J. Spencer|last=Trimingham|date= 1998|title=The Sufi Orders in Islam|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512058-5}}</ref> The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the first [[Islamic Caliph]], Abu Bakr.<ref name="SupremeCouncil">{{cite book|title=Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition|last=Kabbani|first=Muhammad Hisham|publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America|year=2004|isbn=978-1-930409-23-1|page=557|author-link=Hisham Kabbani}}</ref>
 
Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially [[Isma'ilism]], which led to the [[Safaviyya]] order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of [[Twelver]]ism throughout Iran.<ref>Daftary |Farhad |2013 |A History of Shi'i Islam |New York NY |I.B. Tauris and Co ltd. |page 28 |{{ISBN|9780300035315}} |4/8/2015</ref>
 
[[List of Sufi orders|Sufi orders]] include [[Ba 'Alawiyya]], [[Badawiyya]], [[Bektashi Order|Bektashi]], [[Burhaniyya]], [[Chishti Order|Chishti]], [[Khalwati order|Khalwati]], [[Mevlevi Order|Mevlevi]], [[Naqshbandi]], [[Ni'matullāhī]], [[Uwaisi]], [[Qadiriyya]], [[Qalandariyya]], [[Rifa'i]], [[Qadiriyya#Sarwari Qadiri|Sarwari Qadiri]], [[Shadhili]]yya, [[Suhrawardiyya]], [[Tijaniyyah]], [[Madariyya|Zinda Shah Madariya]], and others.<ref name="ReferenceA">''The Jamaat Tableegh and the Deobandis'' by Sajid Abdul Kayum, Chapter 1: Overview and Background.</ref>
 
===As an Islamic discipline===
[[File:Dance_of_Sufi_Dervishes.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Dancing dervishes, by [[Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād]] (c. 1480/1490)]]
Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion, which strives to take the regular practice of the religion to the "supererogatory level" through simultaneously "fulfilling ... [the obligatory] religious duties"<ref name=EI2/> and finding a "way and a means of striking a root through the 'narrow gate' in the depth of the [[rūḥ|soul]] out into the domain of the pure arid unimprisonable [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|Spirit]] which itself opens out on to the Divinity."<ref name="Martin Lings 1983, p.15"/><ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web|title=Dr. Jonathan AC Brown - What is Sufism?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MpFatRwdPm0|publisher=youtube.com|date=13 May 2015}}</ref> Academic studies of Sufism confirm that Sufism, as a separate tradition from Islam apart from so-called ''pure Islam'', is frequently a product of [[Orientalism|Western orientalism]] and modern [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalists]].<ref>Michael S. Pittman ''Classical Spirituality in Contemporary America: The Confluence and Contribution of G.I. Gurdjieff and Sufism'' Bloomsbury Publishing {{ISBN|978-1-441-13113-3}}</ref>
 
As a mystic and ascetic aspect of Islam, it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref name=Trimingham/> ''Tasawwuf'' is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/misc/faridi.htm|title=The Meaning of Tasawwuf|last=Faridi|first=Shaikh Shahidullah|website=masud.co.uk|access-date=2017-05-12}}</ref> In his ''Al-Risala al-Safadiyya'', [[ibn Taymiyyah]] describes the Sufis as those who belong to the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.
 
Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]] can also be seen in his hundred-page commentary on ''Futuh al-ghayb'', covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but showing that he considered ''tasawwuf'' essential within the life of the Islamic community.
 
In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that the primacy of the ''sharia'' forms the soundest tradition in ''tasawwuf'', and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early masters, as well as more contemporary [[shaykhs]] like his fellow [[Hanbali]]s, al-Ansari al-Harawi and Abdul-Qadir, and the latter's own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas the upright. He cites the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such as [[Al-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ]], [[Ibrahim ibn Adham]], [[Maruf Karkhi|Ma`ruf al-Karkhi]], [[Sirri Saqti]], Junayd of Baghdad, and others of the early teachers, as well as [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]], Hammad, Abu al-Bayan and others of the later masters— that they do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition.
 
Al-Ghazali narrates in ''Al-Munqidh min al-dalal'':
{{quote|The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years, but whenever I had some spare and congenial moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppiuQgAACAAJ|title=Deliverance from Error: An Annotated Translation of Al-Munqidh Min Al Dal−al and Other Relevant Works of Al-Ghaz−al−i|last1=Ghazzālī|last2=Ghazzali|last3=al-Ghazali|first3=Abu Hamid Muhammad|last4=McCarthy|first4=Richard Joseph|date=1999|publisher=Fons Vitae|isbn=978-1-887752-27-5|language=en}}</ref>
}}
 
===Formalization of doctrine===
[[File:A_Sufi_in_Ecstasy_in_a_Landscape_LACMA_M.73.5.582.jpg|thumb|upright|left|''A Sufi in Ecstasy in a Landscape''. [[Isfahan]], [[Safavid Persia]] (c. 1650–1660), [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art|LACMA]].]]
In the eleventh-century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified" trend in Islamic piety, began to be "ordered and crystallized" into [[tariqa|orders]] which have continued until the present day. All these orders were founded by a major Islamic scholar, and some of the largest and most widespread included the [[Suhrawardiyya]] (after [[Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi]] [d. 1168), [[Qadiriyya]] (after [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]] [d. 1166]), the [[Rifa'i]]yya (after [[Ahmed al-Rifa'i]] [d. 1182]), the [[Chishti Order|Chishtiyya]] (after [[Moinuddin Chishti]] [d. 1236]), the [[Shadiliyya]] (after [[Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili]] [d. 1258]), the Hamadaniyyah (after [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani|Sayyid Ali Hamadani]] [d. 1384], the Naqshbandiyya (after [[Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari]] [d. 1389]).<ref name="Seyyed Hossein Nasr 2007 p. 76">Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ''The Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr'', ed. William C. Chittick (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2007), p. 76</ref> Contrary to popular perception in the West,<ref name="Martin Lings 1983, p.16">Martin Lings, ''What is Sufism?'' (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p.16</ref> however, neither the founders of these orders nor their followers ever considered themselves to be anything other than orthodox Sunni Muslims,<ref name="Martin Lings 1983, p.16"/> and in fact all of these orders were attached to one of the [[maddhab|four orthodox legal schools]] of Sunni Islam.<ref name="https"/><ref name="themuslim500.com"/> Thus, the [[Qadiriyya]] order was [[Hanbali]], with its founder, [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]], being a renowned jurist; the [[Chishti Order|Chishtiyya]] was [[Hanafi]]; the [[Shadiliyya]] order was [[Maliki]]; and the Naqshbandiyya order was [[Hanafi]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Massington, L.|author2=Radtke, B.|author3=Chittick, W.C.|author4=Jong, F. de.|author5=Lewisohn, L.|author6=Zarcone, Th.|author7=Ernst, C.|author8=Aubin, Françoise|author0=Hunwick, J.O.|date=2012|title=Taṣawwuf|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=2nd|publisher=Brill|editor=P. Bearman|editor2=Th. Bianquis|editor3=C.E. Bosworth|editor4=E. van Donzel|editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1188}} ''q.v.'' "Hanafi," "Hanbali," and "Maliki," and under "mysticism in..." for each.</ref> Thus, it is precisely because it is historically proven that "many of the most eminent defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, such as [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]], [[al-Ghazali|Ghazali]], and the Sultan Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn ([[Saladin]]) were connected with Sufism"<ref name="Titus Burckhardt 2008, p. 4">Titus Burckhardt, ''Introduction to Sufi Doctrine'' (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2008, p. 4, note 2</ref> that the popular studies of writers like [[Idries Shah]] are continuously disregarded by scholars as conveying the fallacious image that "Sufism" is somehow distinct from "Islam."<ref name="Titus Burckhardt 2008, p. 4"/><ref>Martin Lings, ''What is Sufism?'' (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), pp. 16-17</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Caner Dagli, "Rumi, the Qur'an, and Heterodoxy," note on Facebook|url=https://www.facebook.com/notes/caner-k-dagli/rumi-the-quran-and-heterodoxy/10100909521837752|publisher=facebook.com|date=6 January 2015}}</ref><ref>Rozina Ali, "The Erasure of Islam from the Poetry of Rumi," ''The New Yorker'', Jan. 5 2017</ref>
 
Towards the end of the first millennium, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the ''[[Kashf ul Mahjoob|Kashf al-Mahjûb]]'' of [[Ali Hujwiri]] and the ''Risâla'' of Al-Qushayri.<ref>The most recent version of the ''Risâla'' is the translation of Alexander Knysh, ''Al-Qushayri's Epistle on Sufism: Al-risala Al-qushayriyya Fi 'ilm Al-tasawwuf'' ({{ISBN|978-1859641866}}). Earlier translations include a partial version by Rabia Terri Harris (''Sufi Book of Spiritual Ascent'') and complete versions by Harris, and Barbara R. Von Schlegell.</ref>
 
Two of [[al-Ghazali]]'s greatest treatises are the ''Revival of Religious Sciences'' and what he termed "its essence", the ''[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]]''. He argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and thus was compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making al-Ghazali's works more widely available in English translation, allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine. Several sections of the [[The Revival of Religious Sciences|''Revival of Religious Sciences'']] have been published in translation by the [[Islamic Texts Society]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fonsvitae.com/sufism.html|title=Home|publisher=Fons Vitae|access-date=29 May 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924014336/http://www.fonsvitae.com/sufism.html|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> An abridged translation (from an Urdu translation) of ''The Alchemy of Happiness'' was published by Claud Field<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ġazālī, Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad Abū Ḥāmid al- (1058-1111)|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/490914603|title=The alchemy of happiness|date=2001|publisher=The octagon Press|others=Field, Claud, (1863-1941)|isbn=0-86304-081-0|location=London|oclc=490914603}}</ref> in 1910. It has been translated in full by Muhammad Asim Bilal (2001).<ref>[https://archive.org/details/KimiyaISaadatAnEnglishTranslationOfImamGhazzalisAlchemyOfEternalBlissabuHamidAlGhazali The Alchemy of Happiness] at archive.org</ref>
 
===Growth of influence===
[[File:Jahangir with sufi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7| A [[Mughal miniature]] dated from the early 1620s depicting the [[Mughal emperor]] [[Jahangir]] (d. 1627) preferring an audience with Sufi [[saint]] to his contemporaries, the [[Ottoman Sultan]] and the [[King of England]] [[James I]] (d. 1625); the picture is inscribed in [[Persian language|Persian]]: "Though outwardly shahs stand before him, he fixes his gazes on dervishes."]]
Historically, Sufism became “an incredibly important part of Islam” and "one of the most widespread and omnipresent aspects of Muslim life" in [[Islamic Civilization during the European Renaissance|Islamic civilization]] from the early medieval period onwards,<ref name="https">{{cite web|title=Is orthodox Islam possible without Sufism? - Shaykh Abdal Hakim Murad (Dr. Timothy Winter)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQWNeGyRu0k|publisher=youtube.com|date=13 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Dr. Jonathan A.C. Brown - What is Sufism?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MpFatRwdPm0|publisher=youtube.com|date=27 December 2015}}</ref> when it began to permeate nearly all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions stretching from [[India]] and [[Iraq]] to the [[Balkans]] and [[Senegal]].<ref name="youtube.com"/>
 
The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa<ref>For the pre-modern era, see [[Vincent J. Cornell]], ''Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism'', {{ISBN|978-0-292-71209-6}}; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr, ''Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood'', {{ISBN|978-0-8101-1226-1}}.</ref> and Asia. The [[Senussi]] tribes of [[Libya]] and the [[Sudan]] are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as [[Khoja Akhmet Yassawi]], [[Rumi]], and [[Attar of Nishapur]] (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in [[Anatolia]], [[Central Asia]], and [[South Asia]].<ref>Leonard Lewisohn, ''The Legacy of Medieval Persian Sufism'', Khaniqahi-Nimatullahi Publications, 1992.</ref><ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ''Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization'', HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Ch. 1)</ref> Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] world,<ref>Dina Le Gall, ''A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the Ottoman World, 1450–1700'', {{ISBN|978-0-7914-6245-4}}.</ref> and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.<ref>Arthur F. Buehler, ''Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh'', {{ISBN|978-1-57003-783-2}}.</ref>
[[File:Blagaj – Vrelo Bune 5.jpg|upright=0.7|thumb|left|[[Vrelo Bune|Blagaj Tekke]], built c. 1520 next to the [[Buna (Neretva)|Buna]] wellspring cavern beneath a high vertical [[karstic]] cliff, in [[Blagaj]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. The natural and architectural ensemble, proposed for UNESCO inscription,<ref name="whc.unesco.org-Blagaj">{{cite web|title=The natural and architectural ensemble of Blagaj |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5280/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Tentative List of Bosnia and Herzegovina |date=11 December 2007 |access-date=2 May 2020}}</ref> forms a spatially and topographically self-contained ensemble, and is [[List of National Monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina|National Monument of Bosnia]].<ref name="old.kons.gov.ba-Tekke-Blagaj">{{cite web |title=Tekke in Blagaj on the Buna Spring, the natural and architectural ensemble of Blagaj |url=http://old.kons.gov.ba/main.php?id_struct=50&lang=4&action=view&id=2558 |publisher=Commission to Preserve National Monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina "Tekke in Blagaj on the Buna Spring, the natural and architectural ensemble of Blagaj" |date= 9 May 2005|access-date=2 May 2020}}</ref>]]
 
Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a “Renaissance” whose physical artifacts survive.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} In many places a person or group would endow a [[waqf]] to maintain a lodge (known variously as a ''zawiya'', ''khanqah'', or ''tekke'') to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]], including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a [[hospice]] with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period.<ref>Victor Danner, ''The Islamic Tradition: An introduction''. Amity House. February 1988.</ref>
 
===Modern era===
Opposition to Sufi teachers and orders from more literalist and legalist strains of Islam existed in various forms throughout Islamic history. It took on a particularly violent form in the 18th century with the emergence of the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi movement]].<ref name=OEIW-voll>{{cite encyclopedia|author=John O. Voll|title=ṢūfĪ Orders|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic 9.3World|editor=[[John L. Esposito]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0759}}</ref>
 
[[File:Whirling dervishes in Galata Mawlawi House, 1870.png|thumb|upright|230px|Whirling dervishes of the [[Mevlevi Order]] photographed by [[Pascal Sébah]] ([[Istanbul]], 1870)]]
Around the turn of the 20th century, Sufi rituals and doctrines also came under sustained criticism from [[Islamic modernism|modernist Islamic reformers]], liberal nationalists, and, some decades later, socialist movements in the Muslim world. Sufi orders were accused of fostering popular superstitions, resisting modern intellectual attitudes, and standing in the way of progressive reforms. Ideological attacks on Sufism were reinforced by agrarian and educational reforms, as well as new forms of taxation, which were instituted by Westernizing national governments, undermining the economic foundations of Sufi orders. The extent to which Sufi orders declined in the first half of the 20th century varied from country to country, but by the middle of the century the very survival of the orders and traditional Sufi lifestyle appeared doubtful to many observers.<ref name=OEIW-voll/><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia| first=Alexander |last=Knysh| entry=Sufism|title=The New Cambridge History of Islam|volume=Volume 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010 |editor=Robert Irwin|pages=60–61}}</ref>
 
However, defying these predictions, Sufism and Sufi orders have continued to play a major role in the Muslim world, also expanding into Muslim-minority countries. Its ability to articulate an inclusive Islamic identity with greater emphasis on personal and small-group piety has made Sufism especially well-suited for contexts characterized by religious pluralism and secularist perspectives.<ref name=OEIW-voll/>
 
In the modern world, the classical interpretation of Sunni orthodoxy, which sees in Sufism an essential dimension of Islam alongside the disciplines of [[fiqh|jurisprudence]] and [[aqidah|theology]], is represented by institutions such as [[Egypt]]'s [[Al-Azhar University]] and [[Zaytuna College]], with Al-Azhar's current [[Grand Imam of al-Azhar|Grand Imam]] [[Ahmed el-Tayeb]] recently defining "Sunni orthodoxy" as being a follower "of any of the four schools of [legal] thought ([[Hanafi]], [[Shafi’i]], [[Maliki]] or [[Hanbali]]) and ... [also] of the Sufism of Imam [[Junayd of Baghdad]] in doctrines, manners and [spiritual] purification."<ref name="themuslim500.com">{{cite web|title=Profile of Sheikh Ahmad Muhammad Al-Tayyeb on ''The Muslim 500''|url=http://themuslim500.com/profile/sheikh-al-azhar-ahmad-altayyeb|website=The Muslim 500: The World's Most Influential Muslims|language=en|access-date=2017-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606040251/http://themuslim500.com/profile/sheikh-al-azhar-ahmad-altayyeb|archive-date=2017-06-06|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
Current Sufi orders include [[Alians]], [[Bektashi Order]], [[Mevlevi Order]], [[Ba 'Alawiyya]], [[Chishti Order]], [[Jerrahi]], [[Naqshbandi]], [[Mujaddidi]], [[Ni'matullāhī]], [[Qadiriyya]], [[Qalandariyya]], [[Qadiriyya#Sarwari Qadiri|Sarwari Qadiriyya]], [[Shadhili]]yya, [[Suhrawardiyya]], [[Saifiah]] (Naqshbandiah), and [[Uwaisi]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to governments.<ref>Masatoshi Kisaichi, "The Burhami order and Islamic resurgence in modern Egypt." ''Popular Movements and Democratization in the Islamic World'', pg. 57. Part of the New Horizons in Islamic Studies series. Ed. Masatoshi Kisaichi. London: Routledge, 2006. {{ISBN|9781134150618}}</ref>
 
[[File:تراث مصري 03.jpg|thumb|left|Sufi Tanoura twirling in [[Muizz Street]], [[Cairo]]]]
Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely affiliated with the Ottoman [[Janissaries]] and are the heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberal [[Alevism|Alevi]] population. They have spread westwards to [[Cyprus]], [[Greece]], [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Kosovo]], and, more recently, to the United States, via [[Albania]]. Sufism is popular in such African countries as [[Egypt]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], and [[Senegal]], where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam.{{sfn|Babou|2007|p=184–6}} Sufism is traditional in Morocco, but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of Sufism under contemporary spiritual teachers such as [[Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi]]. Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the [[mysticism|mystical]].{{sfn|Mbacké|Hunwick|2005}}
 
The life of the Algerian Sufi master [[Abdelkader El Djezairi]] is instructive in this regard.{{sfn|Chodkiewicz|1995|loc=Introduction}} Notable as well are the lives of [[Amadou Bamba]] and [[El Hadj Umar Tall]] in [[West Africa]], and [[Sheikh Mansur]] and [[Imam Shamil]] in the [[Caucasus]]. In the twentieth century, some Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion which holds back Islamic achievement in the fields of science and technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2260?_hi=6&_pos=2|title=Sufism|website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref>
 
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the [[Sweden|Swedish]]-born wandering Sufi [[Ivan Aguéli]]. [[René Guénon]], the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam, but also pointed to the universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as [[George Gurdjieff]], may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Googelberg|first=compiled form Wikipedia entries and published by Dr|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXACBAAAQBAJ&q=A+number+of+Westerners+have+embarked+with+varying+degrees+of+success+on+the+path+of+Sufism.+One+of+the+first+to+return+to+Europe+as+an+official+representative+of+a+Sufi+order%2C+and+with+the+specific+purpose+to+spread+Sufism+in+Western+Europe%2C+was+the+Swedish-born+wandering+Sufi+Ivan+Agu%C3%A9li.+Ren%C3%A9+Gu%C3%A9non%2C+the+French+scholar%2C+became+a+Sufi+in+the+early+twentieth+century+and+was+known+as+Sheikh+Abdul+Wahid+Yahya.+His+manifold+writings+defined+the+practice+of+Sufism+as+the+essence+of+Islam%2C+but+also+pointed+to+the+universality+of+its+message.+Other+spiritualists%2C+such+as+George+Gurdjieff%2C+may+or+may+not+conform&pg=PA407|title=Islam|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-1-291-21521-2|language=en}}</ref>
 
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years include [[Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]], [[Inayat Khan]], [[Nazim Al-Haqqani]], [[Muhammad Alauddin Siddiqui]], [[Javad Nurbakhsh]], [[Bulent Rauf]], [[Irina Tweedie]], [[Idries Shah]], [[Muzaffer Ozak]], [[Nahid Angha]], and [[Ali Kianfar]].
 
Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include [[Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee]], [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]], [[Nooruddeen Durkee|Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee]], [[Waheed Ashraf]], [[Hamza Yusuf]], [[Zaid Shakir]], Omer Tarin, Ahmed Abdur Rashid and [[Timothy Winter]].
 
==Aims and objectives==
[[File:Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam 2014-07-31.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam]] located in [[Multan]], [[Pakistan]]. Known for its multitude of Sufi shrines, Multan is nicknamed the &ldquo;City of Saints&rdquo;.]]
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to Allah and hope to become close to God in [[Paradise]]—after death and after the [[Last Judgment]]—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more fully embrace the [[divine presence]] in this life.<ref name="uga">{{cite web|url=http://www.uga.edu/islam/sufismintro.html |title=Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths|publisher=uga.edu|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of ''[[fitra]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili|author-link=Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili|title=The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=res8GwAACAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Islamic Texts Society|isbn=978-0-946621-57-6}}</ref>
 
To Sufis, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, broadly, as "[[qanun (law)|qanun]]". The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.<ref>Muhammad Emin Er, ''Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path'', Shifâ Publishers, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-9815196-1-6}}</ref>
 
===Teachings===
[[File:Man holding the hem of his beloved, Islamic art 16th century.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Man holding the hem of his beloved, an expression of a Sufi's agony of longing for the divine union]]
To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather than worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress. They further believe that the teacher should attempt inerrantly to follow the [[Divine law|Divine Law]].<ref>Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, ''The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons''; see also Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, ''Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition'', {{ISBN|978-1-930409-23-1}}, which reproduces the spiritual lineage (''silsila'') of a living Sufi master.</ref>
 
According to [[Moojan Momen]] "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of ''al-Insan al-Kamil'' ("the Perfect Man"). This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "[[Qutb]]" (Pole or Axis of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man and in a state of [[wilayah]] (sanctity, being under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Shi'i Imam]].<ref name=qutb/><ref>{{cite book|author=Mohammad Najib-ur-Rehman Madzillah-ul-Aqdus|title=Sultan Bahoo: The Life and Teachings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlyMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA277|year=2015|publisher=Sultan ul Faqr Publications|isbn=978-969-9795-18-3}}</ref> However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shia Islam, since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the Imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of [[Allah]]'s grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam".<ref name="qutb">{{cite book|last=Momen|first=Moojan|author-link=Moojan Momen|title=An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosh0000unse_d5k7|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontosh0000unse_d5k7/page/n272 209]|year=1985|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-03531-5}}, page 209</ref>
 
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.<ref>See Muhammad Emin Er, ''Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path'', Shifâ Publishers, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-9815196-1-6}}, for a detailed description of the practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual retreat.</ref>
 
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of [[parable]], [[allegory]], and [[metaphor]].<ref>See examples provided by Muzaffar Ozak in ''Irshad: Wisdom of a Sufi Master'', addressed to a general audience rather than specifically to his own students.</ref> Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms of [[mysticism]] (e.g., as in the books of [[Hossein Nasr]]).
 
Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for a long period of time.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islamic cultures and societies to the end of the eighteenth century|last=Knysh|first=Alexander|others=Irwin, Robert, 1946-|isbn=9781139056144|location=Cambridge|chapter=Sufism|oclc=742957142}}</ref> An example is the folk story about [[Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari]], who gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order. He is believed to have served his first teacher, [[Mohammad Baba As-Samasi|Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi]], for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He is said to then have served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is said to have helped the poorer members of the community for many years, and after this concluded his teacher directed him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them.<ref>Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, ''Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition'', {{ISBN|978-1-930409-23-1}}</ref>
 
===Muhammad===
{{rquote|right|His [Muhammad's] aspiration preceded all other aspirations, his existence preceded nothingness, and his name preceded the Pen, because he existed before all peoples. There is not in the horizons, beyond the horizons or below the horizons, anyone more elegant, more noble, more knowing, more just, more fearsome, or more compassionate, than the subject of this tale. He is the leader of created beings, the one "whose name is glorious Ahmad"{{Quran-usc|61|6|q=}}.
 
—[[Mansur Al-Hallaj]]{{sfn|Ernst|2010|p=125}} }}
[[File:Muhammad2.png|left|thumb|upright|The name of Muhammad in [[Islamic calligraphy]]. Sufis believe the name of Muhammad is holy and sacred.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}]]
Devotion to Muhammad is an exceptionally strong practice within Sufism.{{sfn|Ernst|2010|p=130}} Sufis have historically revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Sufi poet [[Saadi Shirazi]] stated, "He who chooses a path contrary to that of the prophet shall never reach the destination. O Saadi, do not think that one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of the chosen one."<ref>{{citation|author=Gholamreza Aavani|title=Glorification of the Prophet Muhammad in the Poems of Sa'adi|page=4}}</ref> Rumi attributes his self-control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi states, "I 'sewed' my two eyes shut from [desires for] this world and the next – this I learned from Muhammad."{{sfn|Gamard|2004|p=169}} [[Ibn Arabi]] regards Muhammad as the greatest man and states, "Muhammad's wisdom is uniqueness (''fardiya'') because he is the most perfect existent creature of this human species. For this reason, the command began with him and was sealed with him. He was a Prophet while Adam was between water and clay, and his elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets."<ref>{{citation|title=The Seals of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam)|author=Ibn Arabi|url=https://bewley.virtualave.net/fusus27.html|others=Aisha Bewley}}</ref> [[Attar of Nishapur]] claimed that he praised Muhammad in such a manner that was not done before by any poet, in his book the ''Ilahi-nama''.<ref>{{citation|author=Fariduddin Attar|title=Ilahi-nama – The Book of God|others=John Andrew Boyle (translator)|quote=Thou knowest that none of the poets have sung such praise save only I.}}</ref> Fariduddin Attar stated, "Muhammad is the exemplar to both worlds, the guide of the descendants of Adam. He is the sun of creation, the moon of the celestial spheres, the all-seeing eye...The seven heavens and the eight gardens of paradise were created for him; he is both the eye and the light in the light of our eyes."<ref name="attar">{{citation|author=Fariduddin Attar|title=Ilahi-nama – The Book of God|others=John Andrew Boyle (translator)}}</ref> Sufis have historically stressed the importance of Muhammad's perfection and his ability to intercede. The persona of Muhammad has historically been and remains an integral and critical aspect of Sufi belief and practice.{{sfn|Ernst|2010|p=130}} Bayazid Bastami is recorded to have been so devoted to the ''[[sunnah]]'' of Muhammad that he refused to eat a watermelon because he could not establish that Muhammad ever ate one.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.tasawwuf.co/writings/love_allah/love_chapter9.pdf|title=The Signs of a Sincere Lover|page=91}}</ref>
 
In the 13th century, a Sufi poet from [[Egypt]], [[Al-Busiri]], wrote the ''al-Kawākib ad-Durrīya fī Madḥ Khayr al-Barīya'' ('The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of Creation'), commonly referred to as ''[[Al-Burda|Qaṣīdat al-Burda]]'' ('Poem of the Mantle'), in which he extensively praised Muhammad.<ref name="celestial">{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-nY3_DXo-gC|author=Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych|title=The Mantle Odes: Arabic Praise Poems to the Prophet Muhammad|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253354877|year=2010}}</ref> This poem is still widely recited and sung amongst Sufi groups and lay Muslims alike all over the world.<ref name="celestial"/>
 
====Sufi beliefs about Muhammad====
According to Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=446}} [[Ibn Arabi]] regards that the first entity that was brought into existence is the reality or essence of Muhammad (''al-ḥaqīqa al-Muhammadiyya''). Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the supreme human being and master of all creatures. Muhammad is therefore the primary [[role model]] for human beings to aspire to emulate.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=446}} Ibn Arabi believes that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world and that the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names are seen in Muhammad.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=446}} Ibn Arabi believes that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad, meaning that the divine attributes of God are manifested through Muhammad.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=446}} Ibn Arabi maintains that Muhammad is the best proof of God, and by knowing Muhammad one knows God.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=446}} Ibn Arabi also maintains that Muhammad is the master of all of humanity in both this world and the afterlife. In this view, Islam is the best religion because Muhammad is Islam.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=446}}
 
===Sufism and Islamic law===
[[File:Fatehpur Sikri near Agra 2016-03 img03.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of [[Salim Chishti]], [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Agra]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]]]
Sufis believe the ''sharia'' (exoteric "canon"), ''[[tariqa]]'' ("order") and ''[[haqiqa]]'' ("truth") are mutually interdependent.<ref>Muhammad Emin Er, ''The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs'', Shifâ Publishers, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-9815196-0-9}}.</ref> Sufism leads the adept, called ''[[salik]]'' or "wayfarer", in his ''sulûk'' or "road" through different stations (''[[maqaam]]'') until he reaches his goal, the perfect ''[[tawhid]]'', the existential confession that God is One.{{sfn|Schimmel|2013|p=99}} Ibn Arabi says, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law—even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind—asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved. (''Jamiʿ karamat al-awliyaʾ'')".<ref name= "reliance1">{{cite web|url=http://www.catheyallison.com/Reliance_of_the_Traveller.pdf  |title=Reliance of the Traveller |author=[[Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri]], [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]] |date =1368|pages=778–795|work=Amana Publications |access-date=14 May 2020}}</ref><ref name = "reliance2">{{cite web|url=http://dailyrollcall.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/the-reliance-of-the-traveller.pdf  |title=A Classic Manual of Islamic Scared Law |author= [[Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri]], [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]] |date=1368|  work=Shafiifiqh.com|access-date=14 May 2020}}</ref>
 
The [[Amman Message]], a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in [[Amman]], specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. This was adopted by the Islamic world's political and temporal leaderships at the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organisation of the Islamic Conference]] summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006. The definition of Sufism can vary drastically between different traditions (what may be intended is simple [[tazkiah]] as opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).<ref>[http://ammanmessage.com/ The Amman Message Summary]. Retrieved on Feb 2, 2010.</ref>
 
===Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism===
[[File:Tomb of said-ul-Auliya sayyid Ali hamadani.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Sayyid Ali Hamadani, [[Kulob]], [[Tajikistan]] ]]
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the ''sharia'' and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
 
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex, and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it. [[William Chittick]] explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
{{quote|In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.{{sfn|Chittick|2007}}}}
 
===Neo-Sufism {{anchor|Neo-Sufism}}===
[[File:5861-Linxia-Yu-Baba-Gongbei-main-building-roof.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The mausoleum (''[[gongbei (Islamic architecture)|gongbei]]'') of [[Ma Laichi]] in [[Linxia City]], China]]
The term ''neo-Sufism'' was originally coined by [[Fazlur Rahman]] and used by other scholars to describe reformist currents among 18th century Sufi orders, whose goal was to remove some of the more ecstatic and pantheistic elements of the Sufi tradition and reassert the importance of Islamic law as the basis for inner spirituality and social activism.<ref name=howell>{{cite web|title=Sufism in the Modern World|author=Julia Howell|website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1010_surfism_modern_world.html}}</ref><ref name=voll-OEIW>{{cite encyclopedia|author=John O. Voll|title=Sufism. ṢūfĪ Orders.|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0759}}</ref> In recent times, it has been increasingly used by scholars like Mark Sedgwick in another sense, to describe various forms of Sufi-influenced spirituality in the West, in particular the deconfessionalized spiritual movements which emphasize universal elements of the Sufi tradition and de-emphasize its Islamic context.<ref name=howell/><ref name=sedgwick2012>{{cite book|chapter=Neo-Sufism|author=Mark Sedgwick|title=The Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements |editor=Olav Hammer |editor2=Mikael Rothstein|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012}}</ref> Such groups include [[Sufi Order Ināyati|The Sufi Order in the West]], founded by [[Inayat Khan]], which teaches the essential unity of all faiths, and accepts members of all creeds. [[Sufism Reoriented]] is an offshoot of it charted by the [[syncretism|syncretistic]] spiritual figure [[Meher Baba]]. The [[Golden Sufi Center]] exists in England, Switzerland and the United States. It was founded by [[Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee]] to continue the work of his teacher [[Irina Tweedie]], herself a practitioner of both [[Hinduism]] and neo-Sufism. Other Western Sufi organisations include the Sufi Foundation of America and the [[International Association of Sufism]].
 
==Theoretical perspectives==
[[File:Munqidh min al-dalal (last page).jpg|thumb|right|upright|The works of Al-Ghazali firmly defended the concepts of Sufism within the Islamic faith.]]
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional lineages.<ref name="Heart 2008">Muhammad Emin Er, ''Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Order'', Shifâ Publishers, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-9815196-1-6}}</ref>
 
On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active self-disclosure or [[theophany]].<ref>For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart that are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take root, see Hamza Yusuf, ''Purification of the Heart: Signs, Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart'', {{ISBN|978-1-929694-15-0}}.</ref> This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
 
On the other hand, there is the order from the Signifier to his signs, from the Artisan to his works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (''[[jadhba]]''), and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi and [[Shadhili]] orders.<ref>Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the concept of attraction (''jadhba''), see especially the Introduction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, ''The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons'', {{ISBN|977-00-1830-9}}.</ref>
 
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] scholar [[Said Nursi]] and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the [[Risale-i Nur]]. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, or ''[[sunnah]]'', proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.<ref>Muhammad Emin Er, ''al-Wasilat al-Fasila'', unpublished MS.</ref>
 
===Contributions to other domains of scholarship===
Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle cognition (known as ''[[Lataif-e-sitta]]'') addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition.<ref>[http://nurmuhammad.com/HeartLevels/coverLataif5levelsofheart.htm Realities of The Heart] Lataif</ref> In general, these subtle centers or ''latâ'if'' are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition has been published by [[Muhammad Emin Er]].<ref name="Heart 2008"/>
 
[[Sufi psychology]] has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts. [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] (both an [[Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)|imam]] in the [[Shia]] tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called the [[nafs]] (self, ego, person), a faculty of spiritual intuition called the [[qalb]] (heart), and [[ruh]] (soul). These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by ''nafs''), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ''ruh'').{{sfn|Schimmel|2013}}
 
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is [[Robert Frager]], a Sufi teacher authorized in the [[Khalwati]] [[Jerrahi]] order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.<ref>See especially Robert Frager, ''Heart, Self & Soul: The Sufi Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmony'', {{ISBN|978-0-8356-0778-0}}.</ref>
 
[[Sufi cosmology]] and [[Sufi metaphysics]] are also noteworthy areas of intellectual accomplishment.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/philosophers-sufis-and-caliphs/philosophical-sufis-among-scholars-ulama-and-their-impact-on-political-culture/D3514A6470BA39F7301678CCAA0DD529|title=Philosophical Sufis among Scholars (ʿulamāʾ) and Their Impact on Political Culture|first=Ali Humayun|last=Akhtar|date=June 10, 2017|website=Philosophers, Sufis, and Caliphs: Politics and Authority from Cordoba to Cairo and Baghdad|pages=135–237|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107182011}}</ref>
 
==Devotional practices==
[[File:Dhikr Rifa-iyya.jpg|thumb|Sufi gathering engaged in ''dhikr'']]
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunnah prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous ''[[Hadith Qudsi]]'':{{quote|My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.}}
 
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (''aqidah''),<ref>For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as espoused by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf, ''The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi'', {{ISBN|978-0-9702843-9-6}}, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi, ''Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained'', {{ISBN|978-1-933764-03-0}}.</ref> and to embrace with certainty its tenets.<ref>The meaning of ''certainty'' in this context is emphasized in Muhammad Emin Er, ''The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs'', Shifâ Publishers, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-9815196-0-9}}.</ref> The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
 
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a ''means'' for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead the ''occasion'' for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.<ref>See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, ''Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences'', {{ISBN|978-0-946621-43-9}}.</ref>
 
===Dhikr===
{{main|Dhikr}}
[[File:Isma allah zat-new.png|thumb|upright|The name of Allah as written on the disciple's heart, according to the Sarwari Qadri Order]]
''Dhikr'' is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the [[Quran]] for all [[Muslims]] through a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from ''hadith'' literature and the Quran. More generally, ''dhikr'' takes a wide range and various layers of meaning.<ref>{{cite web|author=Abdullah Jawadi Amuli|url=http://media.basirat.ca/docs/dhikr_and_the_wisdom_behind_it.pdf|title=Dhikr and the Wisdom Behind It|translator=A. Rahmim|access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref> This includes ''dhikr'' as any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To engage in ''dhikr'' is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and [[Love of God#Islam|love]], or "to seek a state of godwariness". The Quran refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of ''dhikr'' of Allah (65:10–11). Some types of ''dhikr'' are prescribed for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every circumstance.<ref>Hakim Moinuddin Chisti ''The Book of Sufi Healing'', {{ISBN|978-0-89281-043-7}}</ref>
 
The ''dhikr'' may slightly vary among each order. Some Sufi orders<ref name="naqshbandi">{{cite web |url=http://www.naqshbandi.org/dhikr/difference.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970529081521/http://naqshbandi.org/dhikr/difference.htm |archive-date=1997-05-29 |url-status=dead |title=The Naqshbandi Way of Dhikr |access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> engage in ritualized ''dhikr'' ceremonies, or ''[[sema]]''. ''Sema'' includes various forms of worship such as [[recitation]], [[singing]] (the most well known being the [[Qawwali]] music of the Indian subcontinent), [[instrumental music]], [[dance]] (most famously the [[Sufi whirling]] of the [[Mevlevi order]]), [[incense]], [[meditation]], [[religious ecstasy|ecstasy]], and [[altered state of consciousness|trance]].<ref>Touma 1996, p.162.{{full citation needed|date=February 2020}}</ref>
 
Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon ''dhikr''. This practice of ''dhikr'' is called ''[[Dhikr-e-Qulb]]'' (invocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goharshahi.net/images/books_files/menar-e-noor_files/What%20is%20Remembrance%20and%20what%20is%20Contemplation.htm|title=What is Remembrance and what is Contemplation?|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415182616/http://www.goharshahi.net/images/books_files/menar-e-noor_files/What%20is%20Remembrance%20and%20what%20is%20Contemplation.htm|archive-date=2008-04-15}}</ref>
 
===Muraqaba===
{{main|Muraqaba}}
The practice of ''muraqaba'' can be likened to the practices of [[meditation]] attested in many faith communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sultan-bahoo.com/tafakkur-muraqbah-meditation-concentration/|title=Muraqaba|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609000104/http://www.sultan-bahoo.com/en/tafakkur-and-muraqbah-meditation-and-concentration.html#Tafakkur-Muraqbah|archive-date=2015-06-09}}</ref> While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
{{quote|He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "''Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî''—my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".<ref>Muhammad Emin Er, ''Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path'', {{ISBN|978-0-9815196-1-6}}, p. 77.</ref>}}
 
===Sufi whirling===
{{Main|Sufi whirling}}
[[File:Whriling dervishes, Rumi Fest 2007.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Whirling Dervishes]], at Rumi Fest 2007]]
The traditional view of the more orthodox Sunni Sufi orders, such as the [[Qadiriyya]] and the [[Chishti Order|Chisti]], as well as [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] scholars in general, is that dancing with intent during dhikr or whilst listening to [[Sema]] is prohibited.<ref name="qadiri">{{cite web|title=Is it permissible to listen to Qawwali?|last1=Hussain|first1=Zahid|website=TheSunniWay|url=https://www.thesunniway.com/articles/item/71-is-it-permissible-to-listen-to-qawwali|date=22 April 2012|access-date=12 June 2020|quote=Unfortunately, the name “Qawwali” is now only used if there is an addition of musical instruments and at times with the “add on” of dancing and whirling depending on the mood of those present. Musical instruments are forbidden. And so is dancing if it is with intent.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Moulana Rumi and Whirling Zikr|last1=Desai|first1=Siraj|website=askmufti|url=https://askmufti.co.za/moulana-rumi-and-whirling-zikr/|date=13 January 2011|access-date=12 June 2020|quote=However, later on this Simaa’ was modernized to include dancing and music, thus giving rise to the concept of “whirling dervishes”. This is a Bid’ah and is not the creation of orthodox Sufism.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Radd al-Muhtar|author=Ibn Abidin|publisher=Darul Ma'rifa|volume=6|page=396}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hashiyah at-Tahtaawi|page=319|publisher=Al-Ilmiyya}}</ref>
 
Sufi whirling (or Sufi spinning) is a form of ''[[Sama (Sufism)|Sama]]'' or physically active [[meditation]] which originated among some Sufis, and which is still practised by the Sufi [[Dervish]]es of the [[Mevlevi Order|Mevlevi order]]. It is a customary dance performed within the ''sema'', through which dervishes (also called ''semazens'', from [[Persian language|Persian]] {{lang|fa|سماعزن}}) aim to reach the source of all perfection, or ''kemal''. This is sought through abandoning one's ''[[nafs]]'', [[Ego (spirituality)|egos]] or personal desires, by listening to the music, focusing on [[God]], and spinning one's body in repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in the [[Solar System]] orbiting the sun.<ref name="MOA sema">{{cite web|url=http://www.hayatidede.org/popups/about_sema.htm|title=The Sema of the Mevlevi|publisher=Mevlevi Order of America|access-date=2009-03-26|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121221021339/http://www.hayatidede.org/popups/about_sema.htm|archive-date=2012-12-21}}</ref>
 
As explained by Mevlevi practitioners:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.whirlingdervishes.org/whirlingdervishes.htm|title=The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi}}</ref>
<blockquote>In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, the semazen's camel's hair hat (sikke) represents the tombstone of the ego; his wide, white skirt (''tennure'') represents the ego's shroud. By removing his black cloak (''hırka''), he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the Sema, by holding his arms crosswise, the semazen appears to represent the number one, thus testifying to God's unity. While whirling, his arms are open: his right arm is directed to the sky, ready to receive God's beneficence; his left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is turned toward the earth. The semazen conveys God's spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the Sema. Revolving from right to left around the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been created with love in order to love. Mevlâna Jalâluddîn Rumi says, "All loves are a bridge to Divine love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know!"</blockquote>
 
===Singing===
[[File:Kurdish Dervishes practice sufism (Dhikr).ogv|thumb|Kurdish Dervishes practice Sufism with playing ''[[Daf]]'' in [[Sulaymaniyah]], [[Iraqi Kurdistan]].]]
Musical instruments (except the ''[[Daf]]'') have traditionally been considered as prohibited by the four orthodox Sunni schools,<ref name="qadiri" /><ref>Murad, Abdul Hakim. “Music in the Islamic Tradition.” ''Cambridge Muslim College Retreat.'' May 18, 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Listening to Islamic Songs with Musical Instruments|last=Rabbani|first=Faraz|url=https://seekersguidance.org/answers/general-counsel/listening-to-islamic-songs-with-musical-instruments/|website=Seekers Guidance|date=25 December 2012|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Is Music Prohibited in Islam?|url=http://www.myreligionislam.com/detail.asp?Aid=6192|website=My Religion Islam|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Music and Singing - A Detailed Article|author=Muhammad Ibn Adam|url=https://daruliftaa.com/miscellaneous/music-and-singing-a-detailed-article/|website=Darul Ifta|location=Leicester|date=14 April 2004}}</ref> and the more orthodox Sufi tariqas also continued to prohibit their use. Throughout history Sufi saints have stressed that musical instruments are forbidden.<ref name="qadiri" /><ref name="Siyar">{{cite book|title=Siyar-ul-Auliya: History of Chishti Silsila|author=Muhammad bin Mubarak Kirmani|translator=Ghulam Ahmed Biryan|language=ur|publisher=Mushtaq Book Corner|location=Lahore}}</ref><ref name="Fawa'id">{{cite book|title=Fawa'id al-Fu'aad: Spirtual and Literal Discourses|author=Nizamuddin Auliya|translator=Z. H. Faruqi|date=31 December 1996|isbn=9788124600429|publisher=D.K. Print World Ltd|language=en}}</ref>
 
''[[Qawwali]]'' was originally a form of Sufi devotional singing popular in [[South Asia]], and is now usually performed at ''[[dargah]]s''. Sufi saint [[Amir Khusrau]] is said to have infused Persian, Arabic Turkish and [[Indian classical music|Indian classical]] melodic styles to create the genre in the 13th century. The songs are classified into [[hamd]], [[Na`at|na'at]], [[manqabat]], [[marsiya]] or [[ghazal]], among others. Historically, Sufi Saints permitted and encouraged it, whilst maintaining that musical instruments and female voices should not be introduced, although these are commonplace today.<ref name="qadiri"/><ref name="Siyar"/>
 
Nowadays, the songs last for about 15 to 30 minutes, are performed by a group of singers, and instruments including the [[Pump organ|harmonium]], [[tabla]] and [[dholak]] are used. Pakistani singing maestro [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] is credited with popularizing [[qawwali]] all over the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/artist/content.artist/nusrat_fateh_ali_khan_28502/en_US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320015139/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/artist/content.artist/nusrat_fateh_ali_khan_28502/en_US|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-03-20|title=Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan : National Geographic World Music|date=2013-03-20|access-date=2018-10-09}}</ref>
 
== Saints ==
[[File:Ахмад Газали, беседующий с учеником.jpg|thumb|right|upright| A [[Persian miniature]] depicting the medieval [[saint]] and [[mysticism|mystic]] [[Ahmad Ghazali]] (d. 1123), brother of the famous [[Abu Hamid al-Ghazali]] (d. 1111), talking to a disciple, from the ''Meetings of the Lovers'' (1552)]]
{{Main|Wali}}
''Walī'' ({{lang-ar|ولي}}, plural {{transl|ar|''ʾawliyāʾ''}} {{lang|ar|أولياء}}) is an Arabic word whose literal meanings include "custodian", "protector", "helper", and "friend."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1302,ll=3066,ls=79,la=4919,sg=1252,ha=906,br=1072,pr=171,aan=742,mgf=869,vi=392,kz=3008,mr=805,mn=1581,uqw=1902,umr=1196,ums=1010,umj=961,ulq=1833,uqa=460,uqq=444|title=Mawrid Reader|website=ejtaal.net}}</ref> In the vernacular, it is most commonly used by Muslims to indicate an Islamic [[saint]], otherwise referred to by the more literal "friend of God."<ref name="John Renard 2008">John Renard, ''Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Idem., ''Tales of God Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), et passim.</ref><ref name="Radtke etal">{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Radtke, B.|author2=Lory, P.|author3=Zarcone, Th.|author4=DeWeese, D.|author5=Gaborieau, M.|author6=Denny, F.M.|author7=Aubin, Françoise|author8=Hunwick, J.O.|author9=Mchugh, N.|date=2012|title=Walī|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=2nd|publisher=Brill|editor=P. Bearman|editor2=Th. Bianquis|editor3=C.E. Bosworth|editor4=E. van Donzel|editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of the Sudan |series=Historical Dictionaries of Africa |author1=Robert S. Kramer |author2=Richard A. Lobban Jr. |author3=Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban |year=2013 |edition=4 |location=Lanham, Maryland, USA |publisher=Scarecrow Press, an imprint of Rowman & Littlefield |page=361 |isbn=978-0-8108-6180-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OKZRewiEOsC&q=%22holy+man%22+wali&pg=PA361 |quote=QUBBA. The Arabic name for the tomb of a holy man... A qubba is usually erected over the grave of a holy man identified variously as '''wali''' (saint), faki, or shaykh since, according to folk Islam, this is where his baraka [blessings] is believed to be strongest... |access-date=2 May 2015 }}</ref> In the traditional Islamic understanding of [[saint]]s, the saint is portrayed as someone "marked by [special] divine favor ... [and] holiness", and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work [[miracle worker|miracles]]."<ref name="ReferenceB 89-90">Radtke, B., "Saint", in: ''Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān'', General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C..</ref> The doctrine of saints was articulated by Islamic scholars very early on in Muslim history,<ref name=EI2/><ref>J. van Ess, ''Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra. Eine Geschichte des religiösen Denkens im frühen Islam'', II (Berlin-New York, 1992), pp. 89-90</ref><ref>B. Radtke and J. O’Kane, ''The Concept of Sainthood in Early Islamic Mysticism'' (London, 1996), pp. 109-110</ref><ref>B. Radtke, ''Drei Schriften des Theosophen von Tirmid̲'', ii (Beirut-Stuttgart, 1996), pp. 68-69</ref> and particular verses of the [[Quran]] and certain ''hadith'' were interpreted by early Muslim thinkers as "documentary evidence"<ref name=EI2/> of the existence of saints.
 
Since the first Muslim hagiographies were written during the period when Sufism began its rapid expansion, many of the figures who later came to be regarded as the major saints in Sunni Islam were the early Sufi mystics, like [[Hasan of Basra]] (d. 728), [[Farqad Sabakhi]] (d. 729), [[Dawud Tai]] (d. 777-81) [[Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya]] (d. 801), [[Maruf Karkhi]] (d. 815), and Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism ... into orders or brotherhoods."<ref name="Titus Burckhardt 2009 p. 99">Titus Burckhardt, ''Art of Islam: Language and Meaning'' (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2009), p. 99</ref> In the common expressions of Islamic piety of this period, the saint was understood to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... [found] permanent expression in the teaching bequeathed to his disciples."<ref name="Titus Burckhardt 2009 p. 99"/>
 
===Visitation===
{{Main|Ziyara}}
[[File:Bidokht 8810 (19)-W.jpg|thumb|right|Sufi mosque in Esfahan, Iran]]
In popular Sufism (i.e. devotional practices that have achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice is to [[Ziyarat|visit or make pilgrimages]] to the tombs of saints, renowned scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include such saints as [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani|Sayyid Ali Hamadani]] in [[Kulob]], Tajikistan; [[Afaq Khoja|Afāq Khoja]], near [[Kashgar]], China; [[Lal Shahbaz Qalandar]] in [[Sindh]]; [[Ali Hujwiri|Ali Hujwari]] in [[Lahore]], Pakistan; [[Bahauddin Zakariya]] in [[Multan]] Pakistan; [[Moinuddin Chishti]] in [[Ajmer]], India; [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] in [[Delhi]], India; and [[Shah Jalal]] in [[Sylhet]], Bangladesh.
 
Likewise, in [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]], Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the [[Zaouia Moulay Idriss II]] and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi [[Tariqah]], Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the [[Mawlid]] (which is usually televised on Moroccan National television).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Popular Sufi leader in Morocco dies aged 95|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/popular-sufi-leader-in-morocco-dies-aged-95-1.1964439|access-date=2020-12-30|publisher=gulfnews.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Staff Writer|date=2018-03-28|title=Confreries: A Crossroads of Morocco's Literary and Spiritual Diversity|url=https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2018/03/243298/confreries-crossroads-moroccos-literary-spiritual-diversity/|access-date=2020-12-30|publisher=Morocco World News|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
===Miracles===
{{Main|Karamat}}
In Islamic mysticism, ''karamat'' ({{lang-ar|کرامات}} ''karāmāt'', pl. of {{lang|ar|کرامة}} ''karāmah'', lit. generosity, high-mindedness<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hans Wehr|author2=J. Milton Cowan| year=1979 | title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic|publisher=Spoken Language Services|edition=4th|url=https://ejtaal.net/aa/#q=krm}}</ref>) refers to supernatural wonders performed by [[Wali|Muslim saints]]. In the technical vocabulary of Islamic religious sciences, the singular form ''karama'' has a sense similar to ''[[charism]]'', a favor or spiritual gift freely bestowed by God.<ref name=karama>{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Gardet, L.|date=2012|title=Karāma|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=2nd|publisher=Brill|editor=P. Bearman|editor2=Th. Bianquis|editor3=C.E. Bosworth|editor4=E. van Donzel|editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0445}}</ref> The marvels ascribed to Islamic saints have included supernatural physical actions, predictions of the future, and "interpretation of the secrets of hearts".<ref name=karama/> Historically, a "belief in the miracles of saints (''karāmāt al-awliyāʾ'', literally 'marvels of the friends [of God]')" has been "a requirement in Sunni Islam."<ref>Jonathan A.C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters," ''Journal of Sufi Studies'' 1 (2012), p. 123</ref>
 
==Persecution==
{{Main|Persecution of Sufis}}
{{see also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
[[File:Shrine Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Shareed, Pakistan.jpg|thumb|right|Muslim pilgrims gathered around the [[Zarih|Ḍarīẖ]] covering the [[Maqbara|grave]] (''qabr'') of the 13th-century Sufi saint [[Lal Shahbaz Qalandar]] ([[Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar|shrine]] located in [[Sehwan Sharif]], [[Pakistan]]); on 16 February 2017, [[ISIS]] claimed responsibility for a [[2017 Sehwan suicide bombing|suicide attack on the shrine]] which resulted in the deaths of 90 people.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hassan |first=Syed Raza |date=17 February 2017 |title=Pakistan's Sufis defiant after Islamic State attack on shrine kills 83 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-blast-sufis/pakistans-sufis-defiant-after-islamic-state-attack-on-shrine-kills-83-idUSKBN15W1OP |work=[[Reuters]] |location=[[London]] |access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=17 February 2017 |title=88 dead, 343 injured in Sehwan shrine explosion: official data |url=http://dailytimes.com.pk/pakistan/17-Feb-17/88-died-343-injured-in-sehwan-shrine-explosion-official-data |work=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)]] |access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=20 February 2017 |title=Sehwan blast: Death toll reaches 90 as two more victims succumb to injuries |url=https://www.geo.tv/latest/131752-Sehwan-blast-Death-toll-reaches-90-as-two-more-victims-succumb-to-injuries |work=[[Geo News]] |access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref>]]
 
The persecution of Sufism and Sufi Muslims over the course of centuries has included acts of [[religious discrimination]], [[Religious persecution|persecution]] and [[Religious violence#Islam|violence]], such as the destruction of Sufi shrines, tombs, and mosques, suppression of Sufi orders, and discrimination against adherents of Sufism in a number of [[Muslim world|Muslim-majority countries]]. The [[Republic of Turkey]] banned all Sufi orders and abolished their institutions in 1925, after Sufis opposed the new secular order. The [[Islamic Republic of Iran]] has harassed Shia Sufis, reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of "[[Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist|governance of the jurist]]" (i.e., that the supreme [[Shiite]] [[Faqīh|jurist]] should be the nation's political leader).
 
In most other Muslim-majority countries, attacks on Sufis and especially their shrines have come from adherents of [[Islamic puritanism|puritanical]] and [[Islamic revival|revivalist]] [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic movements]] ([[Salafi movement|Salafis]] and [[Wahhabism|Wahhabis]]), who believe that practices such as [[Ziyarat|visitation to]] and [[Veneration#Islam|veneration of the tombs]] of [[Saints in Islam|Sufi saints]], [[Mawlid#Other uses of the term|celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints]], and ''[[dhikr]]'' ("remembrance" of [[God in Islam|God]]) ceremonies are ''[[bid‘ah]]'' (impure "innovation") and ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'' ("polytheistic").<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |last=Specia |first=Megan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/sufi-muslim-explainer.html?emc=edit_ne_20171124&nl=evening-briefing&nlid=68634180&te=1 |title=Who Are Sufi Muslims and Why Do Some Extremists Hate Them? |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=24 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043849/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/sufi-muslim-explainer.html?emc=edit_ne_20171124&nl=evening-briefing&nlid=68634180&te=1 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/may/10/islam-sufi-salafi-egypt-religion|title=Salafi intolerance threatens Sufis|author=Baher Ibrahim|work=The Guardian|date=10 May 2010}}</ref><ref name=Mir>{{cite web|last=Mir|first=Tariq|title=Kashmir: From Sufi to Salafi|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/kashmir-sufi-resurgence-salafi-islam-belief-conflict-rising-salafism-muslim-islam|work=November 5, 2012|publisher=Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting|access-date=20 February 2013}}</ref><ref name=violence>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/egypt/salafists/salafi-violence-against-sufis|title=Salafi Violence against Sufis|publisher=[[Islamopedia Online]]|access-date=24 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530232126/http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/egypt/salafists/salafi-violence-against-sufis|archive-date=2013-05-30|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
In [[Egypt]], at least 305 people were killed and more than 100 wounded during the [[2017 Sinai mosque attack|November 2017 Islamic terrorist attack]] on a Sufi mosque located in [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]; it is considered [[Terrorism in Egypt|one of the worst terrorist attacks]] in the [[history of modern Egypt]].<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref name="Walsh-Declan">{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Declan |last2=Youssef |first2=Nour |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/mosque-attack-egypt.html?emc=edit_ne_20171124&nl=evening-briefing&nlid=68634180&te=1 |title=Militants Kill 305 at Sufi Mosque in Egypt's Deadliest Terrorist Attack |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=24 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032823/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/mosque-attack-egypt.html?emc=edit_ne_20171124&nl=evening-briefing&nlid=68634180&te=1 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref> Most of the victims were Sufis.<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref name="Walsh-Declan"/>
 
==Prominent Sufis==
 
===Abdul-Qadir Gilani===
[[File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|thumb|right|[[Islamic geometric patterns|Geometric tiling]] on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in [[Shiraz]]]]
[[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]] (1077–1166) was a Mesopotamian-born [[Hanbali]] jurist and prominent Sufi scholar based in [[Baghdad]], with Persian roots. Qadiriyya was his patronym. Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, a town just East to Baghdad, also the town of his birth. There, he pursued the study of [[Hanbali]] law. [[Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi]] gave Gilani lessons in [[fiqh]]. He was given lessons about ''hadith'' by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. His Sufi spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher, [[Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi]], and was popular with students. In the morning he taught ''hadith'' and ''[[tafsir]]'', and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Quran. He is the founder of [[Qadiriyya|Qadiri]] order.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sufism - Sufi orders|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism|access-date=2021-04-18|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili===
[[Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili]] (died 1258), the founder of the [[Shadhiliyya]] order, introduced ''dhikr jahri'' (the remembrance of God out loud, as opposed to the silent ''dhikr''). He taught that his followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has bestowed upon them,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shazuli.com/thareeqush-shukr.html|title=Thareeqush Shukr|publisher=Shazuli.com|access-date=13 August 2012}}</ref> in contrast to the majority of Sufis, who preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self (''[[nafs]]'') "Order of Patience" (Tariqus-Sabr), Shadhiliyya is formulated to be "Order of Gratitude" (Tariqush-Shukr). [[Shadhili|Imam Shadhili]] also gave eighteen valuable ''[[Manzil|hizbs]]'' (litanies) to his followers out of which the notable ''Hizb al-Bahr''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deenislam.co.uk/mix/Hizb_ul_Bahr.htm|title=Hizb ul Bahr – Litany of the Sea|website= Deenislam.co.uk|access-date=27 September 2014}}</ref> is recited worldwide even today.
 
===Ahmad Al-Tijani===
[[File:Shams al-Ma'arif.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A manuscript of Sufi [[Islamic theology]], ''[[Shams al-Ma'arif]]'' (The Book of the Sun of Gnosis), was written by the [[Algeria]]n Sufi master [[Ahmad al-Buni]] during the 12th century.]]
[[Ahmed Tijani]] (1737–1815), in Arabic سيدي أحمد التجاني (''Sidi Ahmed Tijani''), is the founder of the [[Tijaniyya]] [[Sufi]] order. He was born in a Berber family,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1rdZAAAAYAAJ|title=Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia|last=Jestice|first=Phyllis G.|date=2004-12-15|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576073551|pages=858|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD0sBgAAQBAJ|title=Studies in West African Islamic History: Volume 1: The Cultivators of Islam, Volume 2: The Evolution of Islamic Institutions & Volume 3: The Growth of Arabic Literature|last=Willis|first=John Ralph|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136251603|pages=234|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4iWqgTzvp8C|title=Mohammedanism|last=Gibb|first=H. A. R.|date=1970|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=9780195002454|pages=116|language=en}}</ref> in [[Aïn Madhi]], present-day [[Algeria]] and died  at the age of 78 in Fez.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bangstad|first=Sindre|title=Global Flows, Local Appropriations: Facets of Secularisation and Re-Islamization Among Contemporary Cape Muslims|date=2007|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-5356-015-0|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel Kwaku|url=|title=Dictionary of African Biography|last2=Jr|first2=Professor Henry Louis Gates|date=2012-02-02|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Bayazid Bastami===
[[Bayazid Bastami]] is a recognized and influential Sufi personality from Shattari order.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shattari Silsila|url=http://www.shattari.blogspot.com|url-status=live|access-date=9 July 2021|website=[[shattari]]}}</ref> Bastami was born in 804 in [[Bastam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=1914-|first=Ahmad, Khwaja Jamil|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/977150850|title=Hundred great Muslims [by] Jamil Ahmad.|date=1971|publisher=Ferozsons|oclc=977150850}}</ref> Bayazid is regarded for his devout commitment to the [[Sunnah]] and his dedication to fundamental Islamic principals and practices.
 
===Bawa Muhaiyaddeen===
[[Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]] (died 1986) was a Sufi Sheikh from Sri Lanka. He was found by a group of religious pilgrims in the early 1900s meditating in the jungles of Kataragama in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Awed and inspired by his personality and the depth of his wisdom, he was invited to a nearby village. Thereafter, people from various walks of life, from paupers to prime ministers, belonging to various religious and ethnic backgrounds came to see Sheikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen to seek comfort, guidance and help. Sheikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen spent the rest of his life preaching, healing and comforting the many souls that came to see him.
 
===Ibn Arabi===
[[Ibn Arabi|Ibn 'Arabi]] (or Ibn al-'Arabi) (AH 561 – AH 638; July 28, 1165 – November 10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order (''tariqa''). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of ''tawhid'' (Divine Unity), though because of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the school of ''wahdat al-wujud'' (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your servant-hood (''ʿubudiyya''), and that there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.<ref>K. al-Wasa'il, quoted in ''The Unlimited Mercifier'', Stephen Hirtenstein, p. 246</ref>
 
===Junayd of Baghdad===
[[Junayd of Baghdad|Junayd al-Baghdadi]] (830–910) was one of the great early Sufis. His order was Junaidia, which links to the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God knows better". He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa—i.e., the leader of the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
 
===Mansur Al-Hallaj===
[[Mansur Al-Hallaj]] (died 922) is renowned for his claim, ''Ana-l-Haqq'' ("I am The Truth"). His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded as [[apostasy]], led to a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It is said that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy".<ref>Memoirs of the Saints, p.108.{{full citation needed|date=February 2020}}</ref>
 
===Moinuddin Chishti===
[[File:Sufi Prayer Book LACMA M.87.21.jpg|thumb|A Mughal-era Sufi prayer book from the Chishti order]]
[[Moinuddin Chishti]] was born in 1141 and died in 1236. Also known as ''Gharīb Nawāz'' ("Benefactor of the Poor"), he is the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and established the order in the Indian subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki|Bakhtiyar Kaki]], [[Fariduddin Ganjshakar|Baba Farid]], [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] (each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at Lahore, he reached [[Ajmer]] along with Sultan [[Muhammad of Ghor|Shahāb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori]], and settled down there. In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinuddin Chishtī practiced the Sufi ''Sulh-e-Kul'' (peace to all) concept to promote understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-12-19|title=Sultan-e-Hind: Mysticism takes centre stage|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/308807/sultan-e-hind-mysticism-takes-centre-stage|access-date=2021-04-18|website=The Express Tribune|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Rabi'a Al-'Adawiyya===
[[File:Rabia al-Adawiyya.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of Rabi'a [[Mill (grinding)|grinding grain]] from a [[Persian language|Persian]] dictionary]]
Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya or [[Rabia of Basra]] (died 801) was a mystic who represents countercultural elements of Sufism, especially with regards to the status and power of women. Prominent Sufi leader [[Hasan of Basra]] is said to have castigated himself before her superior merits and sincere virtues.<ref>Ahmed, Leila. ''Women and Gender in Islam''. Yale University Press, 1992, p. 112.</ref> Rabi'a was born of very poor origin, but was captured by bandits at a later age and sold into slavery. She was however released by her master when he awoke one night to see the light of sanctity shining above her head.<ref>Smith, Margaret. ''Rabi'a The Mystic''. Cambridge University Press, 1928.</ref> Rabi'a al-Adawiyya is known for her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of the love of God to a holy life.<ref>Ahmed, Leila. ''Women and Gender in Islam''. Yale University Press, 1992, p. 87.</ref> She is said to have proclaimed, running down the streets of [[Basra]], Iraq:
{{quote | text = O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not Your everlasting Beauty. | source = Rabi'a al-Adawiyya}}
 
She died in [[Jerusalem]] and is thought to have been buried in the [[Chapel of the Ascension (Jerusalem)|Chapel of the Ascension]].
 
== Shrines ==
A ''[[dargah]]'' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: درگاه ''dargâh'' or درگه ''dargah'', also in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Urdu]]) is a [[shrine]] built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often a Sufi [[saint]] or [[dervish]]. Sufis often visit the shrine for ''[[ziyarat]]'', a term associated with religious visits and pilgrimages. ''Dargah''s are often associated with Sufi eating and meeting rooms and hostels, called ''[[khanqah]]'' or hospices. They usually include a mosque, meeting rooms, Islamic religious schools ([[madrassas]]), residences for a teacher or caretaker, hospitals, and other buildings for community purposes.
 
==Major Sufi orders==
{{main|Tariqa|List of Sufi orders}}
[[File:Syariah-thariqah-hakikah2.jpg|thumb|"Tariqat" in the Four Spiritual Stations: The Four Stations, ''sharia'', tariqa, [[haqiqa]]. The fourth station, ''[[marifa]]'', which is considered "unseen", is actually ''the center'' of the ''haqiqa'' region. It is the essence of all four stations.]]
The term ''tariqa'' is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking [[haqiqa|ḥaqīqah]] (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a [[murshid]] (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as ''[[Murid|murīdīn]]'' (singular ''murīd''), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God".<ref>{{cite thesis|type=Dissertation (Master of Science in Religion)|author=Mário Alves da Silva Filho|url= http://www.ibeipr.com.br/conteudo/academicos/misticaislamica.pdf|title=A Mística Islâmica em ''Terræ Brasilis'': o Sufismo e as Ordens Sufis em São Paulo|language=pt|trans-title=Islamic Mystique in Terræ Brasilis: Sufism and Sufi Orders in São Paulo|location=São Paulo|publisher=PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DE SÃO PAULO PUC/SP|date=2012|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150414212630/http://www.ibeipr.com.br/conteudo/academicos/misticaislamica.pdf|archive-date=2015-04-14}}</ref>
 
===Bektashi===
{{main|Bektashi}}
The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced during its fomulative period by the [[Hurufism|Hurufi]] Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and reorganized by [[Balım Sultan]] in the 16th century.
 
===Chishti===
{{main|Chishti Order}}
The Chishti Order ({{lang-fa|{{big|چشتیہ}}}}) was founded by ([[Khawaja]]) [[Abu Ishaq Shami]] ("the Syrian"; died 941) who brought Sufism to the town of [[Chisht]], some 95 miles east of [[Herat]] in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local [[Emir]] (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad's descendants, the ''Chishtiyya'' as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order.
 
===Kubrawiya===
{{main|Kubrawiya}}
The [[Kubrawiya]] order is a [[Sufi]] order ("[[tariqa]]") named after its 13th-century founder, [[Najmuddin Kubra]]. The [[Kubrawiya]] [[Sufi]] order was founded in the 13th century by [[Najmuddin Kubra]] in [[Bukhara]] in modern [[Uzbekistan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pagetour.org/bukhara/bu/Saif_ed_Din_Bokharzi.htm|title=Saif ed-Din Bokharzi & Bayan-Quli Khan Mausoleums|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> The [[Mongols]] captured Bukhara in 1221, committed [[genocide]] and almost killed the city's entire population. [[Najmuddin Kubra|Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din Kubra]] was among those killed by the Mongols.
 
===Mawlawiyya===
[[File:MevleviTomb.jpg|thumb| Tomb of Mevlevi Sheikhs in [[Northern Cyprus]] ]]
The [[Mevlevi Order]] is better known in the West as the "whirling dervishes".
 
===Muridiyya===
[[Mouride]] is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in [[Senegal]] and [[The Gambia]], with headquarters in the holy city of [[Touba, Senegal]].<ref>[http://www.africanmag.com/viewer/magazines/article.asd/id/504/vts/design001 "Mourides Celebrate 19 Years in North America"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013023536/http://www.africanmag.com/viewer/magazines/article.asd/id/504/vts/design001 |date=2008-10-13 }} by Ayesha Attah. ''The African'' magazine. (n.d.) Retrieved 13 November 2007.</ref>
 
===Naqshbandi===
{{main|Naqshbandi}}
The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders of Islam, previously known as Siddiqiyya as the order stems from Mohammad through Abū Bakr as-Șiddīq. It is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent ''dhikr'' (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of ''dhikr'' common in other orders. The word "''Naqshbandi''" ({{lang|fa|{{big|نقشبندی}}}}) is [[Persian language|Persian]], taken from the name of the founder of the order, [[Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari]]. Some{{Who|date=August 2020}} have said that the translation means "related to the image-maker", some also consider it to mean "Pattern Maker" rather than "image maker", and interpret "Naqshbandi" to mean "Reformer of Patterns", and others consider it to mean "Way of the Chain" or "[[Silsilat al-dhahab]]".
 
It is also believed that Naqsha is intended to mean impression – impression in the heart.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=R. K. |title=Yogis in silence : the great Sufi masters |date=2001 |publisher=B.R. Pub. Corp |location=Delhi |isbn=8176461997 |page=4 |url=https://sufism.weebly.com/ |access-date=3 June 2021}}</ref>
 
===Nimatullahi===
{{main|Nimatullahi}}
The Ni'matullāhī order is the most widespread Sufi order of [[Persia]] today.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=Sufi Essays|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1991|pages=99}}</ref> It was founded by [[Shah Nimatullah Wali|Shah Ni'matullah Wali]] (died 1367), established and transformed from his inheritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=The Garden of Truth|url=https://archive.org/details/gardentruthvisio00nasr|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-06-162599-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/gardentruthvisio00nasr/page/n210 195]}}</ref> There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and influential in the West following the lineage of [[Javad Nurbakhsh|Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh]] who brought the order to the West following the [[Iranian Revolution|1979 Revolution]] in [[Iran]].
 
===Qadiri===
{{main|Qadiriyya}}
The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi orders. It derives its name from [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]] (1077–1166), a native of the Iranian province of [[Gīlān Province|Gīlān]]. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and has a huge presence in [[Central Asia]], [[Pakistan]], [[Turkey]], [[Balkans]] and much of [[East Africa|East]] and [[West Africa]]. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience.
 
===Rahmani===
{{main|Rahmaniyya}}
The Ramani Order is one of the oldest Sufi orders in [[Algeria]] and [[North Africa]]. It derives its name from [[Sidi M'hamed Bou Qobrine]] (1720–1793), a native of the Algerian region of [[Kabylia]]. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in North Africa, and has a huge presence in [[Algeria]]. The Rahmaniyyah tariqa murids follow the doctrines and teachings of traditional Islam, and they believe in the fundamental principles of Islam interpreted through applied mysticism.
 
===Safaviyya===
{{main|Safavid order}}
The Safaviyya order ({{lang-fa|صفویه}}) was a Sufi [[tariqa]]<ref>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1345, Sheikh Safi al-Din</ref><ref>http://archnet.org/sites/1595/media_contents/40812</ref> founded by the [[Kurds|Kurdish]]<ref>Newman, Andrew J., ''Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire'', (I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2006), 152.</ref><ref name="R.M.">[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f1/v8f1010.html R.M. Savory. Ebn Bazzaz.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529044819/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f1/v8f1010.html |date=2009-05-29 }} ''Encyclopædia Iranica''</ref><ref name="Mino">V. Minorsky, "The Poetry of Shāh Ismā‘īl I," ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', University of London 10/4 (1942): 1006–53.</ref> [[Mysticism|mystic]] [[Safi-ad-din Ardabili]] (1252–1334). It held a prominent place in the sociopolitical sphere of northwestern [[Iran]] in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but today it is best known for having given rise to the [[Safavid dynasty]]. While initially founded under the [[Shafi'i]] school of [[Sunni Islam]], later adoptions of Shi'i concepts such as the notion of the [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imamate]] by the children and grandchildren of Safi-ad-din Ardabili resulted in the order ultimately becoming associated with [[Twelver]] [[Shia Islam]].
 
===Senussi===
{{main|Senussi}}
Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by [[Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi]]. Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of the Egyptian [[ulema]]. Originally from Mecca, as-Senussi left due to pressure from [[Wahhabism|Wahhabis]] to leave and settled in [[Cyrenaica]] where he was well received.<ref name=locsanusi>{{cite book|editor-last=Metz|editor-first=Helen Chapin|date=1987|chapter=The Sanusi Order|chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/libya/18.htm|title=Libya: A Country Study|location=Washington|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|access-date=28 February 2011}}</ref> [[Idris of Libya|Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi]] was later recognized as Emir of Cyrenaica<ref>A. Del Boca, "Gli Italiani in Libia – Tripoli Bel Suol d'Amore" Mondadori 1993, p. 415</ref> and eventually became [[Kingdom of Libya|King of Libya]]. The monarchy was abolished by [[Muammar Gaddafi]] but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alarabiya.net/ar/politics/2019/09/11/ليبيا-مَنْ-ضلّل-مَنْ؟.html|title=ليبيا: مَنْ ضلّل مَنْ؟|last=عويضة|first=بكر|date=2019-09-11|website=[[Al Arabiya]]|language=ar|access-date=2020-04-22}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
 
===Shadhili===
{{main|Shadhili}}
The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by [[Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili]]. Ikhwans (Murids - followers) of the Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis.<ref name="yabahu">{{cite web |url=http://www.yabahu.com |title=Hazrat Sultan Bahu |publisher=yabahu.com |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327110031/http://www.yabahu.com/ |archive-date=27 March 2015 }}</ref><ref name="zikr.">{{cite web|url=http://www.zikr.co.uk |title=Home – ZIKR |publisher=zikr.co.uk|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> Fassiya a branch of Shadhiliyya founded by [[Al-Fassi family|Imam al Fassi]] of Makkah is the widely practiced Sufi order in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Indonesia and other middle east countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.shazuli.com/|title=Fassiyathush Shazuliya Tariqa &#124; Madurai-Tamil Nadu-India}}</ref>
 
===Suhrawardiyya===
{{main|Suhrawardiyya}}
The Suhrawardiyya order ({{lang-ar|{{big|سهروردية}}}}) is a Sufi order founded by [[Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi]] (1097–1168). The order was formalized by his nephew, [[Shahab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi]].
 
===Tijaniyya===
{{main|Tijaniyyah}}
The [[Tijaniyyah]] order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of the [[Apprenticeship|disciple]] ([[murid|murīd]]).
<ref name="zikr." />
 
===Symbols associated with the Sufi orders===
<gallery>
File:Seal of Qadiriyya Sufi Order .jpg|Emblem of [[Qadri|Qadiriyya Sufi Order]]. ''Inscription : Ali Wali Ullah (Ali is the Authority of Allah on the Earth).''
File:Golden chain.jpg|The Golden Chain of the Naqshbandi order
File:Naqshbandi.jpg|The symbolic emblem of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order
File:Talisman Louvre MAO905.jpg|Seal of the [[Chishti Order]]
File:Grave of Ma Yuanzhang and his son at Xuanhuagang.jpg|Grave of [[Ma Yuanzhang]], the Sufi Grand Master, in [[China]]
File:Isma allah zat-new.png|[[Allah]]'s essence within a disciple's heart, associated with the Sarwari Qadri Order
File:Mirror Calligraphy.png|Mirror calligraphy, symbolizing the Sufi [[Bektashi Order]] of the Dervish
File:Sufi calligraphy.png|Symbol of the [[Mevlevi Order]]
File:Safavid-star.png|[[Safaviyya]] star from ceiling of Shah Mosque, [[Isfahan]]
File:Shi'i stamped amulet.jpg|A symbol from the [[Mughal Empire]]: an amulet comprising magic squares, [[Quran]]ic verses (including ''[[Ayat al-Kursi|Al-Baqara 255 (Throne Verse)]]'' (2:255) running around the frame), and invocations to God, with a depiction of [[Zulfiqar]] at the center
</gallery>
 
==Reception==
 
===Perception outside Islam===
[[File:Sudan sufis.jpg|thumb|A choreographed Sufi performance on a Friday in Sudan]]
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its Orientalist scholars.<ref name=Geaves /> Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam.<ref name=Geaves>{{cite book|author=Ron Geaves|author2=Theodore Gabriel|author3=Yvonne Haddad|author4=Jane Idleman Smith|title=Islam and the West Post 9/11|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd.|page=67}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=23704 |last1=Corbett |first1=Rosemary R. |title=Making Moderate Islam: Sufism, Service, and the "Ground Zero Mosque" Controversy |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2016 |access-date=2019-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029043841/http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=23704 |archive-date=2016-10-29 |url-status=live}}</ref> Orientalists have proposed a variety of diverse theories pertaining to the nature of Sufism, such as it being influenced by [[Neoplatonism]] or as an [[Aryan race|Aryan]] historical reaction against "[[Semitic people|Semitic]]" cultural influence.<ref name="nasr">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IgVtq3kNCrYC&q=origins+of+tasawwuf&pg=PA192 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |access-date=17 January 2015 |isbn=9780791415153 |last1=Nasr |first1=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |date=1993-01-01}}</ref> [[Hossein Nasr]] states that the preceding theories are false according to the point of view of Sufism.<ref name="nasr"/>
[[File:Nasreddin.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A 17th-century miniature of [[Nasreddin]], a [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] [[satire|satirical figure]], currently in the [[Topkapı Palace]] Museum Library]]
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of [[Europe]] and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and [[humanism]]—nondogmatic, flexible and non-violent.<ref>Jamal Malik, John R. Hinnells: ''Sufism in the West'', Routledge, p. 25</ref> According to [[Philip Jenkins]], a Professor at Baylor University, "the Sufis are much more than tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Muslim nations." Likewise, several governments and organisations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a means of combating intolerant and [[Islam and violence|violent strains of Islam]].<ref>{{cite news|author1=Philip Jenkins|author-link1=Philip Jenkins|title=Mystical power|url=https://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/01/25/mystical_power/?page=full|publisher=Globe Newspaper Company|access-date=26 June 2014|date=January 25, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708011457/http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/01/25/mystical_power/?page=full|archive-date=2014-07-08|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, the Chinese and Russian<ref>{{cite news|author1=Tom Parfitt|title=The battle for the soul of Chechnya|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/22/chechnya.tomparfitt|access-date=26 June 2014|agency=Guardian News and Media Limited|date=23 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914003527/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/22/chechnya.tomparfitt|archive-date=2014-09-14|url-status=live}}</ref> governments openly favor Sufism as the best means of protecting against Islamist subversion. The British government, especially following the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], has favoured Sufi groups in its battle against [[Muslim extremist]] currents. The influential [[RAND Corporation]], an American think-tank, issued a major report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks," which urged the US government to form links with and bolster<ref>{{cite news|title=Sufism: Of saints and sinners|url=http://www.economist.com/node/12792544|publisher=The Economist Newspaper|access-date=26 June 2014|date=Dec 18, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516212549/http://www.economist.com/node/12792544|archive-date=2014-05-16|url-status=live}}</ref> Muslim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report stressed the Sufi role as moderate traditionalists open to change, and thus as allies against violence.<ref>{{cite web|title=MUSLIM NETWORKS AND MOVEMENTS IN WESTERN EUROPE|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2010/09/15/muslim-networks-and-movements-in-western-europe-sufi-orders/|website=Pew Research Center|access-date=26 June 2014|location=Government Promotion of Sufism|date=September 15, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140623113335/http://www.pewforum.org/2010/09/15/muslim-networks-and-movements-in-western-europe-sufi-orders/|archive-date=2014-06-23|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Angel Rabasa|author2=Cheryl Benard|author3=Lowell H. Schwartz|author4=Peter Sickle|title=Building Moderate Muslim Networks|url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2007/RAND_MG574.pdf|website=RAND Corporation|access-date=26 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531114438/http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2007/RAND_MG574.pdf|archive-date=2014-05-31|url-status=live|year=2007}}</ref> News organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to deal with violent Muslim extremists.<ref>{{cite news|author1=ALI ETERAZ|title=State-Sponsored Sufism|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/09/state_sponsored_sufism|access-date=26 June 2014|agency=FP|date=June 10, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914003445/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/06/09/state_sponsored_sufism|archive-date=2014-09-14|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
[[Idries Shah]] states that Sufism is universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.<ref name="Munn">{{cite journal|last=Munn|first=Richard C.|date=January–March 1969|title=Reviewed work(s): The Sufis by Idries Shah |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |publisher=American Oriental Society|volume=89|issue=1|pages=279–281 |doi=10.2307/598339 |jstor=598339}}</ref> He quotes [[Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi|Suhrawardi]] as saying that "this [Sufism] was a form of wisdom known to and practiced by a succession of sages including the mysterious ancient [[Hermes Trismegistus|Hermes of Egypt]].", and that [[Ibn al-Farid]] "stresses that Sufism lies behind and before systematization; that 'our wine existed before what you call the grape and the vine' (the school and the system)..."{{sfn|Shah|1970|p=28-29}} Shah's views have however been rejected by modern scholars.<ref name="britannica"/> Such modern trends of neo-Sufis in Western countries allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path", not without opposition by Muslims who consider such instruction outside the sphere of Islam.<ref name="Godlas">{{cite web|url=http://www.uga.edu/islam/sufismwest.html|title=Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths|publisher=Uga.edu|access-date=13 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027165634/http://www.uga.edu/islam/sufismwest.html|archive-date=2011-10-27|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Shah|1964–2014}}
 
===Influence on Judaism===
{{Original research section|date=July 2017}}
{{see also|Jewish philosophy}}
There is evidence that Sufism did influence the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. In the first writing of this kind, we see ''Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub'', ''[[Duties of the Heart]]'', of [[Bahya ibn Paquda]]. This book was translated by [[Judah ibn Tibbon]] into [[Hebrew]] under the title ''[[Chovot HaLevavot]]''.<ref>''A Sufi-Jewish Dialogue: Philosophy and Mysticism in Bahya ibn Paquda's Duties of the Heart'', Diana Lobel</ref>{{quote|The precepts prescribed by the [[Torah]] number 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are innumerable.|author=|title=|source=Kremer, Alfred Von. 1868. “Notice sur Sha‘rani.” Journal Asiatique 11 (6): 258.}}
 
In the ethical writings of the Sufis [[Al-Kusajri]] and [[Harawi (genre)|Al-Harawi]] there are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in the ''Chovot ha-Lebabot'' and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls ''[[Perushim]]''. However, the author of the ''Chovot HaLevavot'' did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.
 
[[Abraham Maimonides]], the son of the Jewish philosopher [[Maimonides]], believed that Sufi practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the biblical prophets.<ref>See Sefer Hammaspiq, "Happerishuth", Chapter 11 ("Ha-mmaʿaḇāq") s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth mufla'a zo, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah 13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg's translation, "The Way of Serving God" (Feldheim), p.&nbsp;429 and above, p.&nbsp;427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 ("Iqquḇim"), s.v. wa-halo yoḏeʾaʿ atta; in "The Way of Serving God", p.&nbsp;371.</ref>
 
Abraham Maimonides' principal work was originally composed in [[Judeo-Arabic dialects|Judeo-Arabic]] and entitled "כתאב כפאיה אלעאבדין" ''Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn'' (''A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God''). From the extant surviving portion it is conjectured that the treatise was three times as long as his father's ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]''. In the book, he evidences a great appreciation for, and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic school, which was centered in [[Egypt]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maimonides, Abraham {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/maimonides-abraham|access-date=2021-04-18|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>
 
The followers of this path, which they called, ''[[Ashkenazi Hasidim|Hasidism]]'' (not to be confused with the [later] [[Jewish]] [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] movement) or Sufism (''Tasawwuf''), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivation. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own [[Sufi order|brotherhood]], guided by a religious leader like a Sufi [[sheikh]].<ref name="revues">{{cite web|url=http://bcrfj.revues.org/index2312.html |title=Jewish pietism of the Sufi type |author=Mireille Loubet |publisher=bcrfj.revues.org|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref>
 
The [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], in its entry on Sufism, states that the revival of Jewish mysticism in Muslim countries is probably due to the spread of Sufism in the same geographical areas. The entry details many parallels to Sufic concepts found in the writings of prominent [[Kabbalah|Kabbalists]] during the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Jewish Encyclopedia |date=1906 |volume=11 |pages=579–581 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/}}</ref>{{sfn|Shah|1970|p=14-15}}
 
==Culture==
 
===Music===
In 2005, Indian musician [[Rabbi Shergill]] released a Sufi rock song called "[[Bulla Ki Jaana]]", which became a chart-topper in India and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050604/asp/calcutta/story_4806895.asp|title=Soundscape for the soul|author=Zeeshan Jawed|work=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]|location=[[Kolkata|Calcutta]]|date=4 June 2005|access-date=23 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/04/11/stories/2005041100540100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105132448/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/04/11/stories/2005041100540100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2012|title=Urban balladeer|work=[[The Hindu]]|author=Bageshree S.|date=26 March 2005|access-date=23 April 2008|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
 
=== Literature ===
The 13th century Persian poet [[Rumi]], is considered one of the most influential figures of Sufism, as well as one of the greatest poets of all time. He has become one of the most widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published by [[Coleman Barks]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Curiel|first1=Jonathan|title=Islamic verses / The influence of Muslim literature in the United States has grown stronger since the Sept. 11 attacks|url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Islamic-verses-The-influence-of-Muslim-2732710.php|publisher=SFGate|date=6 February 2005}}</ref> [[Elif Şafak]]'s novel ''The Forty Rules of Love'' is a fictionalized account of Rumi's encounter with the Persian dervish [[Shams Tabrizi]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jul/01/forty-rules-love-elif-shafak-review|title=The Forty Rules of Love by Elif Shafak – review|date=2011-07-01|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-05-05|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
 
[[Muhammad Iqbal|Allama Iqbal]], one of the greatest [[Urdu]] poets has discussed Sufism, philosophy and Islam in his English work ''[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]].''<ref>{{Cite book|title=The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam|last=Muhammad|first=Iqbal|date=1990|publisher=Kitab Bhavan|isbn=978-8171510818|edition=4th|location=New Delhi|oclc=70825403}}</ref>
 
===Visual art===
{{Main|Islamic art}}
Many painters and visual artists have explored the Sufi motif through various disciplines. One of the outstanding pieces in the [[Brooklyn Museum#Arts of the Islamic World|Brooklyn Museum's Islamic gallery]] has been the museum's associate curator of Islamic art, is a large 19th- or early-20th-century portrayal of the [[Battle of Karbala]] painted by Abbas Al-Musavi,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3054 |title=Battle of Karbala |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2020 |website=Brooklynmuseum.org |publisher=[[Brooklyn Museum]] |access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref> which was a violent episode in the disagreement between the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam; during this battle, [[Husayn ibn Ali]], a pious grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, died and is considered a [[Shahid|martyr]] in Islam.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/12/arts/design/12sufi.html|title=The Many Voices of Enlightenment|last=Cotter|first=Holland|date=2009-06-11|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=2020-01-15|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 
In July 2016, at International Sufi Festival<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mstv.co.in/2016/07/05/exhibition-of-paintings-by-farkhananda-khan-at-sufi-festival/|title=Exhibition of Paintings by Farkhananda Khan at Sufi Festival|date=July 5, 2016|website=mstv.co.in|access-date=2020-01-15}}</ref> held in Noida Film City, UP, India, H.E. Abdul Basit who was the High Commissioner of Pakistan to India at that time, while inaugurating the exhibition of Farkhananda Khan said, “There is no barrier of words or explanation about the paintings or rather there is a soothing message of brotherhood, peace in Sufism”.
 
==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}
 
* [[Ashʿari]]
* [[Barakah]]
* [[Index of Sufism-related articles]]
* [[List of modern Sufi scholars]]
* [[List of Sufi saints]]
* [[Maturidi]]
* [[Shab-e-barat]]
* [[Tawassul]]
* [[Tazkiah]]
* [[World Sufi forum]]


==References==
==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|group=note}}
 
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Babou|first1=Cheikh Anta|title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|date=2007|volume=40|issue=1|page=184}}
* {{cite book|last=Chittick|first=William|author-link=William Chittick|title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LI0kjBlXS5UC|year=2007|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-052-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Chodkiewicz|first=Michel|author-link=Michel Chodkiewicz|title=The Spiritual Writings of Amir ʿAbd al-Kader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AisToMtog14C|year=1995|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2446-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Chopra|first=R.M.|title=SUFISM (Origin, Growth, Eclipse, Resurgence)|date=2016|publisher=Anuradha Prakashan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-85083-52-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Ernst|first=Carl W.|chapter=Muḥammad as the Pole of Existence|pages=123–138|editor=Jonathan E. Brockopp|title=The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139828383}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fitzpatrick|first1=Coeli|last2=Walker|first2=Hani|year=2014|title=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AtvBAAAQBAJ|publisher=ABC-Clio|isbn=978-1-61069-177-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Gamard|first=Ibrahim|title=Rumi and Islam: Selections from His Stories, Poems, and Discourses, Annotated & Explained|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-17EZOGivqMC|year=2004|publisher=SkyLight Paths Publishing|isbn=978-1-59473-002-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Glassé|first=Cyril|title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC|year=2008|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6296-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Guénon|first=René|author-link=René Guénon|title=Insights Into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2MicNN1KiUC|year=2001|publisher=Sophia Perennis|isbn=978-0-900588-43-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mbacké|first1=Khadim|last2=Hunwick|first2=John O.|title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUrOn6papygC|year=2005|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1-55876-342-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rahimi |first=Sadeq |date=September 2007 |title=Intimate Exteriority: Sufi Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in Turkey |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |publisher=Springer |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=409–421 |doi=10.1007/s10943-006-9073-2 |jstor=27513026|s2cid=26296782 }}
* {{cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|author-link=Annemarie Schimmel|title=Mystical Dimension of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V59xBAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Noura Books|isbn=978-979-433-797-4}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Schmidle |first=Nicholas |date=December 2008 |title=Pakistan's Sufis Preach Faith and Ecstasy |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Faith-and-Ecstasy.html |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122031623/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Faith-and-Ecstasy.html |archive-date=2009-01-22 }}
* {{cite book|last=Sells|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Sells|title=Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qurʼan, Miraj, Poetic and Theological Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BrU54SYQSyoC|year=1996|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-3619-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Shah|first=Idries|year=1964–2014|title=The Sufis|publisher=[[The Idries Shah Foundation|ISF Publishing]]|isbn=978-1784790035|author-link=Idries Shah}}
* {{cite book|last=Shah|first=Idries|year=1970|title=The Way of the Sufi|publisher=E.P. Dutton}}
* {{cite book|last=Zarrabi-Zadeh|first=Saeed|date=2016|url=https://www.routledge.com/products/9781138100121|title=Practical Mysticism in Islam and Christianity: A Comparative Study of Jalal al-Din Rumi and Meister Eckhart|publisher=Routledge|series=Routledge Sufi Series|isbn=978-1-13-810012-1}}
{{refend}}
 
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{{Commons category|Sufism}}
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* [http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0759 Sufism] from ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', via ''Oxford Islamic Studies Online''
* {{curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Sufism/|Sufism}}
* [http://www.uga.edu/islam/Sufism.html Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders – Sufism's Many Paths]
* [http://www.aaronhuey.com/#/editorial-archive/sufism-in-pakistan/Sufi_web_009 Extensive photo Essay on Sufism by a National Geographic photographer]
* [http://www.livingislam.org/m/tsw_e.html A Survey Of Decisive Arguments And Proof For Tasawwuf – Sufism in Islam]
 
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Sufism (also known as Tassawuf) is a group or branch in Islam with a mystic path or system. Someone who practices Sufism is called a Sufi, and may be a Dervish or a Fakir.

Origins

At first, Sufism only meant making Islam more personal and internal. Some say it first came from constantly reciting the Qur'an, meditating, and through experience. Others believe that Sufism is trying to live as the Islamic prophet Muhammad did, to be closer to God. This is how the Prophet taught his disciples.[1] Additionally, the Muslim conquests had brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under Muslim rule.[2] They believed in a deeply spiritual and mystical (even 'Platonic') way of life and many of their ways became part of early Sufism.[2]

Some of these teachings were summarized in texts (in Arabic initially). Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as among the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was the first one to write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. Bayazid Bastami was among the first theorists of Sufism.

Sufism already had a long history when some teachers began to set up formal schools or orders (Tarika or Tariqah) in the early Middle Ages. Almost all existing Sufi orders today trace their roots and chain of transmission (silsila) back to Muhammad, via one of these orders.

Sufi ideas and principles

The main idea in Sufism is that people can have 'personal knowledge' or oneness with God in their lives.[3] In order to be one with God, you have to destroy your idea of yourself, or your ego. This is known as fanaa (annihilation).[4] Apart from saying Sufi prayers, that vary according to different orders, you should be humble, considerate, and only act in order to control your desires.

After fanaa is achieved, the you are reborn to live with, in, through and for God, (baqaa, permanency). This is the state where you have achieved the divine love of God, and come ever closer to a unity with God.[5] You should now strive to be one with God. A person who has crossed the various Sufi 'stages' and achieved this sort of mystic union with Allah, is called a Wali (a saint or friend of God) and the state is termed Wilayat (friendship/union).[6]

Sufic Orders

In Sufism there exist many different orders (tarikas), that were founded from the 12th and 13th centuries until today/contemporary times. Some of the major Sufi orders are:

Notable Sufis

Some of the major, notable Sufis in history, from the 'classical age' of Sufism, include:[7]

Modern practitioners, who have achieved the degree of sheikh (Master/Preceptor) and are accounted to have a high spiritual status, are still found in various places.[9]

Sufism and Islamic orthodoxy

Sufi practices are usually defined within the basic tenets of Islam, the Sharia (or Shariah) although some orders include singing and dancing in the love of God, something some Muslims frown on. Hence some Muslims of a more orthodox mind-set believe that any actions outside the scope of Sharia, or Sufi activities practised by non-Muslims are 'wrong'. However the underlying message and aim of the quest for the love of God is true for all humanity. For a non-Muslim the most important ideas in Sufism are love for fellow human beings (which reflects one's love of God) and living ones life in such a way where all actions are against the self. This automatically starts him on the path of fanaa. In terms of discipleship and training, almost all the major Sufi orders are themselves quite willing to take students who are not Muslims.[10]

There are some Muslim schools of thought, such as the Wahhabi for example, who oppose Sufism because they feel it obliterates the difference between God and man and bypasses the common method of salvation as prescribed by their interpretations of Sharia. Although there are non-Islamic versions of Sufism too (generally defined as 'Universal Sufism') puritanical and rigid people in Islam tend to view them with considerable hatred and anger. As a result, we often see a great deal of misunderstanding and conflict regarding Sufism and Sufic practices.

Historically speaking, orthodox Islam, especially fundamentalist groups like the Wahhabi and Salafi have been the most intolerant and violent against what they think of as 'Deviant Sufism'.[11] In the past centuries, severe persecution has been carried out by them against the Kharijites, the Ismaili Shia cult (sometimes termed the 'Assassins'), the Ahmadiyya movement and several other groups and individuals with Sufi-like mystical tendencies and practices. During the time of the later Mughal Empire in India, even the early gurus of Sikhism were persecuted by orthodox Islamic mullahs (theologians) since they had chosen to incorporate some of the ideas and poetic verses of the Sufi saint Baba Farid into their holy scriptures. In more recent times, over the last two decades, considerable persecution has been made of the spiritual reformer and sage Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi and his followers in Pakistan.[12] He was opposed and threatened and forced to flee the country and his books banned there, and anyone publicly supporting him is liable to immediate arrest.[13]

Even proper, formal Sufi orders have suffered persecution for various reasons. In recent times the most notorious example was the outright banning of Sufism in Iran.[14] This happened in spite of the famous Amman Message, a joint declaration made by over 200 of the most noted moderate Islamic scholars in a conference in Amman, Jordan, in 2005, stressing that Sufism is very much 'part' of Islam.[15]

Further reading

Some volumes for further reading on Sufism include:

  • Abu-Nasr, J (2007) Muslim Communities of Grace:Sufi Brotherhoods in Islam London;
  • Burckhardt, T (1963) An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine Lahore;
  • Godlas, A (2000) Sufism's Many Paths U of Georgia Press;
  • Shah, Idries (1971) The Sufis New York;
  • Schimmel, A (1983) Mystical Dimensions of Islam Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina Press;
  • Smoley, Richard & Kinney, Jay. 2006. Hidden wisdom: a guide to the western inner traditions. 2nd ed; Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books. ISBN 978-0-8356-0844-2 (Chapter 10 deals with Sufism in the West)
  • Chopra, R. M., "SUFISM" (Origin, Growth, Eclipse, Resurgence), 2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi, ISBN 978-93-85083-52-5.

References

  1. ↑ Sheikh Abu Bakr Muhammad Sibahi, Tareekhi Tassawuf aur uss ka Irtaqa (Historical Tassawuf/Sufism and its Later Evolution) Lahore: Qurtaba Press, 1966, pp.23-28
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Sibahi, p.28
  3. ↑ See Idries Shah, The Sufis, 1971 ed ISBN 9780385079662; , also on the Sufi Studies Today website, http://www.sufis.org Retrieved 2.11.2012
  4. ↑ O.Tarin, 'Some Basic Sufi Practices: An Introduction', in Spirals, 1992, pp.169-178
  5. ↑ O.Tarin, p.170
  6. ↑ O.Tarin, p.171
  7. ↑ The classical reference volume which gives the biographies of most of the great early Sufi saints is Sheikh Farid-ud-din Attar's, Tazkirat al-Aulia'' (A Mention/Remembrance of the Saints), English translation by Prof AJ Arberry, n.d.; the online version is available at http://www.maktabah.org/biography/sufi-saints/392-tazkirat-al-aulia-by-fariduddin-attar.html[permanent dead link], Maktabah Islamic E-Librray site, Retrieved 2.10.2012
  8. ↑ "The Meccan Revelations". World Digital Library. 1900–1999. Retrieved 2013-07-14.
  9. ↑ Tarin, p.176
  10. ↑ Tarin, p.27
  11. ↑ Ehsan Ur Rehman, Islam ya Kufr? Deen mein biddat ke maamlay (Islam or Unbelief? Some innovations in the Faith) Monograph, Lahore and Karachi, 1992, pp.51-52
  12. ↑ The Daily Times Lahore, Pakistan, 8 July 2004
  13. ↑ http://www.dawn.com/2002/06/26/nat33.htm Daily Dawn Karachi, Pakistan, news item, 26 June 2002, Retrieved 2 Nov 2012
  14. ↑ See US Report on International Religious Freedom May 2009, Section on Iran
  15. ↑ http://ammanmessage.com/ The Amman Message Summary Retrieved 2 Nov 2012
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