M1 Abrams: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Current American main battle tank}}
{{Infobox Weapon
{{Redirect|M1 Tank|the early 20th Century light tank|M1 Combat Car}}
|name=M1 Abrams
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
|image=Abrams-transparent.png
{{stack}}
|caption=M1A2 Abrams
{{Infobox weapon
|origin={{flag|United States}}
| name               = M1 Abrams
|service = 1980–present
| image             = Mounted Soldier System (MSS).jpg
|type=[[Main battle tank]]
| image_size        = 300
|is_vehicle=yes
| alt                =
|used_by= {{flag|United States}}<br />{{flag|Egypt}}<br />{{flag|Iraq}}<br />{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}<br />{{flag|Kuwait}}
| caption           = U.S. Army M1A2 Abrams with production TUSK [[explosive reactive armor]] package installed
|wars=[[Gulf War]] (Operation Desert Storm)<br />[[War in Afghanistan (2001-present)|War in Afghanistan]] (Operation Enduring Freedom)<br />[[Iraq War]] (Operation Iraqi Freedom)
| origin             = United States
|designer=Chrysler Defense
| type               = [[Main battle tank]]
|design_year=1972
| is_artillery      = yes
|first_prototype=1980
| is_vehicle         = yes
|manufacturer= {{flag|United States}}
| service            = 1980–present
|unit_cost=US$6 million <ref name=dodfy99>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/budget/fy1999/dot-e/army/99m1a2.html "Department of Defense - Annual Report FY99"].</ref>
| used_by           = See [[#Operators|Operators]] below
|number= Over 10,000<ref name=LATP>Pike, John. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/lima.htm#prof Lima Army Tank Plant (LATP)]. Globalsecurity.org, 21 August 2005. Accessed on 9 July 2009. (Production cost of M1A2, upgraded)</ref>
| wars              = [[Gulf War]] <br />[[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]] <br />[[Iraq War]] <br />[[2011 Egyptian revolution]] <br />[[War in Iraq (2013–2017)|War in Iraq]] <br />[[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]]
|variants=XM1, prototype<br /> M1, first production model <br />M1A1, bigger gun <br /> M1A2, technology upgrades
| designer           = [[Chrysler Defense]] (now [[General Dynamics Land Systems]])
|weight=67.6 Short Tons
| design_date        = 1972–1975
|length=Gun forward: {{convert|32.04|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}<ref>[http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/abrams.html Abrams fact file]. U.S. Army</ref><br />Hull length: {{convert|26.02|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}
| manufacturer      = [[Lima Army Tank Plant]] (since 1980)<ref name="globalsecurity.org">{{cite web |author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/lima.htm |title=Lima Army Tank Plant (LATP) |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925075538/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/lima.htm |archive-date=25 September 2010}}</ref> <br />[[Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant]] (1982–1996)
|width={{convert|12|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} <!-- from Army fact file -->
| unit_cost         = US$6.21 million (M1A2 / FY99)<ref name=dodfy99>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/budget/fy1999/dot-e/army/99m1a2.html |title=Department of Defense – Annual Report FY99 |access-date=20 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103110937/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/budget/fy1999/dot-e/army/99m1a2.html |archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref> Estimated in 2016 as US$8.92 million (with inflation adjustment)
|height={{convert|8|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} <!-- from Army fact file -->
| production_date    = 1979–present
|crew=4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
| number             = approx. 10,396<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deagel.com/Armored-Vehicles/M1A2-Abrams_a000516003.aspx |title=M1A2 Abrams |access-date=12 December 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213095546/http://www.deagel.com/Armored-Vehicles/M1A2-Abrams_a000516003.aspx |archive-date=13 December 2017}}</ref>
|armour=[[Composite armor|Composite]], [[Rolled homogeneous armor|Steel]], depleted [[uranium]] mesh
| variants           = See [[M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle|variants]]
|primary_armament=105 mm rifled [[cannon]] (M1)<br /> 120 mm 120 mm [[smoothbore]] cannon (M1A1, M1A2)
| mass              = M1: {{convert|60|ST|t|lk=on}}{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=306}} <br />M1A1: {{convert|63|ST|t|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=306}} <br />M1A1 SA: {{convert|67.6|ST|t|abbr=on}} <br />M1A2 SEP v2: {{convert|71.2|ST|t|abbr=on}} <br />M1A2 SEP v3: {{convert|73.6|ST|t|abbr=on}}<ref name="ASAALT2018">{{cite web |title=ASAALT Weapon Systems Handbook 2018 |url=https://www.army.mil/e2/c/downloads/533115.pdf |publisher=Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Acquisition, Logistics and Technology) |access-date=19 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019121934/https://www.army.mil/e2/c/downloads/533115.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|secondary_armament=1 x 12.7 mm [[machine gun]]<br /> 2 x 7.62 mm machine guns
| length             = Gun forward: {{convert|32.04|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}<ref name="factfile">{{cite web|url=http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/abrams.html |title=Abrams Tank Fact File for the United States Army |publisher=United States Army |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115181622/http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/abrams.html |archive-date=15 November 2013 |access-date=16 November 2015}}</ref> <br />Hull length: {{convert|26.02|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}
|engine= multi-fuel turbine engine
| width             = {{convert|12|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}<ref name="factfile" />
|engine_power=1,500 shp (1,120 kW)
| height             = {{convert|8|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}<ref name="factfile" />
|transmission=
| crew               = 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
|fuel_capacity=500 us gallons
| elevation          = +20° / -10°{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=306}}
|pw_ratio=24.5 hp/metric ton
| traverse          = 9 seconds/360 degrees{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=306}}
|suspension=[[Torsion beam suspension|Torsion bar]]
| armour             = [[Composite armor]]
|clearance={{convert|0.48|m|ftin|abbr=on}} (M1, M1A1)<br /> {{convert|0.43|m|abbr=on}} (M1A2)
| primary_armament = M1: 105&nbsp;mm L/52 [[Royal Ordnance L7|M68A1]] [[Rifling|rifled]] gun (55 rounds) <br />M1A1: 120&nbsp;mm L/44 [[Rheinmetall 120&nbsp;mm gun|M256A1]] [[smoothbore]] gun (40 rounds) <br />M1A2: 120&nbsp;mm L/44 [[Rheinmetall 120&nbsp;mm gun|M256A1]] smoothbore gun (42 rounds)
|vehicle_range=280 mi
| secondary_armament = 1 × .50 caliber (12.7&nbsp;mm) [[M2 Browning|M2HB]] [[heavy machine gun]] with 900 rounds <br />2 × [[7.62×51mm NATO|7.62 mm (.308 in)]] [[M240 machine gun|M240]] [[machine gun]]s with 10,400 rounds (1 [[Pintle mount|pintle-mounted]], 1 [[Coaxial mount|coaxial]])
|speed=Road: 42 mph (67.7 km/h) <br /> Off-road: 30 mph (48.3 km/h)
| engine             = [[Honeywell AGT1500]] multi-fuel [[Gas turbine|turbine engine]]
| engine_power       = 1,500&nbsp;[[shaft horsepower|shp]] (1,120&nbsp;kW)
| pw_ratio           = From 26.9&nbsp;hp/t (20.05&nbsp;kW/t) to 23.8&nbsp;hp/t (17.74&nbsp;kW/t)
| transmission      = Allison DDA X-1100-3B
| suspension         = [[Torsion bar suspension|High-hardness-steel torsion bars]] with rotary shock absorbers
| clearance         = M1, M1A1: {{convert|0.48|m|ft in|abbr=on}} <br />M1A2: {{convert|0.43|m|abbr=on}}
| fuel_capacity      = {{convert|504.4|USgal|L}}
| vehicle_range     = M1A2, road: {{convert|426|km|abbr=on|order=flip}} <br />Cross country: {{convert|150-200|km|mi|abbr=on|order=flip}}<ref name=JaneAA-162>{{cite book |last=Foss |first=Chris |title=Jane's Armour and Artillery 2005–2006 |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/mainbattletanksl00cffo |url-access=limited |isbn=0-7106-2686-X
|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/mainbattletanksl00cffo/page/n160 162]}}</ref>
| speed             = M1A1, road: {{convert|45|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} (governed); <br />Off-road: {{convert|30|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}<ref name="Globalsecurity_m1-specs">{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1-specs.htm |title=M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank |last=Pike |first=John E. |publisher=[[GlobalSecurity.org]] |access-date=16 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025174950/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1-specs.htm |archive-date=25 October 2015}}</ref> <br />M1A2, road: {{convert|67|km/h|mph|abbr=on|order=flip}} (governed); <br />Off-road: {{convert|40|km/h|mph|abbr=on|order=flip}}<ref name=JaneAA-162 />
}}
}}


The '''M1 Abrams''' is a [[List of main battle tanks by generation|third-generation]] American [[main battle tank]] designed by [[Chrysler Defense]] (now [[General Dynamics Land Systems]])<ref>[https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm M1 Abrams Main Battle tank] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821183057/http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm|date=21 August 2010}}. FAS.org, 14 April 2000.</ref> and named for General [[Creighton Abrams]]. Conceived for modern [[Armoured warfare|armored ground warfare]] and now one of the heaviest tanks in service at nearly 68 [[short ton]]s (almost 62 [[tonne|metric tons]]), it introduced several innovative features, including a [[multifuel]] [[gas turbine|turbine engine]], sophisticated [[Chobham armour|Chobham]] [[composite armor]], a computer fire control system, separate ammunition storage in a blow-out compartment, and [[Weapon of mass destruction|NBC]] protection for crew safety. Initial models of the M1 were armed with a licensed-produced 105&nbsp;mm [[Royal Ordnance L7]] gun, while later variants feature a licensed [[Rheinmetall Rh-120|Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44]].
The '''M1 Abrams''' is a modern [[main battle tank]] used by the United States. It is also [[export]]ed to several countries. It is a well armed, well protected, and fast tank designed for modern [[armored warfare|armored ground warfare]].<ref>[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm M1 Abrams Main Battle tank]. FAS.org, 14 April 2000</ref> Notable features of the M1 Abrams include the use of a powerful engine, layered armor, and a low profile. It is one of the heaviest tanks in service, weighing almost 70 [[short ton]]s.


The M1 Abrams was developed from the failure of the [[MBT-70]] project to replace the obsolescent [[M60 tank]]. There are three main operational Abrams versions, the M1, '''M1A1''', and '''M1A2''', with each new iteration seeing improvements in armament, protection, and electronics. Extensive improvements have been implemented to the latest formerly designated M1A2 System Enhancement Package version 3 or SEPv3 and M1A2 SEPv4, respectively versions such as improved [[composite armor]], better optics, digital systems and ammunition.<ref>{{citation |first=Dave |last=Majumdar |title=Inside the US Army's Lethal New M1A2 SEP v.3 Abrams Main Battle Tank |url=http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/inside-the-us-armys-lethal-new-m1a2-sep-v3-abrams-main-16445 |work=[[The National Interest]] |date=2 June 2016 |access-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018190927/http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/inside-the-us-armys-lethal-new-m1a2-sep-v3-abrams-main-16445 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Abrams was due to be replaced by the [[Future Combat Systems Manned Ground Vehicles|Future Combat Systems XM1202]] but due to its cancellation, the U.S. military has opted to continue maintaining and operating the M1 series for the foreseeable future by upgrading with improved optics, armor and firepower.
The M1 Abrams entered U.S. service in 1980, replacing the [[M60 Patton]].<ref>Hunnicutt 1984, pp. 6, 149, 408.</ref> Three main versions of the M1 Abrams have been deployed, the '''M1''', '''M1A1''', and '''M1A2''', incorporating improved armament, protection and electronics. These improvements, as well as periodic upgrades to older tanks have allowed this long-serving vehicle to remain in front-line service. The '''M1A3''' is currently under development. It is the principal (main) main battle tank of the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]], and the armies of [[Egyptian Army|Egypt]], [[Kuwaiti Army|Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabian Army|Saudi Arabia]], [[Australian Army|Australia]], and in 2010 [[Iraqi Army|Iraq]]. The M1 Abrams is anticipated to be in U.S. service until the 2050s.


The M1 Abrams entered service in 1980 and currently serves as the main battle tank of the [[United States Army]] and formerly the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]. The export version is used by the armies of [[Egyptian Army|Egypt]], [[Kuwait Army|Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabian Army|Saudi Arabia]], [[Australian Army|Australia]],<!-- [[Polish Armed Forces|Poland]], --> and [[Iraqi Army|Iraq]]. The Abrams was first used in combat in the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] and has seen combat in both the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq War]] under U.S. service, while Iraqi Abrams tanks have seen action in [[International military intervention against ISIL|the war against ISIL]] and have seen use by Saudi Arabia during the [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)|Yemeni Civil War]].
== Notes ==
 
{{Reflist|2}}
==History==
{{main|History of the M1 Abrams}}
 
===Previous developments===
{{main|MBT-70}}
 
Through the 1960s the US Army and West German Army had collaborated on a single design that would replace both the [[M60 tank]] and the [[Leopard 1]]. The overall goal was to have a single new design with improved firepower to handle new Soviet tanks like the [[T-62]], while providing improved protection against the T-62's new 115&nbsp;mm [[smoothbore]] gun and especially [[high-explosive anti-tank]] (HEAT) rounds.<ref name="DerSpiegel">{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-45464941.html |title=Licht vom Mond |access-date=2010-11-08 |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=2 November 1969 |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112816/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-45464941.html |archive-date=2012-10-22 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2019}}
 
The resulting design, the [[MBT-70]], incorporated new technologies across the board. A [[hydropneumatic suspension]] provided excellent cross-country ride quality and also allowed the entire tank to be raised or lowered by the driver, with the lowest position placing the top of the tank only {{convert|6|feet}} off the ground. New 1,500&nbsp;hp-class engines powered the designs which could both reach {{convert|43|mph}}, two new guns were introduced, a US 152&nbsp;mm design whose primary long-range weapon was the [[MGM-51 Shillelagh|Shillelagh missile]], while the Germans introduced a new [[Rheinmetall Rh-120|120 mm smoothbore]] design.<ref name="DerSpiegel"/>
 
While the design was highly capable, its weight continued to grow, as did its budget. By 1969, the unit cost stood at five times the original estimates, causing the Department of Defense to suspend the program.<ref>{{cite news |title=Controversial Tank Project suspended by Defense Department |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/25727596/?terms=gao%20%22battle%20tank%22&match=1 |access-date=13 November 2021 |work=Tucson Daily Citizen |agency=UPI |date=9 September 1969}}</ref> Development of the tank continued on an austere basis until January 1970, when the DoD ended its tank partnership with Germany.<ref name="Bonn and Washington split">{{cite news |last1=Beecher |first1=William |title=U.S. and Bonn End 7-Year Joint Effort to Build a Tank |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/01/21/archives/us-and-bonn-end-7year-joint-effort-to-build-a-tank.html |access-date=26 August 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=21 January 1970 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826113505/https://www.nytimes.com/1970/01/21/archives/us-and-bonn-end-7year-joint-effort-to-build-a-tank.html |archive-date=26 August 2018 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
 
As a result of the problems with the MBT-70, the U.S. Army introduced the [[XM803]], using some technologies from the MBT-70 but removing some of the more troublesome features. This succeeded only in producing an expensive system with capabilities similar to the M60.<ref name="globalsecurity">{{cite web |first=John |last=Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/mbt-70.htm |title=MBT-70 / XM803 |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date=13 May 2010 |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100823045247/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/mbt-70.htm |archive-date=23 August 2010}}</ref> Congress canceled the XM803 in December 1971 but permitted the Army to reallocate $20 million remaining funds to develop a new main battle tank.<ref name="globalsecurity"/>
 
===Starting afresh===
The [[Ballistic Research Laboratory|Tank-automotive and Armaments Command]] (TACOM) began examining specific goals. After several rounds of input, the decision was made to provide armor to defeat the "heavy threat" posed by the T-62's 115&nbsp;mm gun using projected improvements of their [[APFSDS]] ammunition through the 1980s, and the new 125&nbsp;mm gun of the [[T-64]] and [[T-72]] firing [[high-explosive anti-tank]] (HEAT) rounds.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015}}
 
To this end, a new design basis emerged in February 1973. It had to defeat any hit from a Soviet gun within 800 meters and 30 degrees to either side. The tank would be armed with the 105&nbsp;mm M68 gun, a licensed version of the [[Royal Ordnance L7]], along with a 20&nbsp;mm version of the [[M242 Bushmaster|Bushmaster]].{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=202}}
 
In May 1973 [[Chrysler Defense]] and [[General Motors]] submitted proposals. Both were armed with the 105&nbsp;mm M68 gun, a licensed version of the [[Royal Ordnance L7]], along with a 20&nbsp;mm version of the [[M242 Bushmaster|Bushmaster]]. Chrysler chose a 1500&nbsp;hp [[gas turbine]] [[Honeywell AGT1500|Lycoming AGT1500]]. GM's model was powered by a 1500&nbsp;hp diesel similar to that used on the American MBT-70 and XM803.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015}}
 
Examining the experiences of the [[Yom Kippur War]] that year, a number of design changes were made. The newly created [[Chobham armour|"Burlington" armor]] from the [[British Army]]'s labs was incorporated to improve protection, especially against HEAT, and to incorporate the new armor package, the original goal of keeping weight under {{convert|50|ST}} was abandoned. The Bushmaster was seen as superfluous and was deleted. As TACOM continued to improve the detailed design, initial samples of the armor system were sent to the [[Ballistic Research Laboratory]] for testing.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015}}
 
At the time, the Pentagon's procurement system was beset with problems being caused by the desire to have the best possible design. This often resulted in programs being canceled due to cost overruns, leaving the forces with outdated systems, as was the case with the MBT-70. There was a strong movement within the Army to get a new design within budget to prevent the MBT-70 experience from repeating itself. For the new design, the Army stated the unit cost was to be no more than $507,000 in 1972 dollars ({{inflation|US|507000|1972|r=-4|fmt=eq}}).<ref name=bail>{{cite news |newspaper= Washington Monthly |date=1987 |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+first+Chrysler+bail-out%3b+the+M-1+tank.-a04696991 |title= The First Chrysler Bail-Out: The M-1 Tank}}</ref>
 
The Pentagon's approach to control of research and development was modified with the XM1. Previous acquisition strategy called for a significant amount of the design work be done by the government. Under the new framework, contractors would competitively bid their own designs rather than compete solely for the right to manufacture the end product.{{sfn|Kelly|1989|p=13-43}}
 
===More changes===
[[File:Pdp11,70 640x507.jpg|thumb|The [[Ballistic Research Laboratory]] (BRL) used computerized tools during the development of the M1, which led to the development of [[BRL-CAD]]. Here, a [[Vector General]] 3D graphics terminal displays a model of the M1.]]
 
Through the period while the initial prototypes were being built, a debate broke out between Germany and US about the use of the 105&nbsp;mm gun. The Army was planning on introducing several new types of ammunition for the 105 that would greatly improve its performance, notably, the XM-774 using [[depleted uranium]]. These rounds would give it the performance needed to defeat any Soviet tank with ease. There was some concern that depleted uranium would not be allowed in Germany, perhaps just in peacetime, so improvements to the tungsten cored M735 were also considered.
 
Through this same period, there was an ongoing effort to improve [[NATO]] logistics by standardizing ammunition to the maximum possible degree. The Germans were moving ahead with their 120&nbsp;mm gun on the Leopard 2K, and noted that the British had also introduced a 120&nbsp;mm gun of their own in keeping with their long-range combat doctrine.
 
By 1977 the decision had been made to eventually move the new tank to a 120&nbsp;mm gun. After head-to-head testing between the [[Royal Ordnance L11A5]] and the [[Rheinmetall Rh-120]], the latter was chosen. The turret designs of the two prototypes were modified to allow either gun to be fitted. Although the [[Rheinmetall Rh-120|L11/M256 120mm gun]] was chosen to be the main weapon of the M1 Abrams in 1979, the improved ammunition for the gun still was not fully developed, thus delaying its fielding until 1984.<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.pica.army.mil/Picatinny/(X(1)S(jnp3njocqw3j4rrsh5iyrqn2))/products_services/products12.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
|title = Tank Munitions Development
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200618163520/https://www.pica.army.mil/Picatinny/(X(1)S(jnp3njocqw3j4rrsh5iyrqn2))/products_services/products12.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
|archive-date = 18 June 2020
|url-status = dead
|access-date = 18 June 2020
}}</ref>
 
The early production versions of the M1 Abrams (M1 & IPM1) were armed with the M68A1{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|loc=p. 312: 105mm Gun Tank M1 and IPM1 in a combination mount with M68A1 Gun}} for two reasons. First was due to the large number of M60 tanks with the M68E1 gun still in widespread US service in the 1980s and a large on-hand stockpile of 105mm munitions. Fitting the M1 with the M68A1 gun was viewed as an economical and practical solution that allowed for commonality in ammunition among the two types of tanks.{{sfn|Zaloga|1993}}  Secondly was that the M68A1 could employ the newly developed M900 APFSDS<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/m900.htm|title=M900 105mm APFSDS-T|website=www.globalsecurity.org}}</ref> depleted uranium round that had improved penetration performance in comparison to the M774.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pica.army.mil/Picatinny/(X(1)S(jnp3njocqw3j4rrsh5iyrqn2))/products_services/products12.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 |title=Picatinny Arsenal - The Joint Center of Excellence for Guns and Ammunition |publisher=Pica.army.mil |access-date=2020-04-11}}</ref>
 
===Prototypes===
[[File:XM1 Chrysler prototype.png|thumb|The Chrysler XM1 prototype]]
[[File:XM1 GM prototype.png|thumb|The General Motors XM1 prototype]]
 
Prototypes were delivered in 1976 by Chrysler and GM armed with the license-built M68E1 version of the 105&nbsp;mm [[Royal Ordnance L7]]. They entered head-to-head testing at [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], along with a [[Leopard 2]] AV prototype for comparison. The Leopard 2 was found to meet U.S. requirements but was thought to be more expensive.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015}} The testing showed that the GM design was generally superior to Chrysler's, offering better armor protection, and better fire control and turret stabilization systems.<ref name=bail/> These early preproduction prototypes were provisionally armed with the M68E1 105mm main gun while a preferred 120mm gun and its ammunition were in their design and component development phase. These prototypes used a combination mount that allowed for the evaluation of both 105mm and 120mm guns.<ref>Ogorkiewicz, Richard M. (1991). Technology of Tanks (Vols 1-2). London: Janes Information Group. p. 82.</ref>
 
During testing, the power packs of both designs proved to have issues. The Chrysler [[gas turbine]] engine had extensive heat recovery systems in an attempt to improve its [[Fuel efficiency|fuel economy]] to something similar to a traditional [[internal combustion engine]]. This proved not to be the case; the engine consumed much more fuel than expected, burning 3.8 gallons per mile. The GM design used a new variable-compression diesel design.<ref name=bail/>
 
By spring 1976, the decision to choose the GM design was largely complete. In addition to offering better overall performance, there were concerns about Chrysler's engine both from a reliability and fuel consumption standpoint. The GM program was also slightly cheaper overall at $208 million compared to $221 million for Chrysler. In July 1976, Lt. Colonel George Mohrmann prepared a stack of letters informing Congress of the decision to move ahead with the GM design. All that was required was the final sign-off by the [[Secretary of Defense]], [[Donald Rumsfeld]].<ref name=bail/>
 
=== Chrysler is chosen ===
[[File:XM1 Chrysler prototype oblique right.png|thumb|The finalized M1 prototype]]
 
On 20 July 1976, [[United States Secretary of the Army]] Martin Hoffman and a group of generals visited [[United States Deputy Secretary of Defense|Deputy Defense Secretary]] [[Bill Clements]] and [[Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering|Director of Defense Research and Engineering]] Malcolm Currie on their decision. They were surprised when Clements and Currie criticized their decision and demanded the turbine be selected. Donald Rumsfeld heard arguments from both in the afternoon and asked for twenty-four hours to review the issues. The Army team spent the night writing briefs and presented them to Rumsfeld the next morning, who then announced a four-month delay.<ref name=bail/>
 
Within days, GM was asked to present a new design with a turbine engine. According to Assistant Secretary for Research and Development Ed Miller, "It became increasingly clear that the only solution which would be acceptable to Clements and Currie was the turbine... It was a political decision that was reached, and for all intents and purposes that decision gave the award to Chrysler since they were the only contractor with a gas turbine."<ref name=bail/> However, the Chrysler design had the advantage that the entire power pack had room to be replaced by any number of engine designs, including a Diesel if needed.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015}}
 
The turbine engine does not appear to be the only reason for this decision. Chrysler was the only company that appeared to be seriously interested in tank development; the M60 had been lucrative for the company and relied on that program for much of its profit. In contrast, GM made only about 1% of its income from military sales, compared to 5% for Chrysler, and only submitted their bid after a "special plea" from the Pentagon.<ref name=bail/>
 
On 12 November 1976, the Defense Department awarded a $20 billion development contract to Chrysler.<ref name=bail/>
 
===Production starts===
In January 1978, a program was initiated<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA051050 |title=DTIC ADA051050: Initial Firing Test Results of the 35mm Scaled Model of the 105mm M68 Tank Gun: Defense Technical Information Center: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming |website=Internet Archive|date=January 1978 }}</ref> to develop an enhanced version of the 105mm gun, the M68A1<ref>CANNON, 105MM GUN: M68A1E2 MIL-C-45504A Rev. D Jan 1987 |Military and Government Specs & Standards (Naval Publications and Form Center) (NPFC)</ref> as a possible alternate weapon for the M1 Abrams. The new XM24/L55 gun barrel was 18 inches (45.72&nbsp;cm) longer in comparison to the XM24/L52 barrel used on the [[M60 tank|M60]] tanks.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|loc=p. 234 "The gun tube was extended by 1.5 feet compared to the M68E1."}} It has a higher chamber pressure,{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|loc=p. 312: 105mm Gun Tank M1 and IPM1 in a combination mount with M68A1 Gun}} reinforced [[Chamber (firearms)|breech]]{{efn|1=In firearms the breech is part of a firearm at the rear of the barrel, as defined by Merriam Webster.}} and a higher muzzle velocity.<ref name="auto7">Direct Support, General Support, and Depot Maintenance Manual for Cannon, 105-MM Gun, M68 & M68E1, M116 and 140 Mount TM 9-1000-213-35 by Fred C. (Chief of Staff) Weyand | Jan 1, 1978</ref>
 
Low initial rate production (LIRP) of the vehicle was approved on 7 May 1979.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=202}} In February 1982, [[General Dynamics Land Systems]] Division (GDLS) purchased Chrysler Defense, after Chrysler built over 1,000 M1s.<ref>{{cite news|title=General Dynamics buys Chrysler tank division|newspaper=The New York Times|date=20 February 1982|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/20/business/general-dynamics-buys-chrysler-tank-division.html|access-date=3 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403195514/http://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/20/business/general-dynamics-buys-chrysler-tank-division.html |archive-date=3 April 2017|last1=Holusha|first1=John}}</ref> The M1 Abrams was the first vehicle to adopt [[Chobham armor]].
 
[[File:105mm cannon on an M1 Abrams tank, 1986.png|thumb|105 mm M1 Abrams tank of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment at Grafenwöhr Training Area in Germany, 1986]]
A total of 3,273 M1 Abrams tanks were produced during 1979–1985 and first entered U.S. Army service in 1980. Production at the government-owned, GDLS-operated [[Lima Army Tank Plant]] in [[Lima, Ohio]], was joined by vehicles built at the [[Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant]] in [[Warren, Michigan]] from 1982 to 1996.<ref name="globalsecurity.org" /> The U.S. Army Laboratory Command (LABCOM), under the supervision of the [[United States Army Research Laboratory]] (ARL), was also heavily involved with designing the tank with M1A1 armor resistant shells, M829A2 armor-penetrating rounds, and improved weapon range.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory |year=2017}}</ref>
 
The M1 was armed with the license-built M68A1 version of the 105&nbsp;mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun. The tank featured the first of its kind Chobham armor. The M1 Abrams was the first to use this advanced armor. It consisted of an arrangement of metal plates, ceramic blocks and open space.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/m1-tank4.htm|title=How M1 Tanks Work|date=7 May 2002|work=HowStuffWorks|access-date=3 April 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418033609/https://science.howstuffworks.com/m1-tank4.htm|archive-date=18 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> An improved model called the M1IP was produced briefly in 1984 and contained upgrades to armour and other small improvements. The M1IP models were used in the [[Canadian Army Trophy]] NATO tank gunnery competition in 1985 and 1987.
 
About 5,000 M1A1 Abrams tanks were produced from 1986 to 1992 and featured the [[Rheinmetall 120&nbsp;mm gun|M256]] {{convert|120|mm|abbr=on}} [[smoothbore]] [[cannon]] developed by [[Rheinmetall]] AG of [[Germany]] for the Leopard 2, improved armor, consisting of depleted uranium and other classified materials, and a [[CBRN]] protection system. Production of M1 and M1A1 tanks totaled some 9,000 tanks at a cost of approximately $4.3 million per unit.<ref name=LATP>{{cite web |last=Pike |first=John |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/lima.htm |title=Lima Army Tank Plant (LATP) |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=20 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303083135/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/lima.htm |archive-date=3 March 2014}}</ref>
 
In 1990, [[Project On Government Oversight]] in a report criticized the M1's high costs and low fuel efficiency in comparison with other tanks of similar power and effectiveness such as the Leopard 2. The report was based on data from U.S. Army sources and the Congressional record.<ref>[http://www.pogo.org/pogo-files/reports/national-security/the-armys-m1-tank/ns-m1tank-1990.html#90rpt "The Army's M1 Tank: Has It Lived Up To Expectations?"]. Project on Government Oversight. 1 January 1990. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117014626/http://www.pogo.org/pogo-files/reports/national-security/the-armys-m1-tank/ns-m1tank-1990.html#90rpt |date=17 November 2012}}</ref> By 1999, costs for the tank were upwards of {{US$|5 million|link=yes}} a vehicle.<ref name=dodfy99 />
 
As the Abrams entered service, they operated alongside M60A3 within the U.S. military, and with other NATO tanks in various [[Cold War]] [[List of NATO exercises|exercises]] which usually took place in Western Europe, especially West Germany. The exercises were aimed at countering Soviet forces.
 
Adaptations before the Persian [[Gulf War]] (Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm) gave the vehicle better firepower and NBC (Nuclear, Biological and Chemical) protection.
 
===Persian Gulf War===
[[File:Abrams in formation.jpg|thumb|Abrams tanks move out on a mission during [[Gulf War|Operation Desert Storm]] in 1991. A [[Bradley IFV]] and a logistics convoy can be seen in the background.]]
 
The Abrams remained untested in combat until the Persian [[Gulf War]] in 1991, during Operation Desert Storm. A total of 1,848 M1A1s were deployed to Saudi Arabia to participate in the liberation of Kuwait. The M1A1 was superior to Iraq's [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era [[T-54/T-55]] and [[T-62]] tanks, as well as [[T-72]] versions imported from the Soviet Union and Poland.<ref name="M1A1vsT-72p24">{{harvnb|Zaloga|Sarson|1993|p=24}}</ref> Polish officials stated that these no license-produced T-72 (nicknamed [[Lion of Babylon (tank)|Lion of Babylon]]) tanks were finished prior to destruction of the Iraqi Taji tank plant in 1991.<ref name="M1A1vsT-72p24" />
 
The T-72s, like most Soviet export designs, lacked [[Night-vision device|night-vision system]]s and then-modern [[Rangefinding telemeter|rangefinder]]s, though they did have some night-fighting tanks with older active infrared systems or floodlights. Very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire and none were destroyed as a direct result of enemy fire, none of which resulted in any fatalities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gao.gov/assets/220/215553.pdf|title=OPERATION DESERT STORM: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams|last=Wyden|first=Ron|date=January 1992|publisher=Government Accountability Office|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411232952/https://www.gao.gov/assets/220/215553.pdf|archive-date=11 April 2019|url-status=dead|access-date=5 July 2018}}</ref> Three Abrams were left behind the enemy lines after a swift attack on [[Ali Air Base|Talil airfield]], south of [[Nasiriyah]], on February 27. One of them was hit by enemy fire, the two other embedded in mud. The tanks were destroyed by U.S. forces in order to prevent any trophy-claim by the Iraqi Army.<ref>"One of the M1s is hit and disabled. The crew is extracted safely and the tank left behind, not before it is destroyed by the task force commander who fires two rounds into it. The first bounces off, the second penetrates and set it on fire[…]  The terrain is still causing problems. On the attack several vehicles get embedded in mud and can't be extracted. The problem is complicated by enemy missile and machine gun fire. Two tanks and two armored personnel carriers are destroyed and discarded."—Halberstadt, Hans: ''Desert Storm: Ground War''. Motorbooks International, 1991. p. 111.</ref> A total of 23 M1A1s were damaged or destroyed during the war. Of the nine Abrams tanks destroyed, seven were destroyed by friendly fire and two intentionally destroyed to prevent capture by the Iraqi Army. Some others took minor combat damage, with little effect on their operational readiness.<ref>[http://archive.gao.gov/d31t10/145879.pdf GAO/NSIAD-92-94, "Operation Desert Storm: Early performance assessment of Bradleys and Abrams"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614143539/http://archive.gao.gov/d31t10/145879.pdf|date=14 June 2007}}, p. 24. GAO, January 1992. Quote: "... 23 Abrams tanks were destroyed or damaged in the Persian Gulf area. Of the nine Abrams destroyed, seven were due to friendly fire, and two were intentionally destroyed to prevent capture after they became disabled. Other Abrams tanks were damaged by enemy fire, land mines, on-board fires, or to prevent capture after they became disabled."</ref>
 
The M1A1 could kill other tanks at ranges in excess of {{convert|2500|m}}. This range was crucial in combat against previous generation tanks of Soviet design in Desert Storm, as the effective range of the main gun in the Soviet/Iraqi tanks was less than {{convert|2000|m|ft}}. This meant Abrams tanks could hit Iraqi tanks before the enemy got in range—a decisive advantage in this kind of combat. In [[friendly fire]] incidents, the front armor and fore side [[gun turret|turret]] armor survived direct [[armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot]] (APFSDS) hits from other M1A1s. This was not the case for the side armor of the hull and the rear armor of the turret, as both areas were penetrated on at least two occasions by unintentional strikes by [[Depleted uranium#Ammunition|depleted uranium ammunition]] during the [[Battle of Norfolk]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A Company, 3–66 Armor, Abrams (Bumper # A-33) |work=TAB H – Friendly-fire Incidents |quote=At approximately 4:30 AM on 27 February, an anti-tank guided missile (probably fired from a Bradley) struck A-33 in the engine compartment. The crew, uninjured, was evacuating the disabled tank when two DU rounds hit the tank in the left side of the hull and exited through the right side. The tank commander, driver, and gunner sustained injuries from fragments. The loader, who was already outside the tank, was uninjured. A-31 crew members assisted in rescuing A-33's crew. |url=http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/du_ii_tabh.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601053948/http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/du_ii_tabh.htm |archive-date=1 June 2013}}; [http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/declassimages/army/19980729/980715_sep96_sagwi1_0083.html Sketch depicting the path of a DU 120&nbsp;mm round through the hull of Abrams C-12] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627054601/http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/declassimages/army/19980729/980715_sep96_sagwi1_0083.html |date=27 June 2009}}. OSD.</ref>
 
[[File:Destroyed M1A1 Abrams.jpg|thumb|right|A destroyed M1A1, hit in the rear grill by a [[AGM-114 Hellfire|Hellfire]] missile and penetrated by a [[sabot (firearms)|sabot]] tank round from the left side to right (see exit hole).]]
During operations [[Operation Desert Shield|Desert Shield]] and [[Desert Storm]] some M1IP and M1A1s were modified locally in theater (in the war zone) by modification work orders (MWO) with additional rolled homogeneous armor plating welded on the turret front.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} The M1 can be equipped with [[mine plow]] and [[mine roller]] attachments.
 
Lessons from the war improved the tank's weapons sights and fire control unit.
 
===Upgrades===
The M1A2 was a further improvement of the M1A1, with a commander's independent thermal viewer, weapon station, position navigation equipment, and a full set of controls and displays linked by a digital data bus. These upgrades also provided the M1A2 with an improved fire control system.<ref>Diaz, R. Gary. "Intervehicular Information System (IVIS): The Basis for a Tactical Information System", SAE Paper Number: 940982, General Dynamics, 1 March 1994.</ref> The M1A2 System Enhancement Package (SEP) added digital maps, Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below ([[FBCB2]]) Linux communications system capabilities for commanders, and an improved cooling system to compensate for heat generated by the additional computer systems.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2013/12.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505145701/http://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2013/12.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2015}}</ref>
 
The M1A2 SEP also serves as the basis for the [[M104 Wolverine]] heavy assault bridge. The M1A2 SEPv2 (version 2) added [[CROWS|Common Remotely Operated Weapon Station (CROWS or CROWS II)]] support, color displays, better interfaces, a new operating system, better front and side armor, and an upgraded transmission for better durability.<ref name="auto"/>
 
Further upgrades included depleted uranium armor for all variants, a system overhaul that returns all A1s to like-new condition (M1A1 AIM), a digital enhancement package for the A1 (M1A1D), and a commonality program to standardize parts between the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps (M1A1HC). Improvements to survivability, lethality, and protection have been sought since 2014.<ref name="g8.army.mil">{{cite web |url=http://www.g8.army.mil/pdf/Army_Equipment_Program2015.pdf |title=Army Equipment Program|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409104940/http://www.g8.army.mil/pdf/Army_Equipment_Program2015.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2015 |website=U.S. Army |date=May 2014}}</ref>
 
===Iraq War===
[[File:Abrams crossing Euphrates.JPG|thumb|An Abrams crossing the [[Euphrates River]] at Objective Peach on ribbon assault float bridge deployed by the 299th Engineer Company in 2003]]
 
Further combat was seen during 2003 when U.S. forces invaded Iraq and deposed Ba'athist Iraqi leader [[Saddam Hussein]] in the [[Iraq War]]'s Operation Iraqi Freedom. During the invasion, at least nine Abrams tanks were put out of action by fire from [[rocket propelled grenades]].<ref name="biddle">Biddle, Stephen.[https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/congress/2003_hr/03-10-21biddle.htm "On Operation Iraqi Freedom: Outside Perspectives", Statement Before The Committee On Armed Services, United States House Of Representatives, First Session, 108th Congress, 21 October 2003]</ref>
 
One achievement of the M1A1s was the destruction of seven T-72s in a point-blank skirmish (less than {{convert|50|yd}}) near Mahmoudiyah, about {{convert|18|mi|km|0}} south of Baghdad, with no U.S. losses.<ref>Conroy, Jason & Martz, Ron. ''Heavy Metal: A Tank Company's Battle To Baghdad''. Potomac Books, 2005, p. 158.</ref> This was in the face of inadequately trained Iraqi tank crews, most of whom had not fired live ammunition in the previous year due to the sanctions then in operation and made no hits at point-blank range.<ref name="biddle" /> In addition to the Abrams's heavy armament, some crews were also issued [[AT4|M136 AT4]] shoulder-fired anti-tank weapons under the assumption that they might have to engage heavy armor in tight urban areas where the main gun could not be brought to bear.
 
[[File:M1A1.jpg|thumb|right|A M1A1 conducts reconnaissance in Iraq, September 2004.]]
Following lessons learned in Desert Storm, the Abrams and many other U.S. combat vehicles used in the conflict were fitted with [[Combat Identification Panel]]s to reduce friendly fire incidents. These were fitted on the sides and rear of the turret, with flat panels equipped with a four-cornered 'box' image on either side of the turret front. Some Abrams tanks were also fitted with a secondary storage bin on the back of the existing [[bustle rack]] on the rear of the turret (referred to as a bustle rack extension) to enable the crew to carry more supplies and personal belongings.
 
Several Abrams tanks that were irrecoverable due to loss of mobility or other circumstances were destroyed by friendly forces, usually by other Abrams tanks, to prevent their capture.<ref>Zucchino, David: ''Thunder Run: The Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad''. Grove Press, 2004, pp. 20–30, 73.</ref> Some Abrams tanks were disabled by Iraqi infantrymen in [[ambush]]es during the invasion. Some troops employed short-range anti-tank rockets and fired at the tracks, rear and top. Other tanks were put out of action by engine fires when flammable fuel stored externally in turret racks was hit by small arms fire and spilled into the engine compartment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wlhoward.com/id554.htm#prof |title=Technical Intelligence Bulletins |publisher=Wlhoward.com |date=May–June 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312185039/http://www.wlhoward.com/id554.htm |archive-date=12 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=John P. |last=Conway |title=Abrams Tank Systems: Lessons Learned Operation Iraqi Freedom |url=http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/US-Field-Manuals/abrams-oif.pdf#prof |date=7 January 2004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905050811/http://fprado.com/armorsite/US-Field-Manuals/abrams-oif.pdf#prof |archive-date=5 September 2006}}</ref> By March 2005, approximately 80 Abrams tanks were forced out of action by enemy attacks;<ref name="casualties">Komarow, Steven. [https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2005-03-29-abrams-tank-a_x.htm "Tanks take a beating in Iraq"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318030456/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2005-03-29-abrams-tank-a_x.htm|date=18 March 2012}}. USA Today, 29 March 2005.</ref> 63 were restored, while 17 were damaged beyond repair<ref name="MGreen">{{cite book |last=Greem |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1P6jT8_yrgC&q=63+m1+abrams+destroyed+repaired&pg=PA99 |title=M1 Abrams at War 2005 |publisher=[[Zenith Press]] |isbn=0-7603-2153-1 |page=99 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920154119/https://books.google.com/books?id=M1P6jT8_yrgC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=63+m1+abrams+destroyed+repaired&source=bl&ots=U7DV0w-AUT&sig=_QHRI_vs7-vq_UFuFnXu7hYa1Ss&hl=es-419&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtvozh4-jRAhUE3SYKHanXAuw4ChDoAQgmMAU#v=onepage&q=63%20m1%20abrams%20destroyed%20repaired&f=false |archive-date=20 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> with 3 of them at the beginning of 2003.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 March 2003 |title=Najaf fighting 'heaviest so far' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2888633.stm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125052725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2888633.stm |archive-date=25 November 2016 |access-date=23 May 2020 |via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>
 
[[File:abrams-transparent.png|thumb|A M1A2 Abrams with prototype [[#Tank Urban Survival Kit|Tank Urban Survival Kit]] armor upgrade equipment and Common Remotely Operated Weapons Station (CROWS),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kongsberg.com/en/kps/products/remoteweaponstation/ |title=PROTECTOR Remote Weapon Station |publisher=Kongsberg Protech Systems |access-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005011421/http://www.kongsberg.com/en/kps/products/remoteweaponstation/ |archive-date=5 October 2013}}</ref> with a .50 caliber machine gun at the commander's station]]
Vulnerabilities exposed during urban combat in the [[Iraq War]] were addressed with the [[#Tank Urban Survival Kit|Tank Urban Survival Kit]] (TUSK) modifications, including armor upgrades and a gun shield, issued to some M1 Abrams tanks. It added protection in the rear and side of the tank and improved fighting ability and survival ability in urban environments.<ref name="USA_Today_TUSK">Komarow, Steven. [https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-03-29-tank-inside_x.htm "Tanks adapted for urban fights they once avoided"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822063215/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-03-29-tank-inside_x.htm |date=22 August 2011}}. ''USA Today'', 29 March 2005.</ref> By December 2006 more than 530 Abrams tanks had been shipped back to the U.S. for repairs and upgrades.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Army Battling To Save Equipment |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/04/AR2006120401347.html |url-status=live |access-date=11 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006084444/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/04/AR2006120401347.html |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>
 
In May 2008, it was reported that a U.S. M1 tank had also been damaged in Iraq by insurgent fire of a Soviet-made [[RPG-29]] "Vampir", which uses a [[tandem-charge]] [[high-explosive anti-tank]] warhead to penetrate [[explosive reactive armor]] (ERA) as well as composite armor behind it.<ref>{{cite news |title=Operation in Sadr City Is an Iraqi Success, So Far |author=Michael R. Gordon |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=21 May 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/21/world/middleeast/21sadr.html?_r=2&hp&oref=slogin&oref=slogin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623214243/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/21/world/middleeast/21sadr.html?_r=2&hp&oref=slogin&oref=slogin |archive-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> The U.S. considered the RPG-29 a high threat to armor and refused to allow the newly formed Iraqi Army to buy it, fearing that it would fall into the insurgents' hands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armytimes.com/legacy/new/0-ARMYPAPER-1722465.php |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719055905/http://www.armytimes.com/legacy/new/0-ARMYPAPER-1722465.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 July 2012 |work=ArmyTimes |title=Super RPG threat, Army passes on system that could defeat RPG-29, DoD officials say}}</ref>
 
===Iraqi Army service===
Between 2010 and 2012 the U.S. supplied 140 refurbished M1A1 Abrams tanks to Iraq. In mid-2014, they saw action when the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] launched the [[June 2014 Northern Iraq offensive]]. During three months, about one-third of the Iraqi Army's M1 tanks had been damaged or destroyed by ISIL and some were captured by opposing forces. By December 2014, the Iraqi Army only had about 40 operational Abrams left. That month, the [[U.S. Department of State]] approved the sale of another 175 Abrams to Iraq.<ref name="JanesRevealed">{{citation |first=Jeremy |last=Binnie |url=http://www.janes.com/article/39550/iraqi-abrams-losses-revealed |title=Iraqi Abrams losses revealed |publisher=Janes |date=20 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502182619/http://www.janes.com/article/39550/iraqi-abrams-losses-revealed |archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="ISIS maintenance">{{cite news |author1=Michael Pregent |author2=Michael Weiss |title=Exploiting the ISIS Vulnerabilities in Iraq |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/michael-pregent-and-michael-weiss-exploiting-the-isis-vulnerabilities-in-iraq-1407884145 |access-date=8 December 2015 |work=Wall Street Journal|date=12 August 2014 |quote=Yet ISIS does not have the highly trained maintenance crews that are necessary to keep these weapons in good working order. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210183148/http://www.wsj.com/articles/michael-pregent-and-michael-weiss-exploiting-the-isis-vulnerabilities-in-iraq-1407884145 |archive-date=10 December 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/12/22/agency-backs-more-abrams-for-iraq-in-isis-fight/ Agency Backs More Abrams for Iraq in ISIS Fight] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223200538/http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/12/22/agency-backs-more-abrams-for-iraq-in-isis-fight/ |date=23 December 2014}} – DoDBuzz.com, 22 December 2014</ref>
 
Iranian-backed Iraqi Shiite [[Kata'ib Hezbollah]] (Hezbollah Brigades) were reported to operate M1 Abrams, and released publicity showing the tanks being transported by trucks to take part in the [[Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)|Battle of Mosul]]. It is not known whether the tanks were captured from ISIS, seized from Iraq's military, or handed over.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/10/hezbollah-brigades-rushes-troops-to-mosul-fight.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805155447/http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/10/hezbollah-brigades-rushes-troops-to-mosul-fight.php|url-status=dead|title=Hezbollah Brigades hurries troops to Mosul fight &#124; FDD's Long War Journal|archive-date=5 August 2017|website=www.longwarjournal.org|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref>
 
One Iraqi-operated Abrams has been nicknamed "The Beast" after it became the lone working tank when taking back the town of [[Hit, Iraq|Hit]] in April 2016, destroying enemy fighting positions and IED emplacements.<ref>[http://www.military.com/daily-news/2016/04/13/the-beast-of-hit-abrams-tank-plays-role-iraqi-fight-against-isis.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm The 'Beast of Hit,' Abrams Tank Plays Role in Iraqi Fight against ISIS] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417101351/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2016/04/13/the-beast-of-hit-abrams-tank-plays-role-iraqi-fight-against-isis.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm |date=17 April 2016}} – Military.com, 13 April 2016</ref>
 
In October 2017, Abrams were used by the [[Iraqi security forces]] and the [[Popular Mobilization Forces]] (also called Al-Hashd al-Shaabi) in assaults against the [[Kurdistan Regional Government]] [[Peshmerga]] in the town of [[Altun Kupri]] (also called Prde). It was claimed by Kurdish commanders that at least one Abrams was destroyed by the Peshmerga.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/20102017 |title=Rudaw – Iraqi army, Shiite militia and Peshmerga exchange heavy fire north of Kirkuk |access-date=20 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020191550/http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/20102017 |archive-date=20 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===War in Afghanistan===
Tanks may have limited utility in Afghanistan due to the mountainous terrain, although Canada and Denmark deployed [[Leopard C1|Leopard 1]] and [[Leopard 2|2]] MBTs that were specially modified to operate in the relatively flat and arid conditions of southwestern Afghanistan. In late 2010, at the request of [[Regional Command Southwest]], the U.S. Marine Corps deployed a small detachment of 14 M1A1 Abrams tanks from [[1st Tank Battalion|Delta Company, 1st Tank Battalion]], [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine Division]] (Forward),<ref>[http://www.usmc.mil/unit/1stmardiv/Pages/MarinetankspreparefortheirfirstmissionsinAfghanistan.aspx Marine tanks prepare for their first missions in Afghanistan]. U.S. Marine Corps, 18 January 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016001743/http://www.usmc.mil/unit/1stmardiv/Pages/MarinetankspreparefortheirfirstmissionsinAfghanistan.aspx |date=16 October 2014}}</ref> to southern Afghanistan in support of operations in Helmand and Kandahar provinces.<ref>[http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=61767 U.S. Tanks En Route to Southwestern Afghanistan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110530031550/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=61767 |date=30 May 2011}}. American Forces Press Service, 19 November 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2011.</ref>
 
===2015 Yemen Civil War===
After the start of the [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen|Saudi Arabian intervention in Yemen]] during the [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)|2015 Yemeni Civil War]], Saudi Arabian M1A2 MBTs were deployed near the Saudi Arabian/[[Yemen]]i border.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} In August 2016, the U.S. approved a deal to sell up to 153 more Abrams tanks to Saudi Arabia, including 20 "battle damage replacements", suggesting that some Saudi Arabian Abrams had been destroyed or severely damaged in combat in Yemen.<ref>[http://www.defenseone.com/business/2016/08/us-tank-deal-exposes-saudi-losses-yemen-war/130623/?oref=d-river Saudi Losses in Yemen War Exposed by US Tank Deal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811005655/http://www.defenseone.com/business/2016/08/us-tank-deal-exposes-saudi-losses-yemen-war/130623/?oref=d-river |date=11 August 2016}} – Defenseone.com, 9 August 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/kingdom-saudi-arabia-m1a2s-saudi-abrams-main-battle-tanks-and-m88ala2-heavy|title=Kingdom of Saudi Arabia – M1A2S Saudi Abrams Main Battle Tanks and M88Al/A2 Heavy Equipment Recovery Combat Utility Lift Evacuation System (HERCULES) Armored Recovery Vehicles (ARV)|publisher=Defense Security Cooperation Agency|date=9 August 2016|access-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913101846/http://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/kingdom-saudi-arabia-m1a2s-saudi-abrams-main-battle-tanks-and-m88ala2-heavy|archive-date=13 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenseone.com/business/2016/08/us-tank-deal-exposes-saudi-losses-yemen-war/130623/|title=Saudi Losses in Yemen War Exposed by US Tank Deal|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810160324/http://www.defenseone.com/business/2016/08/us-tank-deal-exposes-saudi-losses-yemen-war/130623/|archive-date=10 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
==Production==
===Production shutdown===
{{Update|section|date=January 2017}}
The U.S. Army planned to end production at the [[Lima Army Tank Plant]] from 2013 to 2016 in an effort to save over $1 billion; it would be restarted in 2017 to upgrade existing tanks. General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS), which operates the factory, opposed the move, arguing that suspension of operations would increase long-term costs and reduce flexibility.<ref name="DODbuzz">{{cite web |first=Philip |last=Ewing |url=http://www.dodbuzz.com/2011/04/21/the-tank-at-the-end-of-history/#ixzz1KFgG9QisDoDBuzz.com |title=The tank at the end of history |work=DoD Buzz |publisher=Military.com |date=21 April 2011 |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425023027/http://www.dodbuzz.com/2011/04/21/the-tank-at-the-end-of-history/#ixzz1KFgG9QisDoDBuzz.com |archive-date=25 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Support Abrams">{{cite web |url=http://www.supportabrams.com/ |title=Support Abrams |publisher=General Dynamic Land Systems |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410010850/http://www.supportabrams.com/ |archive-date=10 April 2011}}</ref> Specifically, GDLS estimated that closing the plant would cost $380 million and restarting production would cost $1.3 billion.<ref name="re-opening">{{cite news |title=Lighter, Yet Deadlier |work=Defense News |publisher=Gannett Government Media Corporation |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=7184244&c=FEA&s=TEC |access-date=24 July 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130110190447/http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=7184244&c=FEA&s=TEC |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2013}}</ref>
 
By August 2013, Congress had allocated $181 million for buying parts and upgrading Abrams systems to mitigate industrial base risks and sustain development and production capability. Congress and General Dynamics were criticized for redirecting money to keep production lines open and accused of "forcing the Army to buy tanks it didn't need." General Dynamics asserted that a four-year shutdown would cost $1.1–1.6 billion to reopen the line, depending on the length of the shutdown, whether machinery would be kept operating, and whether the plant's components would be completely removed.<ref name="nationaldefensemagazine.org">[http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2013/October/Pages/OverArmyObjections,IndustryandCongressPartnertoKeepAbramsTankProduction'Hot'.aspx "Over Army Objections, Industry and Congress Partner to Keep Abrams Tank Production 'Hot'"]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}. ''National Defense Magazine'', October 2013.</ref>
 
They contended that the move was to upgrade Army National Guard units to expand a "pure fleet" and maintain production of identified "irreplaceable" subcomponents. A prolonged shutdown could cause their makers to lose their ability to produce them and foreign tank sales were not guaranteed to keep production lines open. There is still risk of production gaps even with production extended through 2015. With funds awarded before recapitalization is needed, budgetary pressures may push planned new upgrades for the Abrams from 2017 to 2019.<ref name="nationaldefensemagazine.org"/>
 
In December 2014, Congress again allocated $120 million, against the wishes of the Army, for Abrams upgrades including improving gas mileage by integrating an [[auxiliary power unit]] (APU) to decrease idle time fuel consumption and upgrading the tank's sights and sensors.<ref>[http://www.military.com/daily-news/2014/12/18/congress-again-buys-abrams-tanks-the-army-doesnt-want.html?comp=7000023435630&rank=8 Congress Again Buys Abrams Tanks the Army Doesn't Want] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224191739/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2014/12/18/congress-again-buys-abrams-tanks-the-army-doesnt-want.html?comp=7000023435630&rank=8 |date=24 December 2014}} – Military.com, 18 December 2014</ref>
 
In late 2016, tank production/refurbishment had fallen to a rate of one per month with less than 100 workers on site. In 2017, the Trump administration made rebuilding the military a priority. It was reported in 2018 that the Army had ordered 135 tanks re-built to new standards with employment at over 500 workers and expected to rise to 1,000.<ref>{{cite web |first=Loren|last=Thompson|title=How President Trump Saved The Last Tank Plant In America|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2018/11/02/how-president-trump-saved-the-last-tank-plant-in-america/?sh=19380d4a3d01|work=Forbes|date=2 November 2018|access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref>
 
===Future plans===
During the 1980s and 1990s, the Block III main battle tank from the [[Armored Systems Modernization]] (ASM) program was expected to succeed the M1 Abrams family in the 1990s. The design had an unmanned turret with a 140&nbsp;mm main gun, as well as improved protection. The end of Cold War hostilities caused the end of the program. The tracked [[M8 Armored Gun System]] was conceived as a possible supplement for the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict in the early 1990s. Prototypes were made but the program was canceled. The eight-wheeled [[M1128 Mobile Gun System]] was designed to supplement the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflicts.<ref name=replace>{{cite book |title=Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter, Volume 30 |year=2004 |publisher=Asia-Pacific Defence Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEG6AAAAIAAJ&q=%22UK's+Challenger+11+were+indispensable+elements+in+the%22 |access-date=2 April 2011}}</ref> It has been introduced into service and serves with Stryker brigades.
 
The U.S. Army's [[Future Combat Systems]] [[Future Combat Systems Manned Ground Vehicles#XM1202 Mounted Combat System|XM1202 Mounted Combat System]] was to replace the Abrams in U.S. service and was in development when funding for the program was cut from the [[United States Department of Defense|DoD's]] budget.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}}
 
Engineering Change Proposal 1 is a two-part upgrade process. ECP1A adds space, weight, and power improvements and active protection against [[improvised explosive device]]s. Nine ECP1A prototypes have been produced as of October 2014. ECP1B, which will begin development in 2015, may include sensor upgrades and the convergence of several tank round capabilities into a multi-purpose round.<ref name="ECP1A AUSA">{{cite news|last1=Wasserbly|first1=Daniel|title=AUSA 2014: Army outlines upcoming combat vehicle choices|url=http://www.janes.com/article/44473/ausa-2014-army-outlines-upcoming-combat-vehicle-choices|work=IHS Jane's International Defence Review|date=14 October 2014|quote=ECP1A for Abrams, which just completed a 'critical design review', and includes design efforts to incorporate data links for future ammunition, increased protection, as well as on-board diagnostics and a shift from line replaceable units (LRUs) to line replaceable modules (LRMs). LRMs are easier to replace because there are fewer cables, boxes, and cards to handle. |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429105740/http://www.janes.com/article/44473/ausa-2014-army-outlines-upcoming-combat-vehicle-choices|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref>
 
The Army anticipates that the remaining M1A1 fleet will remain in U.S. service until at least 2021, and the M1A2 to beyond 2050.<ref>{{cite journal |title=General Dynamics Land Systems M1/M1A1/M1A2 Abrams MBT (United States), MBTs and medium tanks |url=http://articles.janes.com/articles/Janes-Armour-and-Artillery/General-Dynamics-Land-Systems-M1-M1A1-M1A2-Abrams-MBT-United-States.html |publisher=Jane's Information Group |journal=Jane's Armour and Artillery |access-date=1 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811211745/http://articles.janes.com/articles/Janes-Armour-and-Artillery/General-Dynamics-Land-Systems-M1-M1A1-M1A2-Abrams-MBT-United-States.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref>
 
The M1A3 Abrams was in the early design period with the U.S. Army in 2009. At that time, the service was seeking a lighter tank version with the same protection as current versions. It aimed to build prototypes by 2014 and begin fielding the first combat-ready M1A3s by 2017.<ref name="Armylooking2009">{{cite web|author=Osborn, Kris |url=http://www.armytimes.com/news/2009/09/SATURDAY_army_tanks_092609w/ |title=Army looking into lighter Abrams tank |work=Army Times |date=26 September 2009 |access-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721234148/http://www.armytimes.com/news/2009/09/SATURDAY_army_tanks_092609w/ |archive-date=21 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/09/marine_abrams_092709w/ |title=New Army tank could mean changes for M1A1 fleet |work=Marine Corps Times |date=30 September 2009 |access-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910022204/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/09/marine_abrams_092709w/ |archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref>{{update after|2019|6|17}} In March 2017, it was reported that the new version, the M1A2 SEP v4, is to begin testing in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scout.com/military/warrior/story/1745414-army-plans-new-tank-after-abrams-2030s |title=Army Plans New Tank After Abrams – 2030s|date=1 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323060412/http://www.scout.com/military/warrior/story/1745414-army-plans-new-tank-after-abrams-2030s |archive-date=23 March 2017 |first=Kris|last=Osborn}}</ref> Additionally an all new version for the U.S. Army has been in planning and development for several years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/the-us-army-has-big-plans-new-super-tank-lasers-included-19045|title=The U.S. Army Has Big Plans for a New Super Tank (Lasers Included)|first=Kris|last=Osborn|website=The National Interest|date=13 January 2017|access-date=12 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928003420/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/the-us-army-has-big-plans-new-super-tank-lasers-included-19045|archive-date=28 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
As of 2020, the Marine Corps has been pursuing a force restructuring plan named Force 2030. Under this directive all US Marine tank battalions are to be deactivated and its M1A1 tanks transferred to the Army by the end of 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2020/mar/30/marine-corps-cuts-helicopters-tanks-possible-china/ |title=Marine Corps cuts helicopters, tanks for possible China conflict |work=The Washington Times |last=Wolfgang |first=Ben |date=30 March 2020 |access-date=30 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/flashpoints/2020/03/26/the-marines-want-to-get-rid-of-their-tanks-heres-why/ |title=The Marines want to get rid of their tanks. Here's why. |work=Marine Corps Times |last=Snow |first=Shaun |date=26 March 2020 |access-date=30 August 2021 }}</ref>
 
==Design==
 
===Countermeasures===
 
====Camouflage====
{{further|Military camouflage}}
[[File:M1A1 Twin Bridges training area 2C Republic of Korea 1-23 Infantry.jpg|thumb|U.S. M1A1s during the [[Foal Eagle]] 1998 training exercises in [[South Korea]], with their factory single green paint scheme]]
[[File:Armoured vehicles parading through Darwin on 25 April 2015.jpg|thumb|right|M1A1 in the Australian Army's Disruptive Pattern Camouflage, used for vehicles and [[materiel]]]]
 
Earlier U.S. military vehicles, used from [[World War I]] through the [[Vietnam War]], used a scheme of "olive drab", often with large white stars. Prototypes, early production M1 (105&nbsp;mm gun) and M1-IP models switched to a flat forest green paint scheme. The large white insignia stars have also transitioned to much smaller black markings. Some units painted their M1s with the older Mobility Equipment Research and Design Command (MERDC) 4-color paint scheme but the turn-in requirements for these tanks required repainting them to overall forest green. Therefore, even though a large number of the base model M1s were camouflaged in the field, few or none exist today.
 
M1A1s came from the factory with the NATO three color camouflage Black/Med-Green/Dark-Brown [[Chemical Agent Resistant Coating]] (CARC) paint jobs.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} Today M1A1s are given the NATO three color paint job during rebuilds. M1s and M1A1s deployed to [[Operation Desert Storm]] were hastily painted [[desert tan]]. Some, but not all, of these tanks were re-painted to their "authorized" paint scheme. M1A2s built for Middle Eastern countries were painted in desert tan. Replacement parts (roadwheels, armor skirt panels, drive sprockets, etc.) are painted olive green, which can sometimes lead to vehicles with a patchwork of green and desert tan parts.
 
Australian M1A1s were desert tan when delivered but have undergone a transition to the Australian Army vehicle standard 'Disruptive Pattern Camouflage'; a scheme that consists of black, olive drab, and brown.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jason |last=Miller |url=http://www.mheaust.com.au/Aust/Research/Abrams.htm |title=Australian Military Vehicles Research -Disruptive Pattern Camouflage for the Australian Abrams M1A1 AIM SA (as at 2010) |publisher=Mheaust.com.au |access-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706110249/http://www.mheaust.com.au/Aust/Research/Abrams.htm |archive-date=6 July 2011 }}{{self-published source|date=July 2011}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=July 2011}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Australian Government, Department of Defence |url=http://www.defence.gov.au/media/download/2010/may/20100513/index.htm |title=Exercise Chong Ju – Desert tan vs Auscam Abrams |publisher=Defence.gov.au |date=13 May 2010 |access-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729121247/http://www.defence.gov.au/media/download/2010/may/20100513/index.htm |archive-date=29 July 2012}}</ref>
 
The U.S. Army can equip its Abrams tanks with the Saab Barracuda [[Multi-spectral camouflage|camouflage system]], which provides concealment against visual, infrared, thermal infrared, and broad-band radar detection.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}
 
====Concealment====
The turret is fitted with two six-barreled [[M250 grenade launcher|M250]] [[smoke grenade]] launchers (USMC M1A1s used an eight-barreled version), with one on each side. When deployed, the grenades [[Air burst|airburst]], creating a thick smoke that blocks both visual and [[Thermography|thermal imaging]]. The engine is also equipped with a smoke generator that is triggered by the driver. When activated, fuel is sprayed into the hot turbine exhaust, creating the thick smoke. However, due to the change from diesel as a primary fuel to the use of [[JP-8]], this system is disabled on most Abrams tanks today because of a slightly elevated risk of fire damage to the engine compartment.
 
====Armor====
[[File:M1A Abrams im Taunus.jpg|thumb|Tankers drive an M1A1 Abrams through the [[Taunus]] Mountains north of [[Frankfurt]] during Exercise Ready Crucible in February 2005.]]
[[File:Trident Juncture 18 - U.S. Marines advance on Folldal 4871351.jpg|thumb|U.S. Marines with the 2nd Tank Battalion, [[2nd Marine Division (United States)|2nd Marine Division]], advance on their eastern objective defended by opposing Spanish forces during Exercise Trident Juncture 18 near Dalholen, Norway, Nov. 3, 2018.]]
 
In July 1973, representatives from Chrysler and General Motors traveled to the United Kingdom, and were escorted by personnel from the [[Ballistic Research Laboratory]] and XM1 Project Manager Major General Robert J. Baer to witness the progress of British developed [[Chobham armor]].{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=177}} They observed the manufacturing processes required for the production of Chobham armor, which was an arrangement of metal plates, ceramic blocks and open space;<ref name=":1" /> and saw a proposed design for a new British vehicle utilizing it.
 
HEAT and sabot rounds enter the beginning layers of armor but are unable to penetrate the crew compartment. Ceramics have the ability to absorb a great deal of heat, and can blunt physical blows by cracking and deflecting the force. The remaining hot gasses and metal shrapnel spread out or settle in empty air pockets. Both contractors reevaluated their proposed armor configurations based upon the newly obtained data.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=178}}
 
This led to major changes in the General Motors XM1, the most prominent of which is the turret front changing from vertical to sloped armor. The Chrysler XM1 on the other hand retained its basic shape although a number of changes were made. The Ballistic Research Laboratory had to develop new armor combinations in order to accommodate the changes made by the contractors.{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=178}}
 
Similar to most other main battle tanks, the M1 Abrams feature composite armor only on the frontal aspect of the hull. However, the Abrams' turret features composite armoring across both the front and the sides. In addition, the side skirts of the frontal half of the hull are also made of composite, providing superior ballistic protection against chemical energy munitions such as HEAT rounds. The composition of the Abrams' composite armor consists of sandwiched plates of [[non-explosive reactive armor]] (NERA) between conventional steel plates. The NERA plates feature elasticity, allowing them to flex and distort upon perforation, disrupting the penetrating jets of shaped charges and providing more material and space for a kinetic round to pass through, thus providing increased protection compared to conventional steel armor of similar weight.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
 
For the base model M1 Abrams, [[Steven Zaloga|Steven J. Zaloga]] gives a frontal armor estimate of 350&nbsp;mm vs armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot (APFSDS) and 700&nbsp;mm vs [[high-explosive anti-tank warhead]] (HEAT) in ''M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982–1992'' (1993).<ref name="Zaloga_Sarson_9-10">{{harvnb|Zaloga|Sarson|1993|pp=9–10}}: Zaloga gives another set of figures in this book 350mm against APFSDS and 700mm vs HEAT.</ref> In ''M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural'' (2009), he uses Soviet estimates of 470&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 650&nbsp;mm vs HEAT for the base model Abrams. He also gives the Soviet estimates for the M1A1, 600&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS, and 700&nbsp;mm vs HEAT.<ref name="T-72vsM1">{{harvnb|Zaloga|2009|p=15}}: Author mentions that a Soviet report estimated the protection of the basic M1 to be equivalent to 470&nbsp;mm steel armor against armor-piercing rounds and equivalent to 650&nbsp;mm steel armor against shaped charge warheads.</ref>
 
Armor protection was improved by implementing a new special armor incorporating [[depleted uranium]] and other undisclosed materials and layouts.<ref name=":1" /> This was introduced into the M1A1 production starting October 1988. This new armor increased effective armor particularly against [[Kinetic energy penetrator|kinetic energy rounds]]{{sfn|Hunnicutt|2015|p=245}} but at the expense of adding considerable weight to the tank, as depleted uranium is 1.7&nbsp;times denser than [[lead]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm |title=BBC: US to use depleted uranium |work=BBC News |date=18 March 2003 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519090657/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm |archive-date=19 May 2009}}</ref>
 
The first M1A1 tanks to receive this upgrade were tanks stationed in Germany. US-based tank battalions participating in [[Operation Desert Storm]] received an emergency program to upgrade their tanks with depleted uranium armor immediately before the onset of the campaign. M1A2 tanks uniformly incorporate depleted uranium armor, and all M1A1 tanks in active service have been upgraded to this standard as well.<ref>Clancy, Tom: ''Armored Cav: A Guided Tour of an Armored Cavalry Regiment''. Berkeley Books, 1994, p. 58.</ref> This variant was designated as the M1A1HA (HA for Heavy Armor).<ref name="Zaloga_Sarson_11">{{harvnb|Zaloga|Sarson|1993|p=11}}</ref>
 
The M1A1 AIM, M1A2 SEP and all subsequent Abrams models feature depleted uranium in both the hull and turret armor.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2006|title=The Army's Future Combat Systems Program and Alternatives|url=https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/ftpdocs/74xx/doc7461/08-02-army.pdf|journal=Congressional Budget Office Study|page=67}}</ref> Each Abrams variant after the M1A1 have been equipped with depleted uranium armor of different generations. The M1A1HA uses 1st generation armor, while the M1A2 and M1A1HC use 2nd generation depleted uranium. The M1A2 SEP variants have been equipped with third generation depleted uranium armor combined with a graphite coating. The M1A2C also features increased physical line-of-sight turret armor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://taskandpurpose.com/m1-abrams-tank-m1a2c|title=Here's your first look at the Army's new M1 Abrams variant|date=26 February 2019|website=Task & Purpose|language=en|access-date=6 June 2019}}</ref>
 
For the M1A1HA, Zaloga gives a frontal armor estimate of 600&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 1300&nbsp;mm vs HEAT in ''M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982–1992'', nearly double the original protection of the Abrams.<ref name="Zaloga_Sarson_11" /> In ''M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural'', he uses different estimates of 600&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 700&nbsp;mm vs HEAT for the front hull and 800&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 1300&nbsp;mm vs HEAT for the front of the turret.<ref name="T-72vsM1" /> The protection of M1A2 SEP is a frontal turret armor estimate of 940–960&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 1,320–1,620 vs HEAT, glacis estimate of 560–590&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 510–1,050 vs HEAT, and lower front hull estimate of 580–650&nbsp;mm vs APFSDS and 800–970 vs HEAT<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm|title=Main Battle Tank – M1, M1A1, and M1A2 Abrams|last=Prado|first=Fabio|website=www.fprado.com|access-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122160212/http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm|archive-date=22 November 2016}}</ref>
 
In 1998, a program was begun to incorporate improved turret side armor into the M1A2. This was intended to offer better protection against rocket-propelled grenades more modern than the baseline RPG-7. These kits were installed on about 325 older M1A2 tanks in 2001-2009 and it was also included in upgraded tanks.{{sfn|Zaloga|1993|p=48}}
 
The Abrams may also be fitted with explosive [[reactive armor]] over the track skirts if needed (such as the Tank Urban Survival Kit)<ref name=Army_TUSK_upgrades/> and [[slat armor]] over the rear of the tank and rear fuel cells to protect against [[Anti-tank missile|ATGMs]]. Protection against [[spall]]ing is provided by a [[kevlar]] liner.
 
====Damage control====
The tank has a [[gaseous fire suppression|halon firefighting]] system to automatically extinguish fires in the crew compartment. The engine compartment has a firefighting system that is engaged by pulling a T-handle located on the left side of the hull. The Halon gas can be dangerous to the crew.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0634.html |title=NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards |publisher=CDC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818091459/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0634.html |archive-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> However, the toxicity of Halon 1301 gas at 7% concentration is much less than the combustion products produced by fire in the crew compartment, and CO<sub>2</sub> dump would be lethal to the crew.<ref name="The_Chieftain">{{Citation|last=The_Chieftain|title=Chieftain Chats Abrams|date=14 October 2018|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aladW_D4nKU|access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref>
 
The crew compartment also contains small hand-held [[fire extinguisher]]s. Fuel and ammunition are stored in armored compartments with [[blowout panel]]s to protect the crew from the risk of the tank's own ammunition [[cooking off]] (exploding) if the tank is damaged. The main gun's ammunition is stored in the rear section of the turret, with blast doors that open under power by sliding sideways only to remove a round for firing, then automatically close. Doctrine mandates that the ammunition door must be closed before arming the main gun.<ref name="The_Chieftain"/>
 
====Tank Urban Survival Kit====
[[File:OCPA-2005-03-09-165522.jpg|thumb|A M1A2 with TUSK]]
[[File:M1A1 Abrams with Integrated Management System new Tank Urban Survivability Kit Dec. 2007.jpg|thumb|A M1A1 Abrams with an Abrams Integrated Management System (AIM) and the Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK) conducting a patrol in Baghdad, 2007]]
 
The '''Tank Urban Survival Kit''' (TUSK) is a series of improvements to the M1 Abrams intended to improve fighting ability in urban environments.<ref name="TUSK_Defense AT">Cramer, Eric W. [http://www.dau.mil/pubs/dam/07_08_2005/new_ja05.pdf "TUSK to Update Abrams for Urban Battle"]. Defense AT&L: July–August 2005. {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name=Army_TUSK_upgrades>{{cite web |url=https://www.army.mil/article/7495/modified-m1-a2-abrams-tanks-improve-safety-precision |title=Modified M1-A2 Abrams Tanks Improve Safety, Precision |access-date=22 July 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515232734/http://www.army.mil/article/7495/modified-m1-a2-abrams-tanks-improve-safety-precision |archive-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> Historically, urban and other close battlefields have been poor places for tanks to fight. A tank's front armor is much stronger than that on the sides, top, or rear. In an urban environment, attacks can come from any direction, and attackers can get close enough to reliably hit weak points in the tank's armor or gain sufficient elevation to hit the top armor.
 
Armor upgrades include [[reactive armor]] on the sides of the tank and [[slat armor]] (similar to that on the [[Stryker]]) on the rear to protect against [[rocket-propelled grenade]]s and other shaped charge warheads. A [[Transparent Armor Gun Shield]] and a thermal sight system are added to the loader's top-mounted M240B 7.62&nbsp;mm machine gun, and a [[Kongsberg Gruppen]] Remote Weapon Turret carrying a 12.7&nbsp;mm (.50 in) caliber machine gun (again similar to that used on the Stryker) is in place of the tank commander's original 12.7&nbsp;mm (.50 in) caliber machine gun mount, wherein the commander had to expose himself to fire the weapon manually. An exterior [[telephone]] allows supporting infantry to communicate with the tank commander.
 
The TUSK system is a field-installable kit that allows tanks to be upgraded without needing to be recalled to a maintenance depot. While the reactive armor may not be needed in most situations, like those present in [[maneuver warfare]], items like the rear slat armor, loader's gun shield, [[Tank phone|infantry phone]] (which saw use on Marine Corps M1A1s as early as 2003), and Kongsberg Remote Weapons Station for the 12.7&nbsp;mm (.50&nbsp;in) caliber machine gun will be added to the entire M1A2 fleet over time.
 
In August 2006, General Dynamics Land Systems received a U.S. Army order for 505 Tank Urban Survivability Kits (TUSK) for Abrams main battle tanks supporting operations in Iraq, under a US$45&nbsp;million contract. Deliveries were expected to be completed by April 2009.<ref name="TUSK_def_update">{{cite web|url=http://defense-update.com/products/t/tusk.htm|title=Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK)|access-date=11 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013121147/http://defense-update.com/products/t/tusk.htm |archive-date=13 October 2014}}</ref> Under a separate order, the U.S. Army awarded General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products (GDATP) US$30 million to produce reactive armor kits to equip M1A2s. The reactive tiles for the M1 will be locally produced at GDATP's Burlington Technology Center.<ref name="TUSK_def_update" />
 
Tiles will be produced at the company's reactive armor facility in Stone County Operations, McHenry, Mississippi. In December 2006, the U.S. Army added Counter Improvised Explosive Device enhancements to the M1A1 and M1A2 TUSK, awarding GDLS $11.3&nbsp;million contract, part of the $59&nbsp;million package mentioned above. In December, GDLS also received an order, amounting to around 40% of a US$48&nbsp;million order, for loader's thermal weapon sights being part of the TUSK system improvements for the M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams Tanks.<ref name="TUSK_def_update" />
 
====Active Protection System (APS)====
[[File:M1A1 Trophy Technology Demonstrator.jpg|thumb|The Trophy Active Protection System (APS) was installed and tested on a USMC M1A1 Abrams in 2017.]]
 
In addition to the armor, some USMC Abrams tanks{{update after|2021|4|30}} are equipped with a [[Active protection system#Softkill measures|Softkill Active protection system]], the AN/VLQ-6 Missile Countermeasure Device (MCD) that can impede the function of guidance systems of some semi-active control line-of-sight ([[SACLOS]]) [[wire-guided missile|wire]]- and [[command guidance|radio guided]] [[anti-tank missile]]s (such as the Russian [[9K114 Shturm]]) and [[infrared homing]] missiles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defense-update.com/features/du-1-04/soft-kill-west.htm |title=Defense Update.com |publisher=Defense Update.com |date=25 April 2006 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310041758/http://www.defense-update.com/features/du-1-04/soft-kill-west.htm |archive-date=10 March 2009}}</ref> The MCD works by [[Infrared countermeasure|emitting a massive, condensed infrared signal to confuse the infrared homing seeker]] of an [[anti-tank guided missile]] (ATGM).
 
However, the drawback to the system is that the ATGM is not destroyed, it is merely directed away from its intended target, leaving the missile to detonate elsewhere. This device is mounted on the turret roof in front of the loader's hatch, and can lead some people to mistake Abrams tanks fitted with these devices for the M1A2 version, since the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer on the latter is mounted in the same place, though the MCD is box-shaped and fixed in place as opposed to cylindrical and rotating like the CITV.
 
In 2016, the U.S. Army and Marine Corps began testing out the Israeli [[Trophy (countermeasure)|Trophy]] active protection system to protect their Abrams tanks from modern RPG and ATGM threats by either jamming (with ATGMs) or firing small rounds to deflect incoming projectiles.<ref>[https://news.usni.org/2016/04/14/walsh-marines-may-protect-tanks-with-active-and-ew-protection-systems-much-like-ship-self-defense Walsh: Marines May Protect Tanks With Active and EW Protection Systems, Much Like Ship Self-Defense] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414131211/https://news.usni.org/2016/04/14/walsh-marines-may-protect-tanks-with-active-and-ew-protection-systems-much-like-ship-self-defense |date=14 April 2016}} – News.USNI.org, 14 April 2016</ref> The Army planned to field a brigade of over 80 tanks equipped with Trophy to Europe in 2020.<ref>[http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/10/09/some-abrams-tanks-trophy-system-2020-army.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm Some Abrams Tanks Will Have 'Trophy' System By 2020: Army] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022416/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/10/09/some-abrams-tanks-trophy-system-2020-army.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm |date=11 October 2017}} – Military.com, 9 October 2017</ref> It is planned for up to 261 Abrams to be upgraded with the system, enough for four brigades.<ref>[https://breakingdefense.com/2018/05/all-armored-brigades-to-get-active-protection-systems-gen-milley/ All Armored Brigades To Get Active Protection Systems: Gen. Milley] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715011501/https://breakingdefense.com/2018/05/all-armored-brigades-to-get-active-protection-systems-gen-milley/ |date=15 July 2018}}. ''Breaking Defense''. 15 May 2018.</ref> In June 2018, the Army awarded [[Leonardo DRS]], U.S. partner to Trophy's designer [[Rafael Advanced Defense Systems|Rafael]], a $193 million contract to deliver the system in support of M1 Abrams "immediate operational requirements."<ref>[https://www.armytimes.com/news/2018/07/05/abrams-tanks-get-new-round-of-israeli-made-shields-to-fend-off-anti-tank-weapons/ Abrams tanks get new round of Israeli-made ‘shields’ to fend off anti-tank weapons]. ''Army Times''. 6 July 2018.</ref> U.S. Army M1A2 SEP V2 Abrams tanks deployed to Germany in July 2020 fitted with Trophy systems.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} Deliveries to equip four tank brigades were completed in January 2021.<ref>[https://breakingdefense.com/2021/01/army-tries-again-to-protect-stryker-rafael-or-rheinmetall/ Army Tries (Again) To Protect Stryker: Rafael or Rheinmetall?]. ''Breaking Defense''. 8 January 2021.</ref>
 
===Armament===
 
====Primary====
 
=====M68A1 rifled gun=====
The main armament of the original model M1 and M1IP was the M68A1 105&nbsp;mm [[rifling|rifled]] [[tank gun]] firing a variety of [[Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot|armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot]], [[high-explosive anti-tank]], [[high explosive]], [[white phosphorus]] rounds and an [[anti-personnel]] (multiple [[flechette]]) round. This gun used a license-made tube of the British [[Royal Ordnance L7]] gun together with the vertical sliding breech block and other parts of the U.S. T254E2 prototype gun. However, it proved to be inadequate; a cannon with lethality beyond the {{convert|3|km|adj=on|sp=us|order=flip}} range was needed to combat newer armor technologies. To attain that lethality, the projectile diameter needed to be increased. The tank was able to carry 55 105&nbsp;mm rounds, with 44 stored in the turret blow-out compartment and the rest in hull stowage.
 
=====M256 smoothbore gun=====
[[File:US Army M1 Abrams exercise.ogv|thumb|right|M1 Abrams during a U.S. Army firing exercise, displaying internal crew cabin operations]]
[[File:M1A1 firing (48910313236).jpg|thumb|An M1A1 fires its main gun in 2019.]]
 
The main armament of the M1A1 and M1A2 is the M256A1 120&nbsp;mm smoothbore gun, designed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany, manufactured under license in the U.S. by [[Watervliet Arsenal]], [[New York (state)|New York]]. The M256A1 is a variant of the [[Rheinmetall 120&nbsp;mm gun|Rheinmetall 120&nbsp;mm L/44 gun]] carried on the German Leopard 2 on all variants up to the Leopard 2A5. Leopard 2A6 replaced the L/44 barrel with a longer L/55. Due to the increased caliber, only 40 or 42 rounds are able to be stored depending on if the tank is an A1 or A2 model.
* Elevation: −9 to +20 degree
 
The M256A1 fires a variety of rounds. The primary APFSDS round of the Abrams is the [[depleted uranium]] [[M829]] round, of which four variants have been designed. M829A1, known as the "Silver Bullet", saw widespread service in the Gulf War, where it proved itself against Iraqi armor such as the T-72. The [[M829#M829A2|M829A2]] APFSDS round was developed specifically as an immediate solution to address the improved protection of a [[Russia]]n [[T-72]], [[T-80]]U or [[T-90]] main battle tank equipped with [[Kontakt-5]] explosive reactive armor (ERA) as previous rounds were found to be incapable of defeating such armor.<ref>{{cite web |author=Fabio Prado |url=http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm |title=Main Battle Tank – M1, M1A1, and M1A2 Abrams |publisher=Fprado.com |access-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711022553/http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm |archive-date=11 July 2011}}</ref>
 
Later, the [[M829#M829A3|M829A3]] round was introduced to improve its effectiveness against next generation ERA equipped tanks, through usage of a multi-material penetrator and increased penetrator diameter that can resist the shear effect of K-5 type ERA.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} As a counter to that, the Russian army introduced [[Kontakt-5|Relikt]], the most modern Russian ERA, which is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt-5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.niistali.ru/article/exhib_08_en.htm# |title=RUSSIAN EXPO ARMS and International Defence Exhibition of Land Forces |website=niistali.ru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224100756/http://www.niistali.ru/article/exhib_08_en.htm%23 |archive-date=24 February 2008 |date=24 February 2008 |access-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Development of the M829 series is continuing with the M829A4 currently entering production, featuring advanced technology such as data-link capability.<ref>{{cite web|title=Next-Gen 120&nbsp;mm Tank Killer: ATK's M829E4 AKE|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Next-Gen-120mm-Tank-Killer-ATKs-M829E4-AKE-06995/|publisher=Defense Industry Daily|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716123723/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Next-Gen-120mm-Tank-Killer-ATKs-M829E4-AKE-06995/|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>
 
The Abrams also fires high-explosive anti-tank warhead [[shaped charge]] rounds such as the [[M830]], the latest version of which ([[M830#M830A1 HEAT MP-T|M830A1]]) incorporates a sophisticated multi-mode electronic sensing [[Fuse (explosives)|fuse]] and more fragmentation that allows it to be used effectively against armored vehicles, personnel, and low-flying aircraft. The Abrams uses a manual loader, who also provides additional support for maintenance, observation post/listening post (OP/LP) operations, and other tasks.
 
The new M1028 120&nbsp;mm anti-personnel [[Canister shot|canister]] cartridge was brought into service early for use in the [[Timeline of the Iraq War#2003|aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq]]. It contains 1,098 {{convert|3/8|in|adj=on}} tungsten balls that spread from the muzzle to produce a [[shotgun]] effect lethal out to {{convert|600|m|sp=us}}. The tungsten balls can be used to clear enemy dismounts, break up hasty ambush sites in urban areas, clear [[defile (geography)|defiles]], stop infantry attacks and counter-attacks and support friendly infantry assaults by providing covering fire. The canister round is also a highly effective breaching round and can level cinder block walls and knock man-sized holes in reinforced [[concrete]] walls for [[infantry]] raids at distances up to {{convert|75|m|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hilmes |first=Rolf |date=1 December 2004 |page=79 |title=Arming Future MBTs&nbsp;– Some Considerations |journal=Military Technology |publisher=Mönsch}}</ref>
 
Also in use is the M908 obstacle-reduction round. It is designed to destroy obstacles and barriers. The round is a modified M830A1 with the front fuse replaced by a steel nose to penetrate into the obstacle before detonation.<ref>[http://www.atk.com/products-services/m908-he-or-t-ammunition-120-mm-2/ "M908 HE-OR-T"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112033858/http://www.atk.com/products-services/m908-he-or-t-ammunition-120-mm-2/ |date=12 November 2014}}. ATK.com</ref>
 
The [[United States Army Research Laboratory|U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL)]] conducted a thermal analysis of the M256 from 2002 to 2003 to evaluate the potential of using a hybrid barrel system that would allow for multiple weapon systems such as the XM1111 Mid-Range munition, airburst rounds, or XM 1147. The test concluded that mesh density (number of elements per unit area) impacts accuracy of the M256 and specific densities would be needed for each weapon system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=South|first1=Joseph|last2=Carter|first2=Robert|date=August 2005|title=Thermal Analysis of an M256 120-mm Cannon|doi=10.21236/ada437279|publisher=Army Research Laboratory|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
The Army is developing a new round to replace the M830/M830A1, M1028, and M908. Called the Advanced Multi-Purpose (AMP) round, it will have point detonation, delay, and [[airburst round|airburst]] modes through an ammunition data-link and a multi-mode, programmable fuse in a single munition. Having one round that does the job of four would simplify logistics and be able to be used on a variety of targets. The AMP is to be effective against bunkers, infantry, light armor, and obstacles out to 500 meters, and will be able to breach reinforced concrete walls and defeat [[ATGM]] teams from 500 to 2,000 meters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2012armaments/TuesdayPaulHill.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=7 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114131039/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2012armaments/TuesdayPaulHill.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://www.army.mil/article/98946/Army_developing_new_120mm_AMP_tank_round/ Army developing new 120&nbsp;mm AMP tank round] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407084417/http://www.army.mil/article/98946/Army_developing_new_120mm_AMP_tank_round/ |date=7 April 2014}} – Army.mil, 19 March 2014</ref> [[Orbital ATK]] was awarded a contract to begin the first phase of development for the AMP [[XM1147]] High-Explosive Multi-Purpose with Tracer cartridge in October 2015.<ref>[http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20151008005038/en/Orbital-ATK-Awarded-16-Million-Develop-Generation Orbital ATK Awarded $16 Million to Develop Next Generation 120&nbsp;mm Tank Ammo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012025901/http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20151008005038/en/Orbital-ATK-Awarded-16-Million-Develop-Generation |date=12 October 2015}} – Businesswire.com, 8 October 2015</ref>
 
In addition to these, the [[XM1111 Mid-Range Munition|XM1111]] (Mid-Range-Munition Chemical Energy) was also in development. The XM1111 was a guided munition using a dual-mode seeker that combined imaging-infrared and semi-active laser guidance. The MRM-CE was selected over the competing MRM-KE, which used a rocket-assisted kinetic energy penetrator. The CE variant was chosen due to its better effects against secondary targets, providing a more versatile weapon. The Army hoped to achieve IOC with the XM1111 by 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clank Softly and Carry a Better Shillelagh|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/xm1111-clank-softly-and-carry-a-better-shillelagh-04544/|publisher=Defense Industry Daily|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607011307/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/xm1111-clank-softly-and-carry-a-better-shillelagh-04544/|archive-date=7 June 2011}}</ref> However, the Mid-Range Munition was cancelled in 2009 along with [[Future Combat Systems]].<ref>[http://www.soldiergeek.com/milblog/2011/7/11/atk-awarded-contract-to-develop-abrams-advanced-kinetic-ener.html "MRM cancelled"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109025524/http://www.soldiergeek.com/milblog/2011/7/11/atk-awarded-contract-to-develop-abrams-advanced-kinetic-ener.html |date=9 November 2011}}. Soldiergeek.com, 11 July 2011.</ref>
 
====Secondary====
[[File:M1 Abrams turret fire above.jpg|thumb|upright|A M1A1 firing its main gun as seen from the loader's hatch. The M240 is visible left while the M2 is visible right.]]
 
The Abrams tank has three [[machine gun]]s, with an optional fourth:
# A .50 cal. ([[.50 BMG|12.7 mm]]) [[M2 Browning|M2HB]] machine gun in front of the commander's hatch. On the M1 and M1A1, this gun is mounted on the Commander's Weapons Station. This allows the weapon to be aimed and fired from within the tank. Normal combat loadout for the M1A1 is a single 100-round box of ammo at the weapon, and another 900 rounds carried.  The later M1A2 variant had a 'flex' mount that required the tank commander to expose his or her upper torso in order to fire the weapon. In urban environments in Iraq, this was found to be unsafe. With the Common Remote Operated Weapons System ([[CROWS]]) add-on kit, an M2A1 .50 Caliber Machine gun, M240, or M249 SAW can be mounted on a CROWS remote weapons platform (similar to the [[Protector (RWS)|Protector M151]] remote weapon station used on the [[Stryker]] family of vehicles). Current variants of the Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK) on the M1A2 have forgone this, instead adding transparent gun shields to the commander's weapon station. The upgrade variant called the M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) equips the .50 caliber gun with a thermal sight for accurate night and other low-visibility shooting.<ref name="generaldynamics1">{{cite press release|url=http://generaldynamics.com/news/press_releases/2008/newsrelease%20september%205,%202008-3.htm |title=General Dynamics Awarded $34 Million for M1A1 Abrams Tank Upgrades |publisher=General Dynamics |date=5 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103064632/http://generaldynamics.com/news/press_releases/2008/NewsRelease%20September%205%2C%202008-3.htm |archive-date=3 January 2010 }}</ref>
# A [[7.62×51mm NATO|7.62 mm]] [[M240 machine gun]] in front of the loader's hatch on a skate mount (seen at right). Some of these were fitted with [[gun shield]]s during the Iraq War, as well as night-vision scopes for low-visibility engagements and firing.  This gun can be moved to the TC's position if the M2 .50 cal is damaged.
# A second 7.62&nbsp;mm M240 machine gun in a [[coaxial gun|coaxial]] mount (i.e., it points at the same targets as the main gun) to the right of the main gun. The coaxial MG is aimed and fired with the same computerized firing control system used for the main gun.  On earlier M1 and M1A1s, 3000 rounds are carried, all linked together and ready to fire.  In later models, this was reduced slightly to make room for new system electronics.  A typical 7.62mm combat loadout is between 10,000 and 14,000 rounds carried on each tank.
# (Optional) A second coaxial .50 cal. (12.7&nbsp;mm) M2HB machine gun can be mounted directly above the main gun in a remote weapons platform as part of the CSAMM (Counter Sniper Anti Material Mount) package.
 
====Aiming====
[[File:3rd ID M1A1 Abrams TC and Gunner 2008.jpg|thumb|A view of the gunner's station (bottom left) and commander's station (top right)]]
 
The Abrams is equipped with a ballistic [[fire-control system|fire-control computer]] that uses user and system-supplied data from a variety of sources to compute, display, and incorporate the three components of a ballistic solution—lead angle, ammunition type, and range to the target—to accurately fire the main gun. These three components are determined using a [[laser rangefinder]], crosswind sensor, a [[pendulum]] static cant sensor, data concerning performance and flight characteristics of each specific type of round, tank-specific boresight alignment data, ammunition temperature, air temperature, barometric pressure, a muzzle reference system (MRS) that determines and compensates for barrel drop at the muzzle due to gravitational pull and barrel heating due to firing or sunlight, and target speed determined by tracking rate tachometers in the Gunner's or Commander's Controls Handles.
 
All of these factors are computed into a ballistic solution and updated 30 times per second. The updated solution is displayed in the Gunner's or Tank Commander's field of view in the form of a reticle in both day and Thermal modes. The ballistic computer manipulates the turret and a complex arrangement of mirrors so that all one has to do is keep the reticle on the target and fire to achieve a hit. Proper lead and gun tube elevation are applied to the turret by the computer, greatly simplifying the job of the gunner.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
 
[[File:DA-SD-06-06814.jpg|thumb|left|A 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment soldier, assisting in the critical job of "boresighting" the alignment of all the tank's sights to the center of the axis of the bore of the main gun on an M1A1 Abrams in [[Mosul, Iraq]] in January 2005. Hand signals enable the gunner (inside the tank) to train the main gun onto a boresighting target.]]
The fire-control system uses this data to compute a [[firing solution]] for the gunner. The ballistic solution generated ensures a hit percentage greater than 95&nbsp;percent at nominal ranges.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} Either the commander or gunner can fire the main gun. Additionally, the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV) on the M1A2 can be used to locate targets and pass them on for the gunner to engage while the commander scans for new targets.
 
In the event of a malfunction or damage to the primary sight system, the main and coaxial weapons can be manually aimed using a telescopic scope [[Boresight (firearm)|boresighted]] to the main gun known as the Gunner's Auxiliary Sight (GAS). The GAS has two interchangeable [[reticle]]s; one for High-explosive anti-tank warhead and MPAT (MultiPurpose AntiTank) rounds and one for APFSDS (Armor Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot) and STAFF (Smart Target-Activated Fire and Forget) ammunition. Turret traverse and main gun elevation can be accomplished with manual handles and cranks in the event of a Fire Control System or Hydraulic System failure.
 
The commander's M2HB .50&nbsp;caliber machine gun on the M1 and M1A1 is aimed by a 3× magnification sight incorporated into the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS), while the M1A2 uses either the machine gun's own [[iron sights]], or a remote aiming system such as the [[Common Remotely Operated Weapon System|CROWS]] system when used as part of the [[Tank Urban Survival Kit|TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit)]]. The loader's M240 machine gun is aimed either with the built-in iron sights or with a thermal scope mounted on the machine gun.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
 
In late 2017, the 400 USMC M1A1 Abrams will be upgraded with better and longer-range sights on the Abrams Integrated Display and Targeting System (AIDATS) replacing the black-and-white camera view with a color one and adding day/night thermal sights, simplified handling with a single set of controls, and a slew to cue button that repositions the turret with a single command. Preliminary testing showed the upgrades reduced target engagement time from six seconds to three by allowing the commander and gunner to work more closely and collaborate better on target acquisition.<ref>[http://www.dodbuzz.com/2016/08/23/abrams-tank-upgrades-will-give-marines-killer-edge/ Abrams Tank Upgrades Will Give Marines ‘Killer Edge’] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824062936/http://www.dodbuzz.com/2016/08/23/abrams-tank-upgrades-will-give-marines-killer-edge/ |date=24 August 2016}} – DoDBuzz.com, 23 August 2016</ref><ref>[https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/articles/marines-m1a1-tanks-are-about-to-get-even-more-awesome Marines' M1A1 tanks: How an upgrade will help make them more lethal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827201232/https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/articles/marines-m1a1-tanks-are-about-to-get-even-more-awesome |date=27 August 2016}} – MarineCorpstimes.com, 26 August 2016</ref>
 
===Mobility===
 
====Tactical====
[[File:AGT1500 engine and M1 tank.JPEG|thumb|Marines from 1st Tank Battalion load a [[Honeywell AGT1500]] multi-fuel turbine back into the tank at Camp Coyote, Kuwait, February 2003.]]
 
The M1 Abrams's [[powertrain]] consists of a [[Honeywell]] [[Honeywell AGT1500|AGT1500]] (originally made by [[Lycoming Engines|Lycoming]]) [[multifuel]] [[gas turbine]] capable of {{convert|1500|shp|kW|sp=us}} at 30,000 [[Revolutions per minute|rpm]] and {{convert|395|lb·ft|Nm|abbr=on}} at 10,000 rpm, and a six-speed (four forward, two reverse) [[Allison Transmission|Allison]] X-1100-3B Hydro-Kinetic [[automatic transmission]], giving it a governed top speed of {{convert|45|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} on paved roads, and {{convert|30|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} cross-country. With the engine governor removed, speeds of around {{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} are possible on an improved surface. However, damage to the drivetrain (especially to the tracks) and an increased risk of injuries to the crew can occur at speeds above {{convert|45|mph|km/h|0|abbr=on}}.
 
The tank was built around this engine<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-17629659_ITM |title=Heavy duty: overhaul under way for Abrams tank engine |publisher=Accessmylibrary.com |date=1 September 2006 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111230441/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-17629659_ITM |archive-date=11 January 2009}}</ref> and it is multifuel–capable, including [[diesel fuel|diesel]], [[kerosene]], any grade of motor [[gasoline]], and [[jet fuel]] (such as [[JP-4]] or [[JP-8]]). For [[Military logistics|logistical]] reasons, JP-8 is the U.S. military's universal fuel powering both aircraft and vehicle fleets. The Australian M1A1 AIM SA burns diesel fuel, since the use of JP-8 is less common in the Australian Army.
 
[[File:M1a1 drivers hole.jpg|thumb|M1 driving controls]]
The gas turbine propulsion system has proven quite reliable in practice and combat, but its high fuel consumption is a serious logistic issue (starting up the turbine alone consumes nearly {{convert|10|USgal|L}} of fuel).<ref name="armorsite">{{cite web|author=Fabio Prado |url=http://64.26.50.215/armorsite/abrams.htm |title=Main Battle Tank – M1, M1A1, and M1A2 Abrams |publisher=64.26.50.215 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929135448/http://64.26.50.215/armorsite/abrams.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> The engine burns more than {{convert|1.67|USgal|L}} per mile ({{convert|60|USgal|L}} per hour) when traveling cross-country and {{convert|10|USgal|L}} per hour when idle.<ref name="Globalsecurity_m1-specs" />
 
The high speed, high temperature [[jet blast]] emitted from the rear of M1 Abrams tanks makes it hazardous for infantry to take cover or follow behind the tank in [[Urban warfare|urban combat]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-06-11/ch7.htm#par11 |title=FM 3-06-11, Chapter 7, section C-1 |publisher=United States military |quote=The extreme heat produced immediately to the rear of the M1-series tanks prevents dismounted infantry from following closely... |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104135933/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-06-11/ch7.htm#par11 |archive-date=4 January 2012}}</ref> The turbine is very quiet when compared to diesel engines of similar power output and produces a significantly different sound from a contemporary diesel tank engine, reducing the audible distance of the sound, thus earning the Abrams the nickname "whispering death" during its first [[Reforger]] exercise.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}
 
[[File:M1 strategic mobility.jpg|thumb|A Marine M1A1 offloading from [[Landing Craft Air Cushioned]] vehicle]]
The Army received proposals, including two diesel options, to provide the common engine for the [[XM2001 Crusader]] and Abrams. In 2000, the Army selected the gas turbine engine LV100-5 from Honeywell and subcontractor [[General Electric]].<ref name="Honeywell selected">{{cite news |last1=Dupont |first1=Daniel G. |title=Tanks Won't Be Converted to Diesel: Honeywell Turbine Engine Picked for Abrams Fleet, Crusader System |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43985032 |access-date=7 February 2022 |work=Inside the Army |issue=38 |publisher=Inside Washington Publishers |date=25 September 2000 |volume=12 |pages=1, 11|jstor=43985032 }}</ref> The new LV100-5 engine was lighter and smaller (43% fewer parts) with rapid acceleration, quieter running, and no visible exhaust.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geae.com/engines/military/lv100/index.html |title=GE – Aviation: LV100 |access-date=7 August 2008 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607052044/http://www.geae.com/engines/military/lv100/index.html |archive-date=7 June 2008}}</ref> It also featured a 33% reduction in fuel consumption (50% less when idle) and near drop-in replacement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geae.com/engines/military/lv100/spotlight_advantages.html |title=GE – Aviation: LV100 Advantages |access-date=7 August 2008 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618180930/http://www.geae.com/engines/military/lv100/spotlight_advantages.html |archive-date=18 June 2008}}</ref> The Common Engine Program was shelved when the Crusader program was canceled, however Phase 2 of Army's PROSE (Partnership for Reduced O&S Costs, Engine) program called for further development of the LV100-5 and replacement of the current AGT1500 engine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/aim-programs-m1a1-tank-refits-and-rebuilds-continue-0440/ |title=AIM Program's M1A1 Tank Refits and Rebuilds Continue |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com |date=2 May 2005 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714194319/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/aim-programs-m1a1-tank-refits-and-rebuilds-continue-0440/ |archive-date=14 July 2009}}</ref>
 
[[File:US Navy 031214-N-3236B-008 A Marine from the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit (13th MEU) Tank Platoon BLT 1-1 stationed at Twentynine Palms, Calif., directs an M1-A1 Abrams tank during a training exercise.jpg|thumb|A Marine M1A1 fitted with snorkel attachment and [[bustle rack]] extension]]
[[General Dynamics]] has been working on a drop-in [[diesel engine]] to replace the gas turbine engine. It is smaller than the turbine, 14% cheaper to operate per mile, and has a four-fan cooling system that is to greatly reduce the tank's heat signature.<ref>[http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2013/January/Pages/VendorsPourFundingIntoArmoredVehicleDevelopment.aspx "Diesel M1 engine"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904034738/http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2013/January/Pages/VendorsPourFundingIntoArmoredVehicleDevelopment.aspx |date=4 September 2015}}. Nationaldefensemagazine.com, January 2013. Retrieved: 17 December 2012.</ref> General Dynamics is offering the [[Tognum]] America/12V883 diesel engine with new Diehl 570P3 tracks. The engine represents advancements in diesel engine design since the Abrams was first designed, including a common rail fuel injector system where fuel is pressurized and atomized in the cylinder rather than mechanically sprayed.<ref name="defensemedianetwork.com">[http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/abrams-dieselization-project-a-modest-proposal/ Abrams Dieselization Project: A Modest Proposal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110185057/http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/abrams-dieselization-project-a-modest-proposal/ |date=10 November 2013}} – Defensemedianetwork.com, 5 November 2013</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">[http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/abrams-dieselization-project-doing-the-math/ Abrams Dieselization Project: Doing the Math] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110185059/http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/abrams-dieselization-project-doing-the-math/ |date=10 November 2013}} – Defensemedianetwork.com, 7 November 2013</ref>
 
It also has greater torque, an altered nuclear, biological, and chemical protection system that operates independently of the engine, uses less fuel while idle, is quieter, and gives off significantly less heat and pollutants. Incorporating the diesel engine into the Abrams would decrease the operating cost of an armored brigade combat team by 14 percent per mile, increase its operating range from 205 miles to 300+ miles, and use half the amount of fuel on a combat day than the turbine engine. The tracks are a version of the Leopard 2's tracks with different rubber pads and a larger center guide. The improved engine and tracks are not part of an Army upgrade program, but may be included in a near-term engineering change proposal (ECP) phase.<ref name="defensemedianetwork.com"/><ref name="ReferenceB"/>
 
An {{convert|220|lb|kg|adj=on}} [[Auxiliary Power Unit]] (APU) was designed by the Army's [[United States Army Tank Automotive Research, Development and Engineering Center|TARDEC]], replacing an existing battery pack that weighs about {{convert|500|lb|kg}}. It uses a high power density {{convert|330|cc|in3|abbr=on}} [[Wankel engine|Wankel rotary engine]] modified to use diesel and military grade jet fuel. The new APU will also be more fuel efficient than the tank's main engine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://engineeringtv.com/blogs/etv/archive/2008/07/08/tardec-auxiliary-power-unit-for-tank.aspx |title=TARDEC Auxiliary Power Unit for a tank |publisher=Engineeringtv.com |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621011057/http://engineeringtv.com/blogs/etv/archive/2008/07/08/tardec-auxiliary-power-unit-for-tank.aspx |archive-date=21 June 2009 }}</ref> Testing of the first APUs began in 2009.
 
[[File:White Falcons Integrate Armor Support for Combined Arms Live Fire Exercise in New Mexico 150930-A-DP764-009.jpg|thumb|82nd Airborne paratroopers ride an M1 Abrams tank]]
Although the M1 tank is not designed to carry riders easily, provisions exist for the Abrams to transport troops in [[tank desant]] with the turret stabilization device switched off. A battle equipped [[squad|infantry squad]] may ride on the rear of the tank, behind the turret. The soldiers can use ropes and equipment straps to provide handholds and snap links to secure themselves. If and when enemy contact is made, the tank conceals itself allowing the infantry to dismount.<ref name="passenger">{{cite book |title=U.S. Army Warrior Ethos And Combat Skills Handbook (Field Manual No. 3‑21.75) |year=2009 |publisher=Morris Book Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-1-59921-819-9 |url=https://rdl.train.army.mil/soldierPortal/atia/adlsc/view/public/24572-1/FM/3-21.75/ |chapter-url=https://rdl.train.army.mil/soldierPortal/atia/adlsc/view/public/24572-1/FM/3-21.75/chap7.htm |author=Department of the Army |access-date=2 June 2010 |chapter=7 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720003542/https://rdl.train.army.mil/soldierPortal/atia/adlsc/view/public/24572-1/FM/3-21.75/ |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref><!-- A statement about how often this is actually used would be good, if a source is available for that, thanks. -->
 
====Strategic====
[[File:DF-SD-06-12692.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Army M1A1 after being offloaded from a U.S. Air Force [[C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] at [[Balad Air Base]], [[Iraq]] in 2004]]
 
Strategic mobility is the ability of the tanks of an armed force to arrive in a timely, cost effective, and synchronized fashion. The Abrams can be carried by a [[C-5 Galaxy]] or a [[C-17 Globemaster III]]. The limited capacity (two combat-ready tanks in a C-5, one combat-ready tank in a C-17) caused serious logistical problems when deploying the tanks for the first Persian Gulf War, though there was enough time for 1,848 tanks to be transported by ship.
 
Marines transport their [[Marine Air Ground Task Force]] (MAGTF)-attached Abrams tanks by combat ship. A ''[[Wasp class amphibious assault ship|Wasp]]''-class [[Landing Helicopter Dock]] (LHD) typically carries a platoon of 4 to 5 tanks attached to the deployed [[Marine Expeditionary Unit]], which are then amphibiously transported to shore by [[Landing Craft Air Cushion]] (LCAC) at 1 combat-ready tank per landing craft.
 
The Abrams is also transportable by truck, namely the [[Oshkosh M1070]] and M1000 [[Heavy Equipment Transporter System]] (HETS) for the US Military. The HETS can operate on highways, secondary roads, and cross-country. It accommodates the four tank crew members.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/wheeled/m1070.html |title=M1070 Heavy Equipment Transporter (HET) Fact File United States Army |publisher=Army.mil |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706020118/http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/wheeled/m1070.html |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref> The Australian Army uses customised [[MAN SE|MAN]] trucks to transport its Abrams.<ref>{{cite news |title=Enter the Abrams |url=https://www.australiandefence.com.au/D4B755E0-F806-11DD-8DFE0050568C22C9 |access-date=31 August 2021 |work=Australian Defence Magazine |date=10 January 2008 |language=en}}</ref>
 
The first instance of the Abrams being airlifted directly into a battlefield occurred in October 1993.  Following the [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]], 18 M1 tanks were airlifted by C-5 aircraft to Somalia from Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia.<ref>{{cite news |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |title=THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE IN SOMALIA, 1992–1995 |url=http://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Airmen-at-War/Haulman-USAFSomalia1992-1995.pdf?ver%3D2016-08-22-131410-337&usg=AFQjCNFCsGZTGkPjFg1zB2quBMa5EMKI-A |access-date=28 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928193337/http://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Airmen-at-War/Haulman-USAFSomalia1992-1995.pdf?ver%3D2016-08-22-131410-337&usg=AFQjCNFCsGZTGkPjFg1zB2quBMa5EMKI-A |archive-date=28 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Leland |first=John W. |title=THE CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE C-5 GALAXY |url=http://www.amc.af.mil/Portals/12/documents/AFD-131018-052.pdf |work=? |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010084126/http://www.amc.af.mil/Portals/12/documents/AFD-131018-052.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
== Variants and upgrades ==
{{Anchor|Variants and upgraded versions}}
* '''XM1-FSED''': Preproduction test model. Eleven Full-Scale Engineering Development test bed vehicles were produced in 1977–78. These vehicles were also called Pilot Vehicles and numbered PV-1 through PV-11.
* '''M1''': First production variant. Production began (at Chrysler) in 1979 and continued to 1985 (at General Dynamics) (3,273 built for the US). The first 110 tanks were Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) models, still called XM1s, because they were built prior to the tank being type-classified as the M1.
** '''M1IP''' (Improved Performance): Produced briefly in 1984 before the M1A1, contained upgrades and reconfigurations like new turret with thicker frontal armor, new turret is referred as "long" turret instead of older "short" turret, armor upgraded from ~650mm line of sight thickness to ~880mm (894 built for US).
* '''{{visanc|M1A1}}''':<ref name=70sDev group="nb">During early development in the late 1970s it was referred to as the XM-1E.</ref> Production started in 1985 and continued to 1992, pressurized NBC system, rear bustle rack for improved stowage of supplies and crew belongings, redesigned blow-off panels and M256 120&nbsp;mm smoothbore cannon (4,976 built for the U.S. Army, 221 for USMC, 59 M1A1 AIM SA sold to Australia).
**'''M1A1HA''' (Heavy Armor): Added 1st generation depleted uranium armor components. Some tanks were later upgraded with 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components, and are unofficially designated M1A1HA+.
** '''M1A1HC''' (Heavy Common): Added new 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components, digital engine control and other small upgrades common between Army and Marine Corps tanks.
** '''M1A1D''' (Digital): A digital upgrade for the M1A1HC, to keep up with M1A2 SEP, manufactured in quantity for only 2 battalions.
** '''M1A1 AIM v.1''' (Abrams Integrated Management): A program whereby older units are reconditioned to zero hour conditions;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm |title=M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821183057/http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm |archive-date=21 August 2010}}</ref> and the tank is improved by adding Forward-Looking Infra-Red ([[FLIR]]) and Far Target Locate sensors, a tank-infantry phone, communications gear, including [[FBCB2]] and [[Blue Force Tracking]] to aid in crew [[situational awareness]], and a [[thermal sight]] for the .50&nbsp;caliber machine gun.<ref name="generaldynamics1" />
** '''M1A1 AIM v.2/M1A1 SA''' (Situational Awareness): Upgrades similar to AIM v.1 tanks + new 3rd generation depleted uranium armor components. Configuration for the [[Royal Moroccan Army]], which is almost identical to the Australian variant, except exportable turret armor is installed by General Dynamics Land System to replace the DU armor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.army.mil/article/173757/morocco_receives_abrams_tanks_from_us_army|title=Morocco receives Abrams tanks from U.S. Army|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514022619/https://www.army.mil/article/173757/morocco_receives_abrams_tanks_from_us_army|archive-date=14 May 2019|url-status=bot: unknown|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref>
** '''M1A1 FEP''' (Firepower Enhancement Package): Similar upgrade to AIM v.2 for USMC tanks.
** '''M1A1KVT''' (Krasnovian Variant Tank): M1A1s that have been [[vismod|visually modified]] to resemble Soviet-made tanks for use at the [[National Training Center]], fitted with [[Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System|MILES]] gear and a [[Hoffman tank gunfire simulator|Hoffman device]].
** '''M1A1M''': An export variant ordered by the [[Iraqi Army]].<ref name="strategypage.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htarm/articles/20080803.aspx |title=Armor: Iraq Getting M-1A1 Tanks |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=3 August 2008 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022350/http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htarm/articles/20080803.aspx |archive-date=16 April 2009 }}</ref>
**'''M1A1''' (AIDATS upgrade): Upgrade-only variant to all USMC General Dynamics M1A1 Abrams tanks to improve the tank commander's situational awareness with an upgraded thermal sight, color day camera, and a stationary color display.<ref>{{cite web|title=Marine Corps to deliver capability trifecta to tank commanders|url=https://www.marines.mil/News/News-Display/Article/924317/marine-corps-to-deliver-capability-trifecta-to-tank-commanders/|access-date=2021-05-05|website=United States Marine Corps Flagship|language=en-US}}</ref>
* '''{{visanc|M1A2}}''' (Baseline): Production began in 1986 and entered service in 1992<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/abrams/|title=M1A1/2 Abrams Main Battle Tank|work=Army Technology|access-date=14 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406232554/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/abrams|archive-date=6 April 2016}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|reason=domain on WP:BLACKLIST|date=August 2016}} (77 built for the U.S. and more than 600 M1s upgraded to M1A2, 315 for Saudi Arabia, 1,005 for Egypt, 218 for Kuwait). The M1A2 offers the tank commander an independent thermal sight and ability to, in rapid sequence, shoot at two targets without the need to acquire each one sequentially, also 2nd generation depleted uranium armor components.<ref>[https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821183057/http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm |date=21 August 2010}}. Federation of American Scientists</ref>
**'''M1A2 SEP''' (System Enhancement Package): Is fitted with new, second-generation gunner's thermal sight.<ref>{{Cite book |last=S. Cohen |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QA8yQjt9qR8C&dq=all+m1a2s+will+be+retrofitted+with+second+generation+flir&pg=PA61|title=Report of Secretary of Defense ... to the Congress on the FY ... Budget, FY ... Authorization Request, and FY ... Defense Programs |date=1999 |publisher=Department of Defense |page=60}}</ref> Has upgraded third-generation depleted uranium armor components with graphite coating (240 new built, 300 M1A2s upgraded to M1A2 SEP for the US, also unknown numbers of upgraded basic M1s and M1IPs, also 400 oldest M1A1s upgraded to M1A2 SEP).
** '''M1A2S''' (Saudi Package): Saudi Arabian variant upgrade of the M1A2 based on M1A2 SEP, with some features, such as depleted uranium armor, believed to be missing and replaced by special armor. (442 M1A2s upgraded to M1A2S).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/houthi-rebels-destroy-m1-abrams-tanks-with-basic-irania-1726478735|title=Houthi Rebels Destroy M1 Abrams Tanks With Basic Iranian Guided Missiles|author=Tyler Rogoway|work=Foxtrot Alpha|access-date=14 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909011105/http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/houthi-rebels-destroy-m1-abrams-tanks-with-basic-irania-1726478735|archive-date=9 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deagel.com/news/Saudi-Arabia-Orders-69-More-M1A2S-Abrams-Heavy-Tanks_n000011118.aspx|title=Saudi Arabia Orders 69 More M1A2S Abrams Heavy Tanks|access-date=14 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224257/http://www.deagel.com/news/Saudi-Arabia-Orders-69-More-M1A2S-Abrams-Heavy-Tanks_n000011118.aspx|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>
** '''M1A2 SEPv2''': Added Common Remotely Operated Weapon Station as standard, color displays, improved interfaces, a new operating system, improved front and side armor with ERA (TUSK kit), tank-infantry phone as standard, and an upgraded transmission for better durability.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}
** '''M1A2 SEPv3''' (formerly M1A2C): Has increased power generation and distribution, better communications and networking, new Vehicle Health Management System (VHMS) and Line Replaceable Modules (LRMs) for improved maintenance, an Ammunition DataLink (ADL) to use [[air burst|airburst]] rounds, improved counter-IED armor package, improved FLIR using long- and mid-wave infrared, a low-profile CROWS RWS, Next Generation Armor Package (NGAP),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/26606/picture-of-newest-m1-abrams-tank-variant-with-previously-unseen-turret-armor-emerges|title=Picture Of Newest M1 Abrams Tank Variant With Previously Unseen Turret Armor Emerges|first=Joseph|last=Trevithick|website=The Drive|date=22 February 2019|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref> and an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) under armor to run electronics while stationary instead of the engine, visually distinguishing the version by a small exhaust at the left rear. More passive ballistic protection added to the turret faces, along with new Explosive Reactive Armor mountings (Abrams Reactive Armor Tile (ARAT))<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/8144/u-s-army-m1-abrams-tanks-in-europe-are-getting-explosive-reactive-armor|title=U.S. Army M1 Abrams Tanks in Europe Are Getting Explosive Armor|first=Joseph|last=Trevithick|website=The Drive|date=7 March 2017|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref> and [[Trophy (countermeasure)|Trophy]] Active Protection systems added to the turret sides.  Prototypes began testing in 2015,<ref>[http://www.scout.com/military/warrior/story/1675416-army-upgrades-m1a2-abrams-battle-tank Army Upgrades M1A2 Abrams Battle Tank] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011031203/http://www.scout.com/military/warrior/story/1675416-army-upgrades-m1a2-abrams-battle-tank |date=11 October 2016}} – Scout.com/Military.com, 3 June 2016</ref> and the first were delivered in October 2017.<ref>[https://www.army.mil/article/194952/army_rolls_out_latest_version_of_iconic_abrams_main_battle_tank Army rolls out latest version of iconic Abrams Main Battle Tank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009233429/https://www.army.mil/article/194952/army_rolls_out_latest_version_of_iconic_abrams_main_battle_tank |date=9 October 2017}} – Army.mil, 9 October 2017</ref> The first unit received them in July 2020.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}
*** '''M1A2T''': Special configuration variant of the M1A2C reportedly being offered for sale to [[Taiwan]] as of March 2019 and approved by US State Department as of July 2019.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/07/08/world/asia/08reuters-usa-taiwan.html?searchResultPosition=8]{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Per DSCA statement, it is roughly equivalent to M1A2C, except depleted uranium armor is replaced by FMS export armor. There is no mention of the Trophy APS system. The new-built tanks will be produced at Anniston Army Depot, Anniston, Alabama, and the Joint Systems Manufacturing Center, Lima, Ohio.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/taipei-economic-and-cultural-representative-office-united-states-tecro-m1a2t-abrams|title=Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States (TECRO) – M1A2T Abrams Tanks and Related Equipment and Support &#124; The Official Home of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency|website=www.dsca.mil|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Drillsma |first1=Ryan |title=US could announce sale of M1A2X tanks to Taiwan before July |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3660814 |website=Taiwan News |access-date=19 March 2019 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190319163127/https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3660814 |archive-date=19 March 2019 |location=Taipei |date=19 March 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
** '''M1A2 SEPv4''' (formerly M1A2D): Under development {{as of|2022|03|29|lc=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asc.army.mil/web/portfolio-item/abrams-main-battle-tank/ |title=Abrams Main Battle Tank |publisher=Asc.army.mil |date=2022-03-29 |accessdate=2022-05-26}}</ref> The Commander's Primary Sight, also known as the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer, and Gunner's Primary Sight will be upgraded with 3rd Gen FLIR, an improved laser rangefinder and color cameras. Additional improvements will include advanced meteorological sensors, laser warning/detection receivers, directional smoke grenade launchers and integration of the new {{ill|XM1147 advanced multi-purpose|sv|AMP XM1147}} (AMP) 120mm tank round.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dean |first1=Glenn |title=2017 NDIA Armaments Systems Forum |url=https://ndiastorage.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/ndia/2017/armament/Dean.pdf |website=National Defense Industrial Association |access-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721044015/https://ndiastorage.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/ndia/2017/armament/Dean.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2016/11/us-engineering-big-upgrades-for-m1a2.html|title=US engineering big upgrades for M1A2 SEP v4 Abrams tanks starting in 2021 to match Russian Armata and other new tanks - NextBigFuture.com|date=17 November 2016|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315133430/https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2016/11/us-engineering-big-upgrades-for-m1a2.html|archive-date=15 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinatopix.com/articles/112850/20170328/new-army-m1-abrams-tank-rounds-easily-destroy-t-14.htm|title=New US Army M1 Abrams Tank Rounds can Easily Destroy the T-14 Armata|first=Arthur Dominic|last=Villasanta|date=28 March 2017|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315133534/http://www.chinatopix.com/articles/112850/20170328/new-army-m1-abrams-tank-rounds-easily-destroy-t-14.htm|archive-date=15 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gd.com/news/press-releases/2017/09/general-dynamics-receives-contracts-upgrade-abrams-main-battle-tanks|title=General Dynamics Receives Contracts to Upgrade Abrams Main Battle Tanks|last=tmgdadmin|date=5 September 2017|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315134509/https://www.gd.com/news/press-releases/2017/09/general-dynamics-receives-contracts-upgrade-abrams-main-battle-tanks|archive-date=15 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The AN/VVR-4 laser warning receiver and ROSY rapid obscurant system have been trialed by the US Army for adoption on the Abrams tank and Bradley fighting vehicle.<ref>{{cite web |title=UTC Aerospace readies AN/VVR-4 laser warning system |url=http://www.janes.com/article/77273/utc-aerospace-readies-an-vvr-4-laser-warning-system |website=Jane's 360 |access-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723064424/http://www.janes.com/article/77273/utc-aerospace-readies-an-vvr-4-laser-warning-system |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Laser warning goes modular |url=http://www.janes.com/article/74072/laser-warning-goes-modular-dsei17d4 |website=Jane's 360 |access-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723064352/http://www.janes.com/article/74072/laser-warning-goes-modular-dsei17d4 |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rheinmetall ROSY at US Army Expeditionary Warrior Experiments 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Y0oKCqOL6w |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/7Y0oKCqOL6w| archive-date=2021-10-28|website=Youtube |publisher=Rheinmetall Defence |access-date=23 July 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
** '''M1A2-K''': Under development, unique variant for the [[Kuwaiti Army]], slated to replace Kuwait's current M1A2 fleet.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Binnie|first1=Jeremy|title=Kuwait to get 'unique' Abrams tank variant|url=http://www.janes.com/article/76548/|website=IHS Jane's 360|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20171226172157/http://www.janes.com/article/76548/kuwait-to-get-unique-abrams-tank-variant|archive-date=26 December 2017|date=20 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''M1A3''': A planned version under research and development {{as of|2014|lc=on}}.<ref name="g8.army.mil"/><ref name="Armylooking2009"/> Improvements are to include a lighter 120&nbsp;mm gun, added road wheels with improved suspension, a more durable track, lighter-weight armor, long-range precision armaments, and [[Thermographic camera|infrared camera]] and laser detectors. The variant is believed to have a new [[diesel engine]], instead of the gas turbine engine used in previous M1 variants.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1a3.htm "M1A3"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216042542/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1a3.htm |date=16 December 2016}}. Global Security.org{{better source needed|date=February 2017}}</ref>{{Update after|2014}}
{{anchor |Prototypes}}
* '''Tank Test Bed''' ('''TTB''') Prototype TACOM project begun in 1983 with unmanned turret, three crew members in armored capsule in front of the heavy armored hull, main armament was 120&nbsp;mm smoothbore gun M256, mechanical loading system under turret.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Sewell |first1=Stephen "Cookie" |date=March–April 1995 |title=Ammunition Loading Systems for Future Tanks |magazine=Armor |volume=CIV |issue=2 |pages=17–18 |url=https://www.benning.army.mil/Armor/eARMOR/content/issues/1995/MAR_APR/ArmorMarchApril1995web.pdf |access-date=4 March 2022 |location=Fort Knox, KY |publisher=U.S. Army Armor Center}}</ref>
* '''Component Advanced Technology Test Bed''' ('''CATTB''') was an experimental model with a XM291 140&nbsp;mm smoothbore cannon,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Khourdaji|first1=Samir|title=RD & E Centre Technical Report No. 13492 "FINITE STRESS ANALYSIS FOR COMPONENT ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY TEST BED (CATTB)|url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA228389|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010083812/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA228389|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 October 2017|website=Defense Technical Information Center|publisher=Defense Technical Information Center|access-date=16 July 2016|date=May 1990}}</ref> heavy armored turret and upgraded hull based on the Abrams chassis. It had a mechanical loading system in turret bustle, a new engine and probably other upgrades, never fielded. The tank went into trials in 1987–88.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://i166.photobucket.com/albums/u94/rabid_stoat/tank3.jpg |title=CATTB data |access-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930190409/http://i166.photobucket.com/albums/u94/rabid_stoat/tank3.jpg |archive-date=30 September 2011 }}</ref>
*'''Air Ground Defense System''' ('''AGDS'''): Proposed air defense variant of the Abrams equipped with dual 35&nbsp;mm Bushmaster III autocannons, 12 [[Air Defense Anti-Tank System|ADATS]] missiles and advanced electro-optical and radar targeting systems derived from the ADATS. It was supposed to be capable of both air defence and anti-tank purposes with the ADATS MIM-146 missiles which was a dual purpose ATGM/SAM. The proposal never saw consideration and was never developed further.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sharoni|first1=Asher H.|last2=Bacon|first2=Lawrence|date=July–August 1996|title=Forward Area Air-Ground Defense|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TIN9O_JusgC&q=m1+agds&pg=PA17|journal=Armor|volume=105|issue=4|pages=15–20|via=Google Books}}</ref>
 
===Specialized===
[[File:M1 Grizzly 2.jpg|thumb|A Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV)]]
[[File:M104 HAB.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Army [[M104 Wolverine]] Heavy Assault Bridge]]
 
* '''M1 Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle''' ('''CMV''').<ref>{{cite web |author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/grizzly.htm |title=Grizzly [Breacher&#93; |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706005653/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/grizzly.htm |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/extracts/extract/jmvl/jmvl0037.html|title=Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Jane's – IHS|website=wayback.archive-it.org|access-date=30 March 2009}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* '''M1 Panther II''': A remote controlled mine clearing vehicle with turret removed, mine rollers on front, and the Standardized Teleoperation System.<ref>{{cite web |author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/panther.htm |title=Panther |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609142358/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/panther.htm |archive-date=9 June 2010}}</ref>
* '''[[M104 Wolverine]] Heavy Assault Bridge'''<ref>{{cite web |author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/wolverine.htm |title=Wolverine (Heavy Assault Bridge) |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716105415/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/wolverine.htm |archive-date=16 July 2010}}</ref>
* '''[[M1074 Joint Assault Bridge]]''' ('''JAB'''): Bridgelayer combining a heavy "scissor" bridge with the M1 Abrams chassis. Expected to reach low-rate initial production in 2019 to replace the [[M60 AVLB]] and M104 Wolverine.<ref>[http://www.defensenews.com/articles/army-drs-set-to-integrate-new-bridging-system-on-tanks Army, DRS Set To Integrate New Bridging System on Tanks] – Defensenews.com, 6 September 2016</ref>
[[File:M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle.jpg|thumb|An Assault Breacher Vehicle launching a line charge]]
* '''[[Assault Breacher Vehicle|M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicle]]''' ('''ABV'''): Assault variant for the USMC. Based upon the M1A1 Abrams chassis, the Assault Breacher Vehicle has a variety of systems installed, such as a full-width mine plow, two [[mine-clearing line charge|linear demolition charges]], and a lane-marking system. [[Reactive armor]] has been fitted to the vehicle providing additional protection against High-explosive anti-tank warhead-based weapons. The turret has been replaced by a new smaller one with two MICLIC launchers at its rear. A M2HB .50 machine gun in a remote weapons station is mounted on the commander's cupola and a bank of grenade launchers are fitted to each side of the superstructure to cover the frontal arc for self-protection.<ref>Abramson, Mark, "[http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=67677 ABVs ready to break Afghan ground]", ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'', 1 February 2010.</ref>
* '''M1 Armored Recovery Vehicle''': Only a prototype produced.
''Additional equipment''
*'''M1A1 Mine Clearing Blade System (MCBS)''': (LIN B13228){{efn|1=The Line Item Number (LIN) is a six-character alphanumeric identification of the generic nomenclature assigned to identify nonexpendable and type classified expendable or durable items of equipment during their life cycle authorization and supply management. They are commonly used on the unit's property books.}} It is electrically operated and is capable of clearing surface or buried mines up to 6 feet in front of the tank's path. The plough produces a windrow of soil that is filled with mines. This windrow must be reduced using a mine rake or by laying a MICLIC alongside the windrow and detonating it. The plough is also capable of pushing up berms, clearing trench-lines, and proofing lanes and staging areas. It can be adapted for use on the M60A1 MBT.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1mcbs.htm|title = M1 Mine Clearing Blade System}}</ref>
*'''Self Protection Combat Roller (SPCR)''': (LIN M53112) The Self Protection Combat Roller (SPCR) exerts high pressure onto the ground ahead of the tracks of the host vehicle to target pressure activated explosive devices in order to actively prove routes. It is designed to operate on concrete, asphalt, gravel and hard dirt roads. The system comprises two 4-wheel roller gangs to protect the vehicle tracks which stow neatly to minimize its impact on vehicle operation ability and mobility when not in use. The rollers are able to steer left and right to provide a level of coverage during cornering. An optional Magnetic System Duplicator (MSD) can be fitted to help protect the equipment from the effect of magnetic influence fused mines.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pearson-eng.com/products/self-protection-combat-roller/|title = Battlefield Capabilities}}</ref>
*'''Surface Clearance Device''' (SCD): (LIN B17484) The SCD is employed to clear surface laid mines and IEDs from roads, trails and rough terrain. There are two versions of the SCD; a V-blade optimised for clearing routes and a straight angle-blade which is optimised for clearing staging and assembly areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pearson-eng.com/products/surface-clearance-device|title = Surface Clearance Device - Product Page}}</ref>
*'''Vehicle Magnetic Signature Duplicator''' (VEMSID): (LIN V53112) The VEMSID increases the effectiveness and survivability of countermine equipment by causing the stand-off detonation of magnetic influence mines at a safe distance ahead of the tank.  It generates a multi-axial magnetic signature optimized for passively fused magnetic influence fused mines. The system comprises four emitter coils, two associated power boxes and an MSD Control Unit (MSDCU).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webstore.ansi.org/Standards/DOD/MIL53112NOT-1218709|title = MIL-V-53112/1(1) NOT 1 - Vehicle Magnetic Signature Duplicator (Vemasid) System, M109/M992 Family of Vehicles, An/VSQ-3(4) (No S/S Document)}}</ref>
 
== Specifications ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Abrams specifications{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
!
! M1
! M1IP
! M1A1
! M1A2
! M1A2 SEP
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Produced
| 1979–85
| 1984
| 1985–92
| 1992 on
| 1999 on
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Length
|colspan=5 | {{convert|32.04|ft|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Width
|colspan=5 | {{convert|12|ft|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Height
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|7.79|ft|abbr=on}}
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|8.0|ft|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! align=left | Top speed
|colspan=2 | {{convert|45|mph|abbr=on}}
|colspan=2 | {{convert|41.5|mph|abbr=on}}
|align=center |{{convert|42|mph|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Range
| {{convert|310|mi|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|275|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|288|mi|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|265|mi|abbr=on}}
|{{convert|264|mi|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Power
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|1500|shp|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Weight
| {{convert|61.4|ST}}
| {{convert|62.8|ST|abbr=on}}
|'''M1A1''': {{convert|61.5|ST|abbr=on}} <br />'''M1A1 SA''': {{convert|67.6|ST|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|68.4|ST|abbr=on}}
|'''SEP v1''': {{convert|69.5|ST|abbr=on}} <br />'''SEP v2''': {{convert|71.2|ST|abbr=on}}
|'''M1A2C (SEP v3)''': {{convert|73.6|ST|abbr=on}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Main armament
|colspan=2 | [[Royal Ordnance L7|105 mm M68A1 rifled]]
|colspan=3 | [[Rheinmetall 120&nbsp;mm gun|120 mm M256A1 smoothbore]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Crew
|colspan=5 | 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Protection
| [[Chobham armor]]
| Longer turret for thicker composite array
| colspan=2 | '''M1A1''': BRL-2 composite armor <br />'''M1A1HA/HC/M1A2''': [[Depleted uranium]] inserts in frontal turret arrays
'''M1A1 AIM/SA''': Depleted uranium inserts in hull and turret
| Depleted uranium inserts in hull and turret
Improved Chobham armor and increased turret armor <br />Additions of ARAT ERA, slat armor <br />
|}
 
== Operators ==
[[File:M1 Abrams operators.png|thumb|upright=1.8|M1 Abrams operators]]
[[File:Front view of an Australian M1A1 tank during Koolendong 2021.jpg|thumb|An Australian Abrams tank in 2021]]
[[File:Abrams in Tahrir.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Abrams tank deployed during the [[2011 Egyptian Revolution]]]]
[[File:M1 Abrams tanks in Iraqi service, Jan. 2011.jpg|thumb|M1A1M Abrams tanks in Iraqi service, January 2011]]
<!--
  This section is only for operators and future operators with Abrams tanks on order. No possible future operators. -->
* {{AUS}} – [[Australian Army]]: 59 M1A1 (AIM) configuration tanks (hybrids with a mix of equipment used by U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps but without depleted uranium layers in armor). These tanks were bought from the U.S. in 2006 and replaced the [[Leopard 1|Leopard AS1]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anao.gov.au/Publications/Audit-Reports/2007-2008/Acquisition-of-the-ABRAMS-Main-Battle-Tank |title=Acquisition of the ABRAMS Main Battle Tank |publisher=Australian National Audit Office |date= 17 July 2007 |access-date=6 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234111/http://www.anao.gov.au/Publications/Audit-Reports/2007-2008/Acquisition-of-the-ABRAMS-Main-Battle-Tank|url-status=dead |archive-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> As of 2017, the Australian Government was considering expanding the Army's fleet of Abrams to 90 tanks.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Abernethy |first1=Mark |title=Army's plans for more and better tanks |url=https://www.afr.com/news/special-reports/defence-and-national-security/armys-plans-for-more-and-better-tanks-20170303-guqamb |access-date=20 August 2018 |work=Australian Financial Review |date=7 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626164439/https://www.afr.com/news/special-reports/defence-and-national-security/armys-plans-for-more-and-better-tanks-20170303-guqamb |archive-date=26 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2021, the U.S. granted an FMS for 160 M1A1 tank hulls to produce 75 M1A2 SEPv3 Abrams Main Battle Tanks, 29 M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicles and 18 M1074 Joint Assault Bridges including the development of a unique armor package for the Australian Army.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia – Heavy Armored Combat Systems |url=https://www.dsca.mil/press-media/major-arms-sales/australia-heavy-armored-combat-systems|access-date=2021-07-15 |work= Defense Security Cooperation Agency}}</ref> In January 2022, Australia committed to purchase 120 tanks and armored vehicles including 75 M1A2s at a total cost of $3.5 billion and to be delivered in 2024; the M1A2s are to replace their 59 M1A1s which were bought in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|last=Galloway|first=Anthony|date=2022-01-09|title=Australia commits to $3.5 billion tank purchase from the US|url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/australia-commits-to-3-5-billion-tank-purchase-from-the-us-20220109-p59mub.html|access-date=2022-01-10|website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Giannini|first=Dominic|date=2022-01-10|title=Over 120 tanks, armoured vehicles secured|url=https://7news.com.au/politics/over-120-tanks-armoured-vehicles-secured-c-5249892|access-date=2022-01-10|website=7NEWS}}</ref>
* {{EGY}} – [[Egyptian Army]]: 1,360 M1A1 tanks assembled in Egypt for the Egyptian army in cooperation with the U.S.{{sfn|IISS|2017|page=372}}<ref>[http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2011/Egypt_10-67.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511095507/http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2011/Egypt_10-67.pdf|date=11 May 2013}}</ref>
* {{IRQ}} – [[Iraqi Army]]: 321 M1A1Ms<ref name=SP_Iraq_Buys/><ref>{{cite web|last=Pappalardo|first=Joe|date=2014-12-23|title=Why the U.S. Is Selling More Tanks To Iraq|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/military/news/isis-islamic-state-iraq-american-tanks-humvees|access-date=2022-01-07|website=Popular Mechanics|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Iraqi Ground Forces Equipment|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/ground-equipment.htm|access-date=2022-01-07|website=www.globalsecurity.org}}</ref> Iraq was leasing 22 U.S. Army M1A1s for training in 2008.<ref name="strategypage.com" /><ref name=SP_Iraq_Buys>{{cite web |url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htproc/articles/20081218.aspx |title=Procurement: Iraq Buys What It Knows |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=18 December 2008 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415165947/http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htproc/articles/20081218.aspx |archive-date=15 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.yourdefencenews.com/iraqi+military+plans+major+arms+purchase_18628.html "Iraqi military plans major arms purchase"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718143532/http://www.yourdefencenews.com/iraqi+military+plans+major+arms+purchase_18628.html |date=18 July 2011}}. Your Defence News, 16 December 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ M1 Abrams Tanks for Iraq] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919054809/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ |date=19 September 2008}}. Defense Industry Daily, 15 March 2009.</ref> The first 11 tanks were delivered to the Iraqi Army in August 2010<ref>{{cite web |author=Agence France-Presse |title=Iraq takes delivery of American tanks |url=http://www.defencetalk.com/iraqi-army-takes-delivery-of-m1a1-abrams-tanks-27975/ |publisher=defencetalk.com |date=9 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814152403/http://www.defencetalk.com/iraqi-army-takes-delivery-of-m1a1-abrams-tanks-27975/ |archive-date=14 August 2010}}</ref> with all deliveries completed by August 2011.<ref>[http://www.army.mil/article/64944/Iraqi_Army_receives_last_shipment_of_Abrams_tanks/ "Iraqi Army receives last shipment of Abrams tanks"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928210528/http://www.army.mil/article/64944/Iraqi_Army_receives_last_shipment_of_Abrams_tanks/ |date=28 September 2013}}. Army.mil, 6 September 2011.</ref> In October 2012, it was reported that six more tanks were being delivered.<ref>[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ "6 more tanks"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919054809/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/ |date=19 September 2008}}. Defenseindustrydaily.com, 5 October 2012.</ref> Zaloga wrote that four battalions of the [[9th Armoured Division (Iraq)|9th Armoured Division]] were equipped with M1s by 2014: 1st and 2nd of the 34th Brigade, and 4th and 5th of the 35th Brigade.<ref>{{cite book|title=M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1993–2018|last=Zaloga|first=Steven|publisher=Osprey|date=March 2019|series=New Vanguard 268}}</ref>
* {{KWT}} – [[Kuwaiti Army]]: 218 M1A2s<ref name=militarium>[http://www.militarium.net/wojska_ladowe/m1_abrams.php M1 Abrams] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913173252/http://www.militarium.net/wojska_ladowe/m1_abrams.php |date=13 September 2007}}. Militarium.net</ref>
* {{SAU}} – [[Saudi Arabian Army]]: 373 Abrams tanks,<ref name=DID_Saudi>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2006/08/the-2006-saudi-shopping-spree-29b-to-upgrade-m1-abrams-tank-fleet/index.php |title=The 2006 Saudi Shopping Spree: $2.9B to Upgrade M1 Abrams Tank Fleet |publisher=DefenseIndustryDaily.com |date=4 January 2011 |access-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025014002/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2006/08/the-2006-saudi-shopping-spree-29b-to-upgrade-m1-abrams-tank-fleet/index.php |archive-date=25 October 2006}}</ref> To be upgraded to M1A2S configuration in Saudi Arabia.<ref name=DID_Saudi /> 69 more M1A2S tanks ordered on 8 January 2013, to be delivered by 31 July 2014.<ref>[http://www.deagel.com/news/Saudi-Arabia-Orders-69-More-M1A2S-Abrams-Heavy-Tanks_n000011118.aspx "Saudi Arabia Orders 69 More M1A2S Abrams Heavy Tanks"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224257/http://www.deagel.com/news/Saudi-Arabia-Orders-69-More-M1A2S-Abrams-Heavy-Tanks_n000011118.aspx |date=3 March 2016}}. Deagel.com, 8 January 2013.</ref>
* {{flag|Morocco}} – [[Royal Moroccan Army]]: 222 M1A1 SA (situational awareness) tanks ordered in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/08/166774/morocco-purchases-us-made-m1a1-abrams-tanks/ |title=Morocco Purchases US-Made M1A1 Abrams Tanks |work=Morocco World News |date=30 August 2015 |access-date=14 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503093258/http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/08/166774/morocco-purchases-us-made-m1a1-abrams-tanks/ |archive-date=3 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/2015/09/general-dynamics-awarded-358-million-150-m1a1-sa-abrams-tanks-morocco |title=General Dynamics Awarded $358 Million for 150 M1A1 SA Abrams Tanks for Morocco |work=generaldynamics.com |date=30 September 2015 |access-date=14 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415115420/http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/2015/09/general-dynamics-awarded-358-million-150-m1a1-sa-abrams-tanks-morocco |archive-date=15 April 2016 }}</ref> Deliveries under the contract started in July 2016<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.medi1tv.com/ar/بالصور-حفل-تسلم-أولى-دبابات-أبرامز-الأمريكية-الموجهة-للقوات-المسلحة-الأخبار-66454/ |title=بالصور حفل تسلم أولى دبابات "أبرامز" الأمريكية الموجهة للقوات المسلحة الملكية |work=Medi 1 |access-date=26 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801045225/http://m.medi1tv.com/ar/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%AD%D9%81%D9%84-%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%AF%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1-66454 |archive-date=1 August 2016 }}</ref> with an estimated completion date of February 2018. The contract include 150 refurbished and upgraded tanks to the special armor configuration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/53982/morocco-abrams-tank-programme-moves-forward|title=Morocco Abrams tank programme moves forward|publisher=IHS Janes|access-date=14 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075049/http://www.janes.com/article/53982/morocco-abrams-tank-programme-moves-forward|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Morocco took delivery of the first batch of M1A1SAs on 28 July 2016.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Binnie |first1=Jeremy |title=North African rivals receive new tanks|url=http://www.janes.com/article/62622 |website=IHS Jane's |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> A Foreign Military Sale for 162 M1A2Ms was approved by the U.S. Department of State in November 2018 and sent to Congress for final approval.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dsca.mil/major-arms-sales/morocco-abrams-tank-enhancement-support-and-equipment|title=Morocco – Abrams Tank Enhancement, Support, and Equipment &#124; The Official Home of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency|website=www.dsca.mil|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref>
* {{USA}} – [[United States Army]] and [[United States Marine Corps]] received over 8,100 M1, M1A1 and M1A2 tanks combined.<ref name="Globalsecurity_m1-specs" /><ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |author=Fabio Prado |url=http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm |title=Main Battle Tank – M1, M1A1, and M1A2 Abrams |publisher=Armorsite |date=10 December 2009 |access-date=9 June 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703163337/http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm |archive-date=3 July 2009}}</ref>
** U.S. Army – 2,509 total, 750 M1A1SA, 1,605 M1A2 SEPv2, 154 M1A2C (some 3,700 more M1A1 and M1A2 in storage).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Military Balance 2021 |publisher=IISS |year=2021 |page=50}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Military Balance 2021 |url=https://hostnezt.com/cssfiles/currentaffairs/The%20Military%20Balance%202021.pdf |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>
 
===Potential and future operators===
* {{flag|Brazil}} – Following Brazil's official designation as [[major non-NATO ally]] of the United States in July 2019, the U.S. government offered the [[Brazilian Armed Forces]] several models of military equipment; the country is interested in potentially acquiring between 110 and 130 M1A1 Abrams tanks, which would be upgraded on U.S. soil and operated as Brazil's main battle tanks for the next 20 years.<ref>{{cite news |title=M-1 Abrams 105 mm: tanques estocados nos EUA podem interessar ao Brasil?|url=http://tecnodefesa.com.br/m-1-abrams-105-mm-tanques-estocados-nos-eua-podem-interessar-ao-brasil|language=pt|access-date=1 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Oportunidade: EUA oferecem ao Brasil tanques, jipes e helicópteros|url=https://www.forte.jor.br/2019/01/21/oportunidade-eua-oferecem-ao-brasil-tanques-jipes-e-helicopteros|language=pt|access-date=1 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Message to the Congress on Designating Brazil as a Major Non-NATO Ally|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/message-congress-designating-brazil-major-non-nato-ally/|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|date=8 May 2019}}</ref>
* {{flag|Greece}} – [[Hellenic Army]]: 400 ex-U.S. Army M1A1 tanks have been offered to Greece.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.kathimerini.gr/4dcgi/_w_articles_politics_2_08/04/2012_478534 |script-title=el:Ζητήστε μας ό,τι σας χρειάζεται |newspaper=Kathimerini |date=  |access-date=9 April 2012 |language=el |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707125449/http://news.kathimerini.gr/4dcgi/_w_articles_politics_2_08/04/2012_478534 |archive-date=7 July 2012}}</ref><ref>Agence France-Presse [https://archive.today/20120731025321/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20111207/DEFSECT04/112070307/Greece-Considers-Free-Tank-Offer "Greece Considers Free Tank Offer"]. Defense News, 7 December 2011. Retrieved: 18 April 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onalert.gr/stories/pente-c130-kai-100-armata-maxis-abrams-erxontai-apo-usa|title=Πέντε C 130 και 100 άρματα μάχης Abrams "έρχονται" από ΗΠΑ|work=onalert.gr|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112085245/http://www.onalert.gr/stories/pente-c130-kai-100-armata-maxis-abrams-erxontai-apo-usa|archive-date=12 November 2014}}</ref>
* {{flag|Poland}} – [[Polish Land Forces]]: Poland plans to buy 250 American M1 Abrams tanks in the newest M1A2 SEP v3 version as of July 2021. The total purchase cost with support vehicles, crew training, and large supply of ammunition will cost PLN 23.3 billion (approximately $6 billion). Deliveries are expected to start in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Abramsy dla 4 batalionów Żelaznej Dywizji. 23 miliardy spoza budżetu MON|url=https://www.defence24.pl/abramsy-dla-4-batalionow-zelaznej-dywizji-23-miliardy-spoza-budzetu-mon|language=pl|access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref> The Abrams tanks are to supplement 247 [[Leopard 2PL]] main battle tanks as well as older T-72 and PT-91 tanks.<ref>{{cite news|last=MIZOKAMI|first=KYLE|date=July 15, 2021|title=Poland Just Bought America's M1 Abrams Tank. That's Ironic|work=popularmechanics|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a37026843/poland-buys-us-m1a2-abrams-main-battle-tank/|access-date=July 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Błaszczak: polski przemysł ma kompetencje do T-72. Wykorzystamy wszystkie czołgi|url=https://defence24.pl/sily-zbrojne/blaszczak-polski-przemysl-ma-kompetencje-do-t-72-wykorzystamy-wszystkie-czolgi|language=pl|access-date=18 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.defensenews.com/land/2021/07/14/polish-defence-ministry-confirms-plan-to-buy-m1-abrams-tanks |title=Polish Defence Ministry confirms plan to buy M1 Abrams tanks |date=14 July 2021 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Peru}} – [[Peruvian Army]]: In May 2013, the M1A1 Abrams was reported to be part of comparative tests to be conducted by Peru to find a replacement for their aging [[T-55]]s. Between 120 and 170 tanks may be acquired. The Abrams competed against the [[T-90]]S, [[Leopard 2]]A4 and A6, [[T-64]], and [[T-84]]. By September 2013, only the M1A1 Abrams, Russian T-90S and [[T-80]], and Ukrainian T-84 were still competing.<ref>[http://dmilt.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7865:peru-future-main-battle-tank-projects-lags-on-despite-criticism&catid=35:latin-america&Itemid=58 Peru; Future main battle tank projects lags on despite criticism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928033434/http://dmilt.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7865%3Aperu-future-main-battle-tank-projects-lags-on-despite-criticism&catid=35%3Alatin-america&Itemid=58 |date=28 September 2013}}. Dmilt.com, 2 September 2013.</ref>
* {{TWN}} – [[Republic of China Army]]: Taiwan was considering the purchase of upwards 200 Abrams tanks, which was later reduced with the intention of acquiring 120 M1A1 tanks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2015/05/24/2003619045 |title=Abrams tanks still on defense wish list |newspaper=Taipei Times |date=24 May 2015 |access-date=31 December 2016 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231172212/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2015/05/24/2003619045 |archive-date=31 December 2016}}</ref> The Ministry of National Defence stated in 2016 that it was in discussion with the U.S. about sales of M1A1s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3029114 |title=MND confirms U.S. M1A1 tank sales to Taiwan under negotiation |newspaper=Taipei Times |date=14 November 2016 |access-date=31 December 2016 |language=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231170513/http://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3029114 |archive-date=31 December 2016 }}</ref> This plan, however, was apparently canceled by October 2017, instead Taiwanese government plans to upgrade its [[M60 tank|M60A3]]s in service with a 120&nbsp;mm main gun, new ballistics computer, etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defensenews.com/land/2017/10/06/giving-up-on-abrams-tank-acquisition-taiwan-moves-to-upgrade-its-m60a3-tanks/|title=Giving up on Abrams tank acquisition, Taiwan moves to upgrade its M60A3 tanks|first=Mike|last=Yeo|date=6 October 2017}}</ref> In July 2018, Taiwan's [[Ministry of National Defense (Republic of China)|Ministry of National Defense]] budgeted money to purchase 108 M1A2 tanks from the U.S. government, to replace its aging [[CM-11 Brave Tiger]] and [[M60 Patton|M60A3 TTS]] battle tanks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201807090019.aspx |title=Taiwan Army mulls spending US$990 million on M1A2 tanks |publisher=FOCUS TAIWAN News Channel |date=9 July 2018 |access-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712184042/http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201807090019.aspx |archive-date=12 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] approved the $2.2 billion sale in July 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3741248|title=US State Department greenlights US$2.2 billio...|first=Taiwan|last=News|website=Taiwan News|date=9 July 2019|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defensenews.com/land/2019/07/08/state-okays-possible-2-billion-abrams-tank-sale-to-taiwan/|title=US State Dept. OKs possible $2 billion Abrams tank sale to Taiwan|first=Jen|last=Judson|date=9 July 2019|website=Defense News|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref> A sale of 108 M1A2T tanks was later finalized.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/taiwan-would-fight-off-china-invasion-long-it-takes-defense-minister-says-1577026|title = Taiwan would fight off China invasion for as long as it takes, defense minister says|website = [[Newsweek]]|date = 18 March 2021}}</ref>
 
=== Former operators ===
* {{flagicon image|Kata'ib Hezbollah flag.svg}} [[Kata'ib Hezbollah]] – 9 M1A1Ms<ref>{{cite web|last=Rempfer|first=Kyle|date=2018-02-08|title=Nine Abrams tanks fell into the hands of Iranian-backed militias during anti-ISIS fight|url=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/2018/02/08/nine-abrams-tanks-fell-into-the-hands-of-iranian-backed-militias-during-anti-isis-fight/|access-date=2021-04-15|website=Military Times|language=en-US}}</ref> Captured from [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]], which had captured them from the [[Iraqi Army]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Bodetti|first=Austin|title=How Iraqi militias got hold of American tanks|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/indepth/2017/9/4/how-iraqi-militias-got-hold-of-american-tanks|access-date=2021-04-15|website=Al Araby|date=4 September 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pentagon admits US Abrams tanks sold to Iraq used by pro-Iranian militia|url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/14662-Pentagon-admits-US-Abrams-tanks-sold-to-Iraq-used-by-pro-Iranian-militia|access-date=2021-04-15|publisher=Kurdistan24|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2018-04-02|title=How Iran-backed militias are running around in M-1 Abrams tanks|url=https://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty-trending/how-iran-backed-militias-are-running-around-in-m-1-abrams-tanks/|access-date=2021-04-15|website=We Are The Mighty|language=en-US}}</ref>
* {{USA}} – [[United States Marine Corps]]: In 2020 the Marine Corps announced the disbandment of its tank units, citing a pivot towards amphibious warfare.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Pike |first=John |date=16 January 2013 |title=M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1-specs.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023063114/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1-specs.htm |archive-date=23 October 2017 |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=30 July 2020 |title=A farewell to armor: Marine Corps shuts down tank units, hauls away M1A1s |url=https://www.stripes.com/news/marine-corps/a-farewell-to-armor-marine-corps-shuts-down-tank-units-hauls-away-m1a1s-1.639355 |website=Stars and Stripes}}</ref> As of 2021, 400 of the USMC's 450 M1 Abrams MBTs were transferred to the U.S. Army, with the remaining 50 to be handed over during the next few years.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-11-30 |title=Force Design 2030: Divesting to meet the future threat |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/news/410169/force-design-2030-divesting-meet-future-threat |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=Defense Visual Information Distribution Service |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
== See also ==
{{Portal|Tanks}}
* [[List of the United States military vehicles by model number]]
* [[List of main battle tanks by country]]
* [[List of main battle tanks by generation]]


== References ==
== References ==
 
{{Refbegin}}
===Footnotes===
* ''King of the Killing Zone'' by Orr Kelly, 1989. W.W. Norton Company.
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}
* [[Bernard D. Rostker|Rostker, Bernard]]: ''Environmental Exposure Report:Depleted Uranium in the Gulf''. DoD Publication, 1998.[http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/index.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603192402/http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/index.htm |date=2010-06-03 }}.
 
* United States General Accounting Office:''Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams.'' Washington, January 1992.[http://archive.gao.gov/d31t10/145879.pdf#prof PDF].
===Notes===
* Halberstadt, Hans. Desert Storm Ground War. Osceola, WI, Motorbooks International, 1991. 128 pp.
{{Notelist}}
* {{cite journal
 
  | last = Hilmes
===Citations===
  | first = Rolf
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
  | title = Arming Future MBTs - Some Considerations
 
  | journal = Military Technology
===Bibliography===
  | publisher = Mönsch
{{Refbegin|50em}}
  | date = 1 December 2004}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Orr |title=King of the Killing Zone |date=1989 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York, New York |isbn=0-425-12304-9}}
* Hunnicutt, R. P. "Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank."  1984, Presidio Press; {{ISBN|0-89141-230-1}}.
* {{cite web |last=Rostker |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard D. Rostker |url=http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/index.htm |title=Environmental Exposure Report: Depleted Uranium in the Persian Gulf (II) |publisher=DoD Publication, gulflink.osd.mil |year=1998 |access-date=30 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603192402/http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/index.htm |archive-date=3 June 2010}}
* Forty, George: ''Tank Action. From the Great War to the Gulf'', Allan Sutton Publishing Ltd., Phoenix Mill 1995.
* {{cite report |title=Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams |date=January 1992 |url=http://archive.gao.gov/d31t10/145879.pdf#prof |publisher=United States General Accounting Office |location=Washington, D.C.}}
* Zaloga Steven J., & Sarson, Peter: ''M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982-1992''. Osprey Military, New Vanguard. Reed International Books Ltd, 1993.
* {{cite book |last1=Halberstadt |first1=Hans |title=Desert Storm Ground War |date=1991
* {{cite web | title=M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank | work=FAS Military Analysis Network | url=http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm | accessdate=January 17, 2004 }}
|publisher=Motorbooks International |isbn=978-0879385613}}
* {{cite web | title=TUSK to update Abrams for urban battle | work=Army News Service | url=http://www4.army.mil/ocpa/read.php?story_id_key=6985 | accessdate=April 6, 2005 | archive-date=March 16, 2005 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050316200903/http://www4.army.mil/ocpa/read.php?story_id_key=6985 | url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hunnicutt |first1=Richard Pearce |author1-link=R. P. Hunnicutt |title=Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank |date=1984 |publisher=Presidio Press |isbn=0-89141-230-1}}
* [http://www.armytimes.com/story.php?f=1-292925-2348567.php Army Times - Two soldiers die in attack on Abrams tank, October 29, 2003] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121209065419/http://www.armytimes.com/story.php?f=1-292925-2348567.php |date=December 9, 2012 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hunnicutt |first=Richard Pearce |title=Abrams: A History of the American Main Battle Tank |date=2015 |publisher= Echo Point Books |isbn= 978-1-62654-166-5}}
* [http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/2005/nr20051227-12223.html DoD News: DoD Identifies Army Casualty - Dec 25, 2005 attack]
*{{cite book |last1=Forty |first1=George |title=Tank Action. From the Great War to the Persian Gulf |date=1995 |publisher=Allan Sutton Publishing Ltd. |isbn=978-0-75090-479-7}}
* [http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/2006/nr20060608-13201.html DoD News: DoD Identifies Army Casualties - June 04, 2006 incident]
* {{cite web| title=M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank |work=FAS Military Analysis Network |url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m1.htm |access-date=17 January 2004}}
* Practical Applications of Vehicle Control within the Distributed Processing Architecture, Proceedings of the 1992 American Control Conference, Ruggirello, Joseph A., Bielawski, Dennis A., and Diaz, R. Gary, General Dynamics, IEEE, Published Jun. 1992
* {{cite book |last1=Zaloga |first1=Steve |author-link=Steven Zaloga |last2=Sarson |first2=Peter |year=1993 |title=M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982–1992 |series=New Vanguard (Book 2) |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=1-85532-283-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |year=2009 |title=M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural: Operation Desert Storm 1991 |location=Oxford, UK; New York |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84603-407-7 |lccn=2009502059}}
{{Refend}}
{{Refend}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
{{Commons|M1 Abrams}}
{{Commons|M1 Abrams}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131115181622/http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/abrams.html Abrams Tank Fact File] - United States Army.
* [http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/abrams.html Abrams U.S. Army Fact File]
* [https://www.gdls.com/equipment/m1a2-main-battle-tank.html M1A2 Main Battle Tank] - General Dynamics Land Systems.
* [http://www.gdls.com/programs/abrams.html Official Abrams page on General Dynamics Land Systems site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815235713/http://www.gdls.com/programs/abrams.html |date=2008-08-15 }}
* [https://www.military.com/equipment/m1a2-abrams-main-battle-tank M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank] - Military.com
* [http://www.army-technology.com/projects/abrams/index.html M1A1/M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank on Army-Technology.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050927083937/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/abrams/index.html |date=2005-09-27 }}
* [https://www.army-technology.com/projects/m1a1-2-abrams-main-battle-tank/ M1A1/2 Abrams Main Battle Tank] - Global Defense Technology.
* [http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm M1A1/2 Abrams page on the Armor Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711022553/http://www.fprado.com/armorsite/abrams.htm |date=2011-07-11 }}
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1-intro.htm M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank] - GlobalSecurity.org
* [http://www.enemyforces.com/tanks/m1a1abrams.htm Main Battle Tank M1A1 Abrams on Enemyforces.com]
* [http://people.howstuffworks.com/m1-tank.htm M1 Abrams page] - a detailed overview of how the tank works on howstuffworks.com
* [http://military.discovery.com/convergence/abrams/explore/explore.html Anatomy of an M1 Abrams on military.discovery.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060819143950/http://www.defense-update.com/products/t/tusk.htm M1 Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK)], [https://web.archive.org/web/20071011072821/http://defense-update.com/products/m/M1A1AIM.htm M1A1 AIM Upgrade], and [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210172647/http://www.defense-update.com/products/m/M1A2SEP.htm M1A2 SEP Upgrade on Defense-Update.com] - Defense-Update.com
* [http://people.howstuffworks.com/m1-tank.htm M1 Abrams page, with a detailed overview of how the tank works on howstuffworks.com]
* [https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2010/16.pdf M1 Abrams modernization 2011], [https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2011/16.pdf M1 Abrams modernization 2012] - Federation of American Scientists.
* [http://www.defense-update.com/products/t/tusk.htm M-1 Tank Urban Survivability Kit (TUSK)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060819143950/http://www.defense-update.com/products/t/tusk.htm |date=2006-08-19 }}, [http://www.defense-update.com/products/m/M1A1AIM.htm M1A1 AIM Upgrade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011072821/http://defense-update.com/products/m/M1A1AIM.htm |date=2007-10-11 }}, and [http://www.defense-update.com/products/m/M1A2SEP.htm M1A2 SEP Upgrade on Defense-Update.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210172647/http://www.defense-update.com/products/m/M1A2SEP.htm |date=2007-02-10 }}
 
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1-intro.htm M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank page on GlobalSecurity.com]
{{General Dynamics}}
* [http://www51.honeywell.com/aero/common/documents/myaerospacecatalog-documents/SurfaceSystems/AGT1500_Turbine_Technology.pdf AGT1500 Tubine Technology on Honeywell.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909103204/http://www51.honeywell.com/aero/common/documents/myaerospacecatalog-documents/SurfaceSystems/AGT1500_Turbine_Technology.pdf |date=2016-09-09 }}
{{Cold War tanks|style=wide}}
* http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/M1-Abrams-Tanks-for-Iraq-05013/
{{Post-Cold War tanks|style=wide}}


[[Category:Cold War tanks of the United States]]
[[Category:Tanks]]
[[Category:Main battle tanks of the Cold War]]
[[Category:Main battle tanks of the United States]]
[[Category:Military vehicles introduced in the 1980s]]
[[Category:General Dynamics land vehicles]]

Latest revision as of 21:23, 11 October 2022

Template:Infobox Weapon

The M1 Abrams is a modern main battle tank used by the United States. It is also exported to several countries. It is a well armed, well protected, and fast tank designed for modern armored ground warfare.[1] Notable features of the M1 Abrams include the use of a powerful engine, layered armor, and a low profile. It is one of the heaviest tanks in service, weighing almost 70 short tons.

The M1 Abrams entered U.S. service in 1980, replacing the M60 Patton.[2] Three main versions of the M1 Abrams have been deployed, the M1, M1A1, and M1A2, incorporating improved armament, protection and electronics. These improvements, as well as periodic upgrades to older tanks have allowed this long-serving vehicle to remain in front-line service. The M1A3 is currently under development. It is the principal (main) main battle tank of the United States Army and Marine Corps, and the armies of Egypt, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Australia, and in 2010 Iraq. The M1 Abrams is anticipated to be in U.S. service until the 2050s.

Notes[edit]

  1. ↑ M1 Abrams Main Battle tank. FAS.org, 14 April 2000
  2. ↑ Hunnicutt 1984, pp. 6, 149, 408.

References[edit]

  • King of the Killing Zone by Orr Kelly, 1989. W.W. Norton Company.
  • Rostker, Bernard: Environmental Exposure Report:Depleted Uranium in the Gulf. DoD Publication, 1998.[1] Archived 2010-06-03 at the Wayback Machine.
  • United States General Accounting Office:Operation Desert Storm: Early Performance Assessment of Bradley and Abrams. Washington, January 1992.PDF.
  • Halberstadt, Hans. Desert Storm Ground War. Osceola, WI, Motorbooks International, 1991. 128 pp.
  • Hilmes, Rolf (1 December 2004). "Arming Future MBTs - Some Considerations". Military Technology. Mönsch.
  • Hunnicutt, R. P. "Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank." 1984, Presidio Press; ISBN 0-89141-230-1.
  • Forty, George: Tank Action. From the Great War to the Gulf, Allan Sutton Publishing Ltd., Phoenix Mill 1995.
  • Zaloga Steven J., & Sarson, Peter: M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982-1992. Osprey Military, New Vanguard. Reed International Books Ltd, 1993.
  • "M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank". FAS Military Analysis Network. Retrieved January 17, 2004.
  • "TUSK to update Abrams for urban battle". Army News Service. Archived from the original on March 16, 2005. Retrieved April 6, 2005.
  • Army Times - Two soldiers die in attack on Abrams tank, October 29, 2003 Archived December 9, 2012, at Archive.today
  • DoD News: DoD Identifies Army Casualty - Dec 25, 2005 attack
  • DoD News: DoD Identifies Army Casualties - June 04, 2006 incident

External links[edit]

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