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| {{short description|Species of flowering plant in the beech and oak family Fagaceae}}
| | [[Image:Baginton oak tree july06.JPG|thumb|left|An old English oak in [[Baginton]], England.]] |
| {{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=July 2020}}
| | '''''Quercus robur''''', commonly known as '''Common oak''', '''Pedunculate oak''', '''European oak''' or '''English oak''', is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the beech and [[oak]] family, [[Fagaceae]]. It is [[native plant|native]] to most of [[Europe]] west of the [[Caucasus]]. |
| {{speciesbox
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| |image = Quercus robur.jpg
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| |image_caption = Leaves and acorns (note the long acorn stalks) | |
| |status = LC | |
| |status_system = IUCN3.1 | |
| |status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Barstow, M. |author2=Khela, S. |date=2017 |title=''Quercus robur'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T63532A3126467 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63532A3126467.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
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| |genus = Quercus
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| |display_parents = 2
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| |parent = Quercus sect. Quercus
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| |species = robur
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| |authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
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| |range_map = Quercus robur range.svg
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| |range_map_caption = Distribution map
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| |synonyms =
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| {{collapsible list |
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| {{plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
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| * ''Quercus abbreviata'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus accessiva'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus accomodata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus acutiloba'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus aesculus'' <small>Boiss.</small>
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| * ''Quercus aestivalis'' <small>Steven</small>
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| * ''Quercus afghanistanensis'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus alligata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus altissima ''<small>Petz. & G.Kirchn.</small>
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| * ''Quercus amoenifolia'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus appenina'' var. ''cylindracea'' <small>(Guss. ex Parl.) Nyman</small>
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| * ''Quercus appenina'' var. ''rumelica'' <small>(Griseb. & Schenk) Nyman</small>
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| * ''Quercus apula'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus arenaria'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus argentea'' <small>Morogues</small>
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| * ''Quercus assimilis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus asterotricha'' <small>Borbás & Csató</small>
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| * ''Quercus asturica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus atropurpurea'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus atrosanguinea'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus atrovirens'' <small>Sm.</small>
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| * ''Quercus aurea'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus australis'' <small>A.Kern.</small>
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| * ''Quercus auzin'' <small>Secondat ex Bosc.</small>
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| * ''Quercus avellanoides'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus axillaris'' <small>Schur</small>
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| * ''Quercus banatica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus batavica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus bavarica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus bedoi'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus belgica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus bellogradensis'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus borealis'' var. ''pilosa'' <small>(Schur) Simonk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus brachycarpa'' <small>Guss. ex Parl.</small>
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| * ''Quercus brevipes'' <small>A.Kern.</small>
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| * ''Quercus brevipes'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus brutia'' <small>Ten.</small>
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| * ''Quercus bruttia'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus castanoides'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus commiserata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus comptoniifolia'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus concordia'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus condensata'' <small>Schur</small>
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| * ''Quercus coriifolia'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus crispa'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus croatica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus cunisecta'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus cuprea'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus cupressoides'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus cupulatus'' <small>Gilib. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus cylindracea'' <small>Guss. ex Parl.</small>
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| * ''Quercus dacica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus danubialis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus dilatata'' <small>A.Kern.</small>
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| * ''Quercus discredens'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus dissecta'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus emarginulata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus erucifolia'' <small>Steven</small>
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| * ''Quercus esthonica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus estremadurensis'' <small>O.Schwarz</small>
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| * ''Quercus ettingeri'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus extensa'' <small>(Schur) Schur</small>
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| * ''Quercus falkenbergensis'' <small>Booth ex Loudon</small>
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| * ''Quercus farinosa'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus fastigiata'' <small>Lam.</small>
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| * ''Quercus femina'' <small>Mill.</small>
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| * ''Quercus fennessii'' <small>A.DC.</small>
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| * ''Quercus filicifolia'' <small>A.DC.</small>
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| * ''Quercus filipendula'' <small>Schloss. & Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus foemida'' <small>Mill.</small>
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| * ''Quercus fructipendula'' <small>Schrank</small>
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| * ''Quercus frutetorum'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus geltowiensis'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus germanica'' <small>Lasch</small>
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| * ''Quercus grecescui'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus haas'' <small>Kotschy</small>
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| * ''Quercus haerens'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus hentzei'' <small>Petz. & G.Kirchn.</small>
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| * ''Quercus hispanica'' <small>Willk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus hodginsii'' <small>Lodd. ex Steud. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus hohenackeri'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus horizontalis'' <small>Dippel</small>
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| * ''Quercus hyemalis'' <small>Steven</small>
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| * ''Quercus imeretina'' <small>Steven ex Woronow</small>
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| * ''Quercus immodica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus implicata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus kunzei'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus kurdica'' <small>Wenz.</small>
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| * ''Quercus laciniata'' <small>Lodd.</small>
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| * ''Quercus lanuginosa'' <small>Beck</small>
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| * ''Quercus lasistan'' <small>Kotschy ex A.DC.</small>
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| * ''Quercus lentula'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus longaeva'' <small>Salisb. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus longiglans'' <small>Debeaux</small>
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| * ''Quercus longipedunculata'' <small>Cariot & St.-Lag.</small>
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| * ''Quercus longipes'' <small>Steven</small>
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| * ''Quercus louettii'' <small>Dippel</small>
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| * ''Quercus lucorum'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus ludens'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus lugdunensis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus macroloba'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus madritensis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus malacophylla'' <small>(Schur) Schur</small>
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| * ''Quercus mestensis'' <small>Bondev & Gancev</small>
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| * ''Quercus microcarpa'' <small>Lapeyr.</small>
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| * ''Quercus microcarpa'' <small>Morogues</small>
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| * ''Quercus monorensis'' <small>Simonk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus montivaga'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus natalis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus nescensis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus nigricans'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus ochracea'' <small>Morogues</small>
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| * ''Quercus oelandica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus paleacea'' <small>Desf.</small>
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| * ''Quercus palmata'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus parmenteria'' <small>Mutel</small>
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| * ''Quercus pectinata'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus pedemontana'' <small>Colla</small>
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| * ''Quercus pedunculata'' <small>Ehrh.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pedunculata'' <small>Hoffm.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pedunculiflora'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus pendula'' <small>(Neill) Lodd.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pendulina'' <small>Kit.</small>
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| * ''Quercus petropolitana'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus pilosa'' <small>(Schur) Simonk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pilosula'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus pinnatipartita'' <small>(Boiss.) O.Schwarz</small>
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| * ''Quercus plebeia'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus pluriceps'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus pseudopedunculata'' Vuk.
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| * ''Quercus pseudoschorochensis'' <small>Boiss.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pseudosessilis'' <small>Schur</small>
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| * ''Quercus pseudotscharakensis'' <small>Kotschy ex A.DC.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pulverulenta'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus purpurea'' <small>Lodd. ex Loudon</small>
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| * ''Quercus pyramidalis'' <small>C.C.Gmel.</small>
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| * ''Quercus pyrenaica'' <small>Steven</small>
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| * ''Quercus quaerens'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus racemosa'' <small>Lam.</small>
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| * ''Quercus robur'' <small>(Ten.) A. DC.</small>
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| * ''Quercus rossica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus rostanii'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus rubens'' <small>Petz. & G.Kirchn.</small>
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| * ''Quercus rubicunda'' <small>Dippel</small>
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| * ''Quercus rumelica'' <small>Griseb. & Schenk</small>
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| * ''Quercus salicifolia'' <small>Steud. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus scandica'' <small>Gand. nom. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus schlosseriana'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus scolopendrifolia'' <small>K.Koch</small>
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| * ''Quercus scotica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus scythica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus semipinnata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''condensata'' (Schur) Nyman
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| * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''microcarpa'' <small>(Lapeyr.) Nyman</small>
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| * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''pedemontana'' <small>(Colla) Nyman</small>
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| * ''Quercus sessiliflora'' var. ''tcharachensis'' <small>Albov</small>
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| * ''Quercus sieboldii'' <small>Dippel</small>
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| * ''Quercus similata'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus speciensis'' <small>Dippel</small>
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| * ''Quercus stilbophylla'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus subvelutina'' <small>Schur</small>
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| * ''Quercus svecica'' <small>Borbás</small>
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| * ''Quercus tanaicensis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus tardiflora'' <small>Czern. ex Stev.</small>
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| * ''Quercus tennesi'' <small>Wesm.</small>
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| * ''Quercus tephrochlamys'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus tetracarpa'' <small>Vuk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus tholeyroniana'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus thomasii'' <small>Ten.</small>
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| * ''Quercus tomentosa'' <small>Ehrh. ex A.DC. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus tozzae'' <small>Dippel</small>
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| * ''Quercus transiens'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus tricolor'' <small>Petz. & G.Kirchn.</small>
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| * ''Quercus tristis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus turbinata'' <small>Kit.</small>
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| * ''Quercus urbica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus vallicola'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus verecunda'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus versatilis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus vialis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus viminalis'' <small>Bosc</small>
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| * ''Quercus virgata'' <small>Martrin-Donos</small>
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| * ''Quercus volhynica'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| * ''Quercus vulgaris'' <small>Bubani</small>
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| * ''Quercus welandii'' <small>Simonk.</small>
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| * ''Quercus wolgensis'' <small>Gand. not validly published</small>
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| }}
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| }}
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| |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Quercus+robur|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species}}</ref> | |
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| '''''Quercus robur''''', commonly known as '''common oak''', '''pedunculate oak''', '''European oak''' or '''English oak''', is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the beech and [[oak]] family, [[Fagaceae]]. It is [[native plant|native]] to most of [[Europe]] west of the [[Caucasus]]. The tree is widely cultivated in temperate regions and has escaped into the wild in scattered parts of China and North America.<ref>{{eFloras|1|210001863|Quercus robur |first=Kevin C. |last=Nixon |volume=3}}</ref><ref>{{eFloras|2|210001863|Quercus robur |first1=Chengjiu |last1=Huang |first2=Yongtian |last2=Zhang |first3=Bruce |last3=Bartholomew |volume=4}}</ref>
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| ==Description==
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| [[Image:Baginton oak tree july06.JPG|thumb|left|An old English oak in [[Baginton]], England]]
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| [[File:Quercus robur acorn - Keila.jpg|thumb|Acorn]]
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| [[Image:Wistman's Wood in winter.jpg|thumb|left|Ancient pedunculate oaks at [[Wistman's Wood]] in Devon, England]]
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| [[File:Quercus robur - sprouting acorn.jpg|thumb|Seedling sprouting from its acorn]]
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| [[File:Oaksprout.jpg|thumb|An oak sprout in a glass container]]
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| ''Quercus robur'' is a large [[deciduous]] tree, with circumference of grand oaks from {{convert|4|m|abbr=off}} to an exceptional {{convert|12|m|abbr=on}}. The Majesty Oak with a circumference of {{convert|12.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} is the thickest tree in [[Great Britain]],<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/countryside/8557126/Britains-record-breaking-trees-identified.html "Britain's record-breaking trees"], ''The Daily Telegraph''</ref> and the [[Kaive Oak]] in [[Latvia]] with a circumference of {{convert|10.2|m|abbr=on}} is the thickest tree in [[Northern Europe]].{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} The largest historical oak was known as the Imperial Oak from Bosnia and Herzegovina. This specimen was recorded at 17.5 m in circumference at breast height and estimated at over 150 m³ in total volume. It collapsed in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Pedunculate Oaks (Quercus robur) worldwide|url=https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/world-quercusrobur/}}</ref> The species has lobed and nearly sessile (very short-stalked) [[leaves]] {{convert|7|-|14|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=off}} long. Flowering takes place in mid spring, and the fruit, called [[acorn]]s, ripen by mid autumn. The acorns are {{convert|2|-|2.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} long, pedunculate (having a peduncle or acorn-stalk, {{convert|3|-|7|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long) with one to four acorns on each peduncle.
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| It is a long-lived tree, with a large wide spreading crown of rugged branches. While it may naturally live to an age of a few centuries, many of the oldest trees are [[pollarding|pollarded]] or [[coppice]]d, both pruning techniques that extend the tree's potential lifespan, if not its health.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} Two individuals of notable longevity are the [[Stelmužė Oak]] in [[Lithuania]] and the [[Granit Oak]] in [[Bulgaria]], which are believed to be more than 1500 years old, possibly making them the oldest oaks in Europe; another specimen, called the '[[Kongeegen]]' ('Kings Oak'), estimated to be about 1,200 years old, grows in [[Jaegerspris]], [[Denmark]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kong Frederik den Syvendes Stiftelse paa Jægerspris|url=http://www.kongfrederik.dk/main.asp?me=41&sc=3|website=www.kongfrederik.dk|access-date=23 October 2017}}</ref> Yet another can be found in [[Rumskulla oak|Kvilleken]], [[Sweden]], that is over 1000 years old and {{convert|14|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} around.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Nerladdningssida/?fileType=pdf&downloadUrl=/Documents/publikationer/620-5617-4.pdf | title= The Oak Tree, from Peasant Torment to a Unifying Concept of Landscape Management | first= Jerker |last= Moström | publisher= National Heritage Board of Sweden | work= The Oak – History, Ecology Management and Planning | location= Linköping, Sweden| date= May 2006 }}</ref> Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of [[Ivenack]], [[Germany]]. [[Dendrochronology|Tree-ring research]] of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years. Also the [[Bowthorpe Oak]] in [[Lincolnshire]], [[England]] is estimated to be 1,000 years old, making it the oldest in the UK, although there is [[Knightwood Oak]] in the [[New Forest]] that is also said to be as old. The highest density of ''Q. robur'' with a circumference of {{convert|4|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} and more is in Latvia.<ref>Eniņš, Guntis (2008). [http://www.jr.lv/lv/veikals/prece/?shop_id=296940 ''100 dižākie un svētākie''], AS Lauku Avīze, p. 25. {{ISBN|978-9984-827-15-5}}</ref>
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| === Chemistry ===
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| [[Grandinin]]/[[roburin E]], [[castalagin]]/[[vescalagin]], [[gallic acid]], monogalloyl glucose ([[glucogallin]]) and [[valoneic acid dilactone]], monogalloyl glucose, [[digalloyl glucose]], [[trigalloyl glucose]], [[rhamnose]], [[quercitrin]] and [[ellagic acid]] are phenolic compounds found in ''Q. robur''.<ref>Analysis of oak tannins by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry. Pirjo Mämmelä, Heikki Savolainenb, Lasse Lindroosa, Juhani Kangasd and Terttu Vartiainen, Journal of Chromatography A, Volume 891, Issue 1, 1 September 2000, Pages 75–83, {{doi|10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00624-5}}</ref> The heartwood contains [[triterpene saponin]]s.<ref>Identification of triterpene saponins in Quercus robur L. and Q. petraea Liebl. Heartwood by LC-ESI/MS and NMR. Arramon G, Saucier C, Colombani D and Glories Y, Phytochem Anal., November-DEcember 2002, volume 13, issue 6, pages 305–310, {{PMID|12494747}}</ref>
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| == Taxonomy ==
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| ''Quercus robur'' ([[Latin]] ''quercus'', "oak" + ''robur'' "strength, hard timber") is the type species of the genus (the species by which the oak genus ''Quercus'' is defined), and a member of the [[white oak]] section (''Quercus'' section ''Quercus''). The populations in Italy, southeast Europe, and Asia Minor and the Caucasus are sometimes treated as separate species, ''Q. brutia'' Tenore, ''Q. pedunculiflora'' K. Koch and ''Q. haas'' Kotschy respectively.
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| A close relative is the [[sessile oak]] (''[[Quercus petraea|Q. petraea]]''), which shares much of its range. ''Q. robur'' is distinguished from this species by its leaves having only a very short stalk ([[petiole (botany)|petiole]]) {{convert|3|-|8|mm|in|frac=16}} long, and by its pedunculate (stalked) acorns. The two often [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridise]] in the wild, the hybrid being known as ''[[Quercus × rosacea]]''.
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| ''Quercus robur'' should not be confused with ''Q. rubra'', the [[Quercus rubra|red oak]], which is a native of North America and only distantly related.
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| == Ecology ==
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| [[File:Holz der Stieleiche.jpg|thumb|bark and wood]]
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| [[File:Oak bark.jpg|thumb|Oak bark]]
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| [[File:Quercus robur MHNT.BOT.2010.6.75.jpg|thumb|''Quercus robur'' - [[MHNT]]]]
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| [[Image:Juhász Gyula memorial tree.JPG|thumb|The [[Gyula Juhász (poet)|Gyula Juhász]] memorial tree in [[Makó]]]]
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| [[File:Q-robur-concordia.jpg|thumb|''Q. robur'' 'Concordia']]
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| ''Quercus robur'' is very tolerant to soil conditions and the [[continental climate]] but it prefers fertile and well-watered soils. Mature trees tolerate flooding.<ref>{{citation |author=Ducousso, A. |title=Pedunculate and sessile oaks - ''Quercus robur''/''Quercus petraea'': Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use |date=2004 |url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1038_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_Pedunculate_and_sessile_oaks__Quercus_robur__and__Quercus_petraea_.pdf |pages=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131185044/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1038_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_Pedunculate_and_sessile_oaks__Quercus_robur__and__Quercus_petraea_.pdf |publisher=[[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] |access-date=2017-01-19 |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=2017-01-31 |author2=Bordacs, S. |url-status=dead}}</ref>
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| Within its native range, ''Q. robur'' is valued for its importance to [[insect]]s and other wildlife. Numerous insects live on the leaves, buds, and in the acorns. ''Q. robur'' supports the highest biodiversity of insect herbivores of any British plant (>400 spp)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy, C. E. J., and T. R. E. Southwood |title=The number of species associated with British Trees: a re-analysis |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |date=1984 |volume=53, no. 2 |issue=[Wiley, British Ecological Society] |page=459 |doi=10.2307/4528|jstor=4528 }}</ref> and the quantity of [[Caterpillar|caterpiller]] species increases with their age.<ref name="Rebirding" /> [[Eurasian blue tit|Blue]] and [[great tit]]s time their egg hatching to the leaves opening.<ref name="Rebirding">{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=Benedict |title=Rebirding |date=2019 |publisher=Pelagic |location=Exeter, EX3 9BR |isbn=978-1-78427-219-7 |page=78 |edition=2020}}</ref>
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| The acorns form a valuable food resource for several small [[mammal]]s and some birds, notably [[Eurasian jay]]s ''Garrulus glandarius''. Jays were overwhelmingly the primary propagators<ref>{{cite book |page= 131 |title=Forest and Woodland Trees in Britain |first= John |last=White |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 0-19-854883-4}}</ref> of oaks before humans began planting them commercially (and still remain the principal propagators for wild oaks), because of their habit of taking acorns from the umbra of its parent tree and burying them undamaged elsewhere. Mammals, notably [[squirrel]]s who tend to hoard acorns and other nuts, usually leave them too abused to grow in the action of moving or storing them.
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| ==Cultivation==
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| A number of [[cultivar]]s are grown in [[garden]]s and [[park]]s and in [[Arboretum|arboreta]] and botanical gardens. The most common cultivar is ''Quercus robur'' 'Fastigiata', and is the exception among ''Q. robur'' cultivars that are generally smaller than the standard tree, growing to between {{convert|10|and|15|m|ft|abbr=on|round=5}} and exhibit unusual leaf or crown shape characteristics.
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| ; In Australia
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| English oak is one of the most common park trees in south-eastern Australia, noted for its vigorous, luxuriant growth. In [[Australia]], it grows very quickly{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} to a tree of {{convert|20|m|abbr=on}} tall by up to {{convert|20|m|abbr=on}} broad, with a low-branching canopy. Its trunk and secondary branches are very thick and solid and covered with deep-fissured blackish-grey bark.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metrotrees.com.au/treehandbook/page-listings/quercus-robur.html |title=Quercus robur |publisher=Metrotrees.com.au |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref>
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| The largest example in Australia is in [[Donnybrook, Western Australia|Donnybrook]], [[Western Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Nina Smith |url=http://www.donnybrookmail.com.au/news/local/news/general/australias-biggest-oak-tree/1701700.aspx |title=Australia's Biggest Oak Tree |publisher=Donnybrookmail.com.au |date=2009-12-10 |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref>
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| ===Cultivars===
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| * ''Quercus robur'' 'Fastigiata' ("cypress oak"), probably the most common cultivated form {{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}, it grows to a large imposing tree with a narrow columnar habit. The fastigiate oak was originally propagated from an upright tree that was found in central Europe.
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| * ''Quercus robur'' 'Concordia' ("golden oak"), a small very slow-growing tree, eventually reaching {{convert|10|m|abbr=on}}, with bright golden-yellow leaves throughout spring and summer. It was originally raised in Van Geert's nursery at [[Ghent]] in 1843.
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| * ''Quercus robur'' 'Pendula' ("weeping oak"), a small to medium-sized tree with pendulous branches, reaching up to 15 m.
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| * ''Quercus robur'' 'Purpurea' is another cultivar growing to 10 m, but with purple-coloured leaves.
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| * ''Quercus robur'' 'Filicifolia' ("cut-leaved oak") is a cultivar where the leaf is pinnately divided into fine forward pointing segments.
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| ===Hybrids===
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| Along with the naturally occurring ''Q. × rosacea'', several [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] with other white oak species have also been produced in cultivation, including Turner's Oak ''Q. × turneri'', Heritage Oak ''Q. × macdanielli'', and Two Worlds Oak ''Q. × bimundorum'', the latter two developed by nurseries in the [[United States]].
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| * ''[[Quercus × bimundorum|Q. × bimundorum]]'' ([[Quercus alba|''Q. alba'']] × ''Q. robur'') (two worlds oak)
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| * ''[[Quercus × macdanielli|Q. × macdanielli]]'' ([[Bur oak|''Q. macrocarpa'']] × ''Q. robur'') (heritage oak)
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| * ''[[Quercus × rosacea|Q. × rosacea]]'' [[Johann Matthäus Bechstein|Bechst.]] ([[Sessile oak|''Q. petraea'']] x ''Q. robur''), a hybrid of the sessile oak and English oak. It is usually of intermediate character between its parents, however it does occasionally exhibit more pronounced characteristics of one or the other parent.
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| * ''[[Quercus × turneri|Q. × turneri]]'' [[Carl Ludwig Willdenow|Willd.]] ([[Quercus ilex|''Q. ilex'']] × ''Q. robur'') (Turner's oak), a semi-evergreen tree of small to medium size with a rounded crown; it was originally raised at the Holloway Down Nursery of Spencer Turner, [[Leyton|Leyton, Essex]], UK, noted by the zoologist [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] at Trianon, [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] in 1783, as the ''chêne de turnère''.<ref>[[Henry John Elwes]], ''The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland'', ''s.v.'' "Quercus", p. 1189.</ref> (Turner had died in January 1776, and the nursery grounds, on extended lease, returned to the landowner.)<ref>[http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/D460474 Turner's will, PRO]</ref> An early specimen was planted at the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] in 1798; it was uprooted in the [[Great Storm of 1987]] but resettled in the ground and then increased its healthy growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/plants/trees/turnersoak.html |title=Kew: Plants: Turner's Oak, Quercus x turneri |publisher=Rbgkew.org.uk |date=1987-10-16 |access-date=2012-05-02 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820065524/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/plants/trees/turnersoak.html |archive-date=20 August 2008}}</ref>
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| * [[Quercus × warei|''Q. × warei'']] (''Q. robur fastigiata'' x ''[[Quercus bicolor|Q. bicolor]]''), a hybrid between upright English oak and the swamp white oak. The selections within this hybrid include 'Long' ({{tdes|Regal Prince}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buckeyegardening.com/potm0406.html |title=Plant of the Month |publisher=Buckeyegardening.com |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref> and 'Nadler' ({{tdes|Kindred Spirit}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oaknames.org/search/index.asp |title=''International Oak Society Link'' |publisher=Oaknames.org |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref>
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| ===Diseases===
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| * [[Acute oak decline]]
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| * [[Powdery mildew]] caused by ''[[Erysiphe alphitoides]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/infd-7b3d24|access-date=13 April 2013|title=Oak mildew|publisher=[[Forestry Commission]]|year=2013}}</ref>
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| * [[Sudden oak death]]
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| == Commercial forestry ==
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| ''Quercus robur'' is planted for [[forestry]], and produces a long-lasting and durable [[heartwood]], much in demand for interior and furniture work. The wood of ''Q. robur'' is identified by a close examination of a [[cross section (geometry)|cross-section]] perpendicular to fibres. The wood is characterised by its distinct (often wide) dark and light brown growth rings. The earlywood displays a vast number of large vessels (around {{convert|0.5|mm|in|frac=64|abbr=in|disp=or}} in diameter). There are rays of thin (about {{convert|0.1|mm|in|frac=256|abbr=on|disp=or}}) yellow or light brown lines running across the growth rings. The timber is around {{convert|720|kg|abbr=off}} per cubic meter in density.<ref>[http://www.nichetimbers.co.uk/native-hardwood/british-oak/ British Oak]. Niche Timbers. Accessed 19-08-2009.</ref>
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| == Culture ==
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| ===Basque Country===
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| In the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]] (Spain and France) the oak symbolises the traditional [[Fuero|Basque liberties]]. This is based on the '[[Gernikako Arbola|tree of Gernika]]', an ancient oak tree located in [[Gernika]], below which since at least the 13th century the [[Lords of Biscay]] first, and afterwards their successors the [[Kings of Castile]] and the [[Kings of Spain]] solemnly swore to uphold the [[Fuero|charter of Biscay]], which secured widespread rights to the inhabitants of [[Biscay]]. Since the 14th century, the [[Juntas Generales]] (the parliament of Biscay) gathers in a building next to the oak tree, and symbolically passes its laws under the tree as well. Nowadays, the [[Lehendakari]] (Basque prime minister) swears his oath of office under the tree.
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| ===Bulgaria===
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| The national [[coat of arms of Bulgaria]] includes two crossed oak branches with fruits – as shield ([[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]]) [[Compartment (heraldry)|compartment]].
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| ===Croatia===
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| Oak leaves with acorns are depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Croatian 5 [[Croatian kuna|lipa]] coin, minted since 1993.<ref>[http://www.hnb.hr Croatian National Bank] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506012028/http://www.hnb.hr/ |date=6 May 2009 }}. [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 Kuna and Lipa, Coins of Croatia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622012116/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 |date=22 June 2009 }}: [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e5lipa.htm?tsfsg=a5ee4c0e86800b7a3ae0a4fb87366071 5 Lipa Coin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604014510/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e5lipa.htm?tsfsg=a5ee4c0e86800b7a3ae0a4fb87366071 |date=4 June 2011 }}. – Retrieved on 31 March 2009.</ref> The pedunculate oak of the Croatian region of [[Slavonia]] (considered a separate subspecies – ''Slavonian oak'') is a regional symbol of Slavonia and a national symbol of [[Croatia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/croatia/croatian-national-symbols/10872 |title=Croatian National Symbols |publisher=kwintessential.co.uk/ |access-date=2013-04-23}}</ref>
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| ===Finland===
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| In traditional [[Finns|Finnish]] culture, the oak is considered a holy tree.<ref name=yle>{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2016/06/20/mytologia-myyttinen-tammi |first=Reetta |last=Ranta |title=Mytologia: Myyttinen tammi |date=20 June 2016|language=fi |website= yle.fi |publisher=[[Yle|Finnish Broadcasting Company]] |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407041309/https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2016/06/20/mytologia-myyttinen-tammi |archive-date=7 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Baltic Finnic peoples|Finnic]] mythology, the [[World tree]], which supported the sky, was a great oak, which grew to block the movement of the sky, sunlight and moonlight, and had to be felled, releasing its magic, creating the [[Milky Way]], which guides dead souls to the afterworld.<ref name=yle/><ref name=turunsanomat>{{cite web|url=https://www.ts.fi/teemat/1074138309 |first=Topi |last=Nykänen |title=Elämänvoiman juurella |date=6 August 2006 |language=fi |website=Turun Sanomat |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/pcTjc |archive-date=3 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The oak was also considered to have many magical properties, and it was used in traditional Finnish folk medicine as well.<ref name=yle/>
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| In 1746, all oak trees were legally classified as royal property (at the time Finland was a part of Sweden), and oaks had enjoyed legal protection already from the 17th century.<ref name=karjalohja>{{cite web|url=http://aikamatkakarjalohjalla.fi/pipola.html |year=2019 |title=Pipolan tammimetsikkö |language=fi |website=aikamatkakarjalohjalla.fi |publisher=Karjalohjan Kotiseutuyhdistys |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/afm8W |archive-date=3 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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| The oak is also the regional tree of the [[Southwest Finland]] region,<ref name=luontoportti>{{cite web|url=https://luontoportti.com/t/1365/tammi |title=Tammi |language=fi |website=Luontoportti |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/357pj |archive-date=3 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> where it is a common yard tree.<ref name=helsinki>{{cite web|url=https://www.helsinki.fi/metsatieteet/arboretum/puulajit/quercus_robur.html |title=Quercus robur - Tammi |first=Antti |last=Sipilä |language=fi |website=helsinki.fi |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101184518/http://www.helsinki.fi/metsatieteet/arboretum/puulajit/quercus_robur.html |archive-date=1 November 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
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| ===France===
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| The oak tree has had a symbolic value since Ancient times. Some oaks were considered sacred trees by the [[Gauls]]. The druids would [[Ritual of oak and mistletoe|cut down the mistletoe growing on them]]. Even after [[Christianization]], oak trees were considered to protect as lightning would fall on them rather than on nearby inhabitation. Such struck trees would often be turned into places of worship, like the [[Chêne chapelle]]. King [[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]] has been represented rendering justice under an oak tree. During the [[French Revolution]], oaks were often planted as [[trees of Freedom]] ([[:fr:Arbre de la liberté|fr]]). One of such trees, an oak planted during the [[French Revolution of 1848|1848 Revolution]], survived the destruction of [[Oradour-sur-Glane massacre|Oradour-sur-Glane]] by the [[Nazis]]. The branch of oak is part of the [[National emblem of France]]. After the announcement of General [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s death, caricaturist [[Jacques Faizant]] represented him as a fallen oak.
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| ===Germany===
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| In Germany, the oak tree is used as a typical object and symbol in romanticism. It can be found in several paintings of [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and in "Of the life of a Good-For-Nothing" written by [[Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff]] as a symbol of the state protecting every citizen. In those works the oak is shown in different situations, with leaves and flowers or dead without any of its previous beauty. Those conditions are mostly symbols for the conditions Germany is in or going through. Furthermore, the oak's stem is a symbol for Germany's strength and stability. Oak branches were displayed on the reverse of coins of the old [[Deutsche Mark]] currency (1 through 10 Pfennigs; the 50 Pfennigs coin showed a woman planting an oak seedling), and are now also displayed on the reverse of German-issue [[Euro]] currency coins (1 through 5 cents).
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| ===Ireland===
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| In Ireland, at [[Birr Castle]], a specimen over 400 years old has a girth of {{Convert|6.5|m|abbr=on}}. It is known as the Carroll Oak, referring to the local Chieftains, [[Ely O'Carroll]] who ruled prior to Norman occupation.<ref>Fifty Trees of Distinction by Prof. D.A. Webb and the Earl of Ross. Booklet, published by Birr Castle Demesne, 2000.</ref>
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| ===Latvia===
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| In [[Latvia]] oak is the national symbol. Many [[Latvians|Latvian]] folk songs are about oak tree. Base of the coat of arms is decorated with the branches of an oak tree.
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| ===Romania===
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| The [[Romania national rugby union team|Romanian]] [[Rugby Union]] side is known as ''The Oaks.''
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| ===Scandinavia===
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| [[File:Tammisaari.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright=0.6|Oak pictured in the coat of arms of [[Ekenäs, Finland|Ekenäs]]]]
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| In the [[Scandinavia]]n countries, oaks were considered the "[[thunderstorm]] trees", which representing [[Thor]], the god of thunder.<ref>{{cite book | title = Suomen terveyskasvit : luonnon parantavat yrtit ja niiden salaisuudet | page= 256 | author = Marja-Leena Huovinen & Kaarina Kanerva | year = 1982 | location = Helsinki | publisher = Valitut Palat | isbn = 951-9078-87-8 | language=fi}}</ref>
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| ===United Kingdom===
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| In England, the English oak has assumed the status of a national emblem. This has its origins in the oak tree at [[Boscobel House]], where the future [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] hid from his [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] pursuers in 1650 during the [[English Civil War]]; the tree has since been known as the [[Royal Oak]]. This event was celebrated nationally on 29 May as [[Oak Apple Day]], which is continued to this day in some communities.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/moonraking/folklore_oak_apple.shtml |title=Wiltshire - Moonraking - Oak Apple Day |publisher=BBC |date=1931-05-29 |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref> 'The Royal Oak' is the third most popular [[pub name]] in Britain (with 541 counted in 2007)<ref>{{cite web |title=Real Ale and Pub News Features Archive |url=http://www.solihullcamra.org.uk/features_archive.htm |publisher=Solihullcamra.org.uk |date=2007-11-15 |access-date=2012-05-02 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171337/http://www.solihullcamra.org.uk/features_archive.htm |archive-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> and has been the name of eight major [[Royal Navy]] [[HMS Royal Oak|warships]]. The naval associations are strengthened by the fact that oak was the main construction material for sailing warships. The Royal Navy was often described as 'The Wooden Walls of Old England'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=MEC1924 |title=National Maritime Museum |publisher=Nmm.ac.uk |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref> (a paraphrase of the [[Wooden Walls#Classical Period|Delphic Oracle]]) and the Navy’s official quick march is "[[Heart of Oak]]". In folklore, the [[Major Oak]] is where [[Robin Hood]] is purportedly to have taken shelter.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ehbp.com/the-definitive-list-of-british-oak-trees-their-history/|title=The Definitive List of British Oak Trees & Their History {{!}} EHBP|date=2018-02-16|work=English Heritage Buildings|access-date=2018-03-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> Furthermore, the oak is the most common woodland tree in England.<ref>{{cite web| first= Steve | last= Smith | url= http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/frnationalinventory0001.pdf/$FILE/frnationalinventory0001.pdf |agency= Table 1 | page= 52 |title= The National Inventory of Woodland and Trees - England | publisher= Forestry Commission | location= UK}}</ref> An oak tree has been depicted on the reverse of the [[British one pound coin#Designs|pound coin]] (the 1987 and 1992 issues) and a sprig of oak leaves and acorns is the emblem of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]. | | In England, the English oak has assumed the status of a national emblem. This has its origins in the oak tree at [[Boscobel House]], where the future [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] hid from his [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] pursuers in 1650 during the [[English Civil War]]; the tree has since been known as the [[Royal Oak]]. This event was celebrated nationally on 29 May as [[Oak Apple Day]], which is continued to this day in some communities.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/moonraking/folklore_oak_apple.shtml |title=Wiltshire - Moonraking - Oak Apple Day |publisher=BBC |date=1931-05-29 |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref> 'The Royal Oak' is the third most popular [[pub name]] in Britain (with 541 counted in 2007)<ref>{{cite web |title=Real Ale and Pub News Features Archive |url=http://www.solihullcamra.org.uk/features_archive.htm |publisher=Solihullcamra.org.uk |date=2007-11-15 |access-date=2012-05-02 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171337/http://www.solihullcamra.org.uk/features_archive.htm |archive-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> and has been the name of eight major [[Royal Navy]] [[HMS Royal Oak|warships]]. The naval associations are strengthened by the fact that oak was the main construction material for sailing warships. The Royal Navy was often described as 'The Wooden Walls of Old England'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=MEC1924 |title=National Maritime Museum |publisher=Nmm.ac.uk |access-date=2012-05-02}}</ref> (a paraphrase of the [[Wooden Walls#Classical Period|Delphic Oracle]]) and the Navy’s official quick march is "[[Heart of Oak]]". In folklore, the [[Major Oak]] is where [[Robin Hood]] is purportedly to have taken shelter.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ehbp.com/the-definitive-list-of-british-oak-trees-their-history/|title=The Definitive List of British Oak Trees & Their History {{!}} EHBP|date=2018-02-16|work=English Heritage Buildings|access-date=2018-03-12|language=en-GB}}</ref> Furthermore, the oak is the most common woodland tree in England.<ref>{{cite web| first= Steve | last= Smith | url= http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/frnationalinventory0001.pdf/$FILE/frnationalinventory0001.pdf |agency= Table 1 | page= 52 |title= The National Inventory of Woodland and Trees - England | publisher= Forestry Commission | location= UK}}</ref> An oak tree has been depicted on the reverse of the [[British one pound coin#Designs|pound coin]] (the 1987 and 1992 issues) and a sprig of oak leaves and acorns is the emblem of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]. |
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| == Genetics ==
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| The genome of ''Q. robur'' has been completely sequenced (GenOak project); a first version was published in 2016. It comprises 12 chromosomes pairs, about {{formatnum:26000}} genes and 750 million [[base pair|bp]].<ref>[http://www.oakgenome.fr/ Oak genome sequencing]</ref> This is roughly a quarter of the size of the human genome, which has about 3 billion base pairs.
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Gernikako Arbola|Gernika Oak]]
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| * [[Knopper gall]]
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| * [[Oak marble gall]]
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| ==References== | | ==References== |
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| * Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. HarperCollins {{ISBN|0-00-220013-9}}. | | * Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. HarperCollins {{ISBN|0-00-220013-9}}. |
| * {{in lang|fr}} [http://jeanlouis.helardot.free.fr/page_chenes/quercus_robur.htm Chênes: ''Quercus robur''] | | * {{in lang|fr}} [http://jeanlouis.helardot.free.fr/page_chenes/quercus_robur.htm Chênes: ''Quercus robur''] |
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| == External links ==
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| {{Commons category|Quercus robur}}
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| * [https://archive.today/20121204162908/http://www.deby.bialowieza.pl/ang Oaks from Bialowieza Forest in Poland (biggest oak cluster with the monumental sizes in Europe) {English}]
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| * [http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/photos-englishoak/ Monumental Trees, Photos and location details of large English oak trees]
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| * [http://www.poweroak.lv Latvia - the land of oaks]
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| * [http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/faga/querc/querrobv.jpg Den virtuella floran - Distribution]
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| * [http://www.euforgen.org/species/quercus-robur/ ''Quercus robur''] - information, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN)
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| {{Taxonbar|from=Q165145}}
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| {{Authority control}}
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| [[Category:Quercus|robur]] | | [[Category:Quercus|robur]] |
| [[Category:Trees of Asia]] | | [[Category:Trees of Asia]] |
| [[Category:Trees of Europe]] | | [[Category:Trees of Europe]] |
| [[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]] | | [[Category:State symbols of Estonia]] |
| [[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]] | | [[Category:State symbols of Latvia]] |
| [[Category:Least concern plants]] | | [[Category:State tree of Poland]] |
| [[Category:Least concern biota of Europe]]
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| [[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
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| [[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
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| [[Category:Garden plants of Europe]]
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| [[Category:Ornamental trees]] | | [[Category:Ornamental trees]] |
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