Akbar: Difference between revisions

{{short description|3rd Mughal Emperor from 1556 to 1605}}

| image = Govardhan. Akbar With Lion and Calf ca. 1630, Metmuseum (cropped).jpg

| caption = Akbar by [[Govardhan (Mughal painter)|Govardhan]], {{Circa|1630}}

| name = Jalal-ud-din Muhammad<br />Akbar

| title = [[Padishah]]<br>[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Kishori Saran Lal|author-link=K. S. Lal|url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Theory_and_Practice_of_Muslim_State_in_I.html?id=HmBuAAAAMAAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y|title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India |date=1999|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|page=67|quote=It may be recalled that as an adolescent, Akbar had earned the title of Ghazi by beheading the defenseless infidel Himu. Under Akbar and Jahangir "five or six hundred thousand human beings were killed,"says emperor Jahangir|isbn=978-81-86471-72-2 |language=en}}</ref>

| succession = 3rd [[Mughal Emperor]]

| reign = 11 February 1556&nbsp;– 27 October 1605<ref name=Eraly04>{{cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |year=2004 |title=The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors |publisher=Phoenix |pages=115, 116 |isbn=978-0-7538-1758-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Akbar (Mughal emperor) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11421/Akbar |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>

| coronation = 14 February 1556<ref name=Eraly04/>

| predecessor = [[Humayun]]

| successor = [[Jahangir]]

| regent = [[Bairam Khan]] (1556–1560)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian) |title=Medieval India: from Sultanat to the Mughals|date=2005|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8124110669|page=95|edition=Revised}}</ref>

| spouse = {{unbulleted list|

{{Marriage|[[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]]|1556}}<ref name="Thackston1999p437">{{cite book |last=Jahangir, Emperor of Hindustan |date=1999 |title=The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India |translator-last=Thackston |translator-first=Wheeler M. |translator-link=Wheeler Thackston |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=437 |isbn=978-0-19-512718-8 |quote=Ruqayya-Sultan Begam, the daughter of Mirza Hindal and wife of His Majesty Arsh-Ashyani [Akbar], had passed away in Akbarabad. She was His Majesty's chief wife. Since she did not have children, when Shahjahan was born His Majesty Arsh-Ashyani entrusted that "unique pearl of the caliphate" to the begam's care, and she undertook to raise the prince. She departed this life at the age of eighty-four.}}</ref>

|{{Marriage|[[Salima Sultan Begum]]|1561}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robinson|first1=Annemarie Schimmel |editor-last=Waghmar |editor-first=Burzine K. |translator-last=Attwood |translator-first=Corinne |title=The empire of the Great Mughals : history, art and culture|date=2005|publisher=Sang-E-Meel Pub.|location=Lahore|isbn=9781861891853|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/145 145]|edition=Revised|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/145}}</ref>

|{{Marriage|[[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum]]|1562}}<ref name=farishta>{{cite book|last1=Hindu Shah|first1=Muhammad Qasim|title=Gulshan-I-Ibrahimi|volume=2|date=1595–1612|page=223|quote=Akbur, after this conquest, made pilgrimage to Khwaja Moyin-ood-Deen Chishty at Ajmere and returned to Agra; from whence he proceeded to visit the venerable Sheikh Sulim Chishty, in the village of Seekry. As all the king's children had hitherto died, he solicited the Sheikh's prayers, who consoled him, by assuring him he would soon have a son, who would live to a good old age. Shortly after, his favourite sooltana, being then pregnant, on Wednesday the 17th of Rubbee-ool-Awul, in the year 997 was delivered of a son, who was called Sulim.}}</ref><ref name=jlmehta>{{cite book|last1=Mehta|first1=J.L.|title=Advance Study in the history of Medieval India|volume=III|publisher=Sterling Publisher Private Limited|year=1981|isbn=8120704320|quote=Bihari Mal gave rich dowry to his daughter and sent his son Bhagwan Das with a contingent of Rajput soldiers to escort his newly married sister to Agra as per Hindu custom. Akbar was deeply impressed by the highly dignified, sincere and princely conduct of his Rajput relations. He took Man Singh, the youthful son of Bhagwant Das into the royal service. Akbar was fascinated by the charm and accomplishments of his Rajput wife; he developed real love for her and raised her to the status of chief queen. She came to exercise profound impact on socio-cultural environment of the entire royal household and changed the lifestyle of Akbar. Salim (later Jahangir), heir to the throne, was born of this wedlock on 30th August, 1569.}}</ref> }}

| spouse-type = Consorts

| spouses = {{unbulleted list|

|{{Marriage|Bhakkari Begum|1572}}

|{{Marriage|Qasima Banu Begum|1575}}

|''[[#Consorts and concubines|several others]]''}}

| issue = {{Unbulleted list|

| issue-link = #Issue

| full name = Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar<ref name="Britannica" />

| dynasty = [[Timurid dynasty]]

| house = [[Mughal dynasty|House of Babur]]

| father = [[Humayun]]

| mother = [[Hamida Banu Begum]]

| birth_name = Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar

| birth_date = 25 October 1542{{efn|name=birth}}

| birth_place = [[Amarkot]], [[Rajputana]] (present-day [[Umerkot]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]])

| death_date = {{death date and age|1605|10|27|1542|10|25|df=y}}

| death_place = [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Agra]], [[Mughal Empire]] (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]])

| burial_date = November 1605

| religion = [[Sunni Islam]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Antony|title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present|date=2011|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0748688784|page=245|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd1vAAAAQBAJ&q=akbar+sunni+muslim|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Eraly |first=Abraham |title= Emperors of the Peacock Throne : The Saga of the Great Mughals |year=2000 |publisher= Penguin books |isbn= 978-0-14-100143-2 |page=189 }}</ref> [[Din-e-Illahi]]

'''Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar'''<ref name=Britannica>{{cite web |last1=Ballhatchet |first1=Kenneth A. |title=Akbar |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 July 2017 |language=en}}</ref> (25 October 1542{{efn|name=birth}} – 27 October 1605),<ref name="iranicaonline1">{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/akbar-i-mughal-india |title=Akbar I |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |date=29 July 2011 |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-209 |title=Akbar I |publisher=Oxford Reference |date=17 February 2012 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |isbn=9780199546091}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fazl |first=Abul |title=The Akbarnama |publisher=ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL |pages=139–140 |translator-last=Beveridge |translator-first=Henry}}</ref> popularly known as '''Akbar the Great'''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Syed |first=Jawad |title=Akbar's multiculturalism: lessons for diversity management in the 21st century |journal=Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences |volume=28 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/CJAS.185 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |page=404}}</ref> ({{lang-fa|{{nq|اکبر اعظم}}}} {{IPA-fa|akbarɪ azam}}), and also as '''Akbar I''' ({{IPA-fa|akbar}}),<ref name=time/> was the third [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, [[Humayun]], under a regent, [[Bairam Khan]], who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India.

Akbar had a record of unbeaten military campaigns that consolidated Mughal rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="India Today"/><ref name="Lal">{{Cite book |last=Lal |first=Ruby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8NJ41GiXvsC&pg=PA140 |title=Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-85022-3 |page=140}}</ref> The basis of this military prowess and authority was Akbar's skilful structural and organisational calibration of the [[Mughal army]].<ref name="Kulke">{{Cite book

| page = [https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/88 88]|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne| url-access = registration

Around 1564 is also when there was an assassination attempt on Akbar documented in a painting. The attempt was made when Akbar was returning from a visit to the dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi, by an assassin shooting an arrow. The arrow pierced his right shoulder. The assassin was apprehended and ordered beheaded by the Emperor. The culprit was a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin, a noble in Akbar's court whose rebellion had recently been curbed.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Irfan |first1=Lubna |title=The Woman Whose Downfall Nearly Killed Akbar |url=https://thewire.in/history/mughal-emperor-akbar-maham-anga-assassination-attempt |publisher=TheWire |access-date=11 May 2020}}</ref>

Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of [[Rajputana]]. No imperial power in India based on the Indo-Gangetic plains could be secure if a rival centre of power existed on its flank in Rajputana.<ref name="Chandra"/> The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in [[Mewar|Mewat]], [[Ajmer]], and Nagor.<ref name="Richards2"/><ref name="Eraly2"/> Now, Akbar was determined to drive into the heartlands of the [[Rajput]]s who remained hostile to the rulers of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy.<ref name="Richards4"/> Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; the rulers of Mewar and Marwar, [[Udai Singh II|Udai Singh]] and [[Chandrasen Rathore]], however, remained outside the imperial fold.<ref name="Eraly2"/> Rana Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler, [[Rana Sanga]], who had fought Babur at the [[Battle of Khanwa]] in 1527.<ref name="Eraly2"/> As the head of the Sisodia clan, he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} Unless Udai Singh was reduced to submission, the imperial authority of the Mughals would be lessened in Rajput eyes.<ref name="Eraly2"/> Furthermore, Akbar, at this early period, was still enthusiastically devoted to the cause of Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over the most prestigious warriors in Brahminical Hinduism.<ref name="Eraly2"/>

In 1567, Akbar moved to reduce the [[Chittor Fort]] in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of great strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]] and was also considered a key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retired to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, [[Jaimal Rathore|Jaimal]] and [[Patta Sisodia|Patta]], in charge of the defence of his capital.<ref name="earlyconquest">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=231}}</ref> Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–1568)|siege of four months]]. Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region, in order to demonstrate his authority.<ref name="chittor">{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=342}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chandra |first=Satish|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part I |publisher=Har-Anand Publications|isbn=81-241-0522-7|page=107|year=2001}}</ref> The booty that fell into the hands of the Mughals was distributed throughout the empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Payne, Tod|year=1994|publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |isbn=81-206-0350-8|title=Tod's Annals of Rajasthan: The Annals of Mewar|page=71}}</ref> He remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where to commemorate the victory, he set up, at the gates of his fort, statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants.<ref name="Eraly3">{{Cite book

[[File:Jalal al-Din Muhammad Akbar. AH 963-1014 AD 1556-1605. AV Mohur Falcon type. Asir mint. Dated Khurdad Ilahi year 45 (20 February – 20 March AD 1600).jpg|thumb|300px|Falcon [[Mohur]] of Akbar, minted in Asir. This coin was issued in the name of Akbar, to commemorate the capture of the strategic [[Asirgarh Fort]] of the [[Khandesh Sultanate]] on 17 January 1601 CE. Legend: ''"Allah is great, [[Khordad]] Ilahi 45, struck at Asir"''.{{sfn|Smith|1917|p=274}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibbs |first1=J. |title=Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |date=1865 |publisher=Calcutta |pages=4–5 |url=https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofasi1883asia/page/4/mode/2up}}</ref>]]

Akbar set about reforming the administration of his empire's land revenue by adopting a system that had been used by [[Sher Shah Suri]]. A cultivated area where crops grew well was measured and taxed through fixed rates based on the area's crop and productivity. However, this placed hardship on the peasantry because tax rates were fixed on the basis of prices prevailing in the imperial court, which were often higher than those in the countryside.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=233}}</ref> Akbar changed to a decentralised system of annual assessment, but this resulted in corruption among local officials and was abandoned in 1580, to be replaced by a system called the ''{{transliteration|bn|dahsala}}''.<ref name="dahsala">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=234}}</ref> Under the new system, revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices, and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought.<ref name="dahsala"/> Akbar's ''{{transliteration|bn|dahsala}}'' system (also known as ''{{transliteration|bn|zabti}})'' is credited to [[Raja Todar Mal]], who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri,<ref name="Chandra 2007 236">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=236}}</ref> and the structure of the revenue administration was set out by the latter in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582–83.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=160}}</ref>

The reign of Akbar was characterized by commercial expansion.<ref name="Economy">{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html#n10|title=Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals|publisher=columbia.edu |access-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> The Mughal government encouraged traders, provided protection and security for transactions and levied a very low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade. Furthermore, it strived to foster a climate conducive to commerce by requiring local administrators to provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territory. To minimize such incidents, bands of highway police called ''{{transliteration|bn|rahdars}}'' were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure the safety of traders. Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications.<ref name="Levi">{{Cite book

}}</ref> Indeed, Akbar would make concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the [[Khyber Pass]], the most popular route frequented by traders and travelers journeying from [[Kabul]] into Mughal India.<ref name="Levi"/> He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of [[Multan]] and [[Lahore]] in the [[Punjab]] and constructed great forts, such as the one at [[Attock Fort|Attock]] near the crossing of the [[Grand Trunk Road]] and the [[Indus river]], as well as a network of smaller forts called ''thanas'' throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade with Persia and Central Asia.<ref name="Levi"/> Furthermore, he established a trade business for his chief consort, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]] who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels.<ref name=DirkCollier>{{cite book|last=Collier|first=Dirk|title=The Emperor's writings: Memories of Akbar the great|year=2011|page=326}}</ref>

[[File:Birth of jahangir.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Empress Mariam-uz-Zamani]], commonly known as Jodha Bai, giving birth to Prince Salim, the future emperor Jahangir.]]

{{quote box|width=25%|quote=''An Emperor shall be ever Intent on Conquest, Otherwise, His enemies shall rise in arms against him.''|source='''Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar'''

At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea trade in that region. As a consequence of this colonialism, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, and this was resented by the rulers and traders of the time including [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=256}}</ref>

In the year 1572 the [[Mughal Empire]] annexed [[Gujarat]] and acquired its first access to the sea after local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert control in the Indian Ocean. Hence Akbar was conscious of the threat posed by the presence of the Portuguese and remained content with obtaining a ''[[cartaz]]'' (permit) from them for sailing in the [[Persian Gulf]] region.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|pp=256–257}}</ref> At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the [[Siege of Surat]] in 1572, the Portuguese, recognizing the superior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war. The Portuguese Governor, upon the request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=259}}</ref> Akbar's efforts to purchase and secure from the Portuguese some of their compact [[artillery]] pieces were unsuccessful and thus Akbar could not establish the Mughal navy along the Gujarat coast.<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_16.html |title=XVI. Mughal Administration |publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref>

Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy, but the Portuguese continually asserted their authority and power in the Indian Ocean; Akbar was highly concerned when he had to request a permit from the Portuguese before any ships from the Mughal Empire were to depart for the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html |title=XIX. A Century of Political Decline: 1707–1803|publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref> In 1573, he issued a ''[[firman]]'' directing Mughal administrative officials in Gujarat not to provoke the Portuguese in the territory they held in [[Daman District, India|Daman]]. The Portuguese, in turn, issued passes for the members of Akbar's family to go on Hajj to Mecca. The Portuguese made mention of the extraordinary status of the vessel and the special status to be accorded to its occupants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=260}}</ref> Furthermore, he established a trade business for his favorite consort, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]] who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to the Gulf nations through merchant's vessels. The cost of her largest ship named 'Rahimi' built on the orders of Akbar is estimated to be around 300000 pounds (Rs 3 crores approximately).<ref name=DirkCollier/>

In September 1579 [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] from [[Goa]] were invited to visit the court of Akbar.<ref>Akbar's letter of invitation in John Correia-Afonso, ''Letters from the Mughal Court'', Bombay, 1980.</ref> The emperor had his scribes translate the [[New Testament]] and granted the Jesuits freedom to preach the Gospel.<ref name=org>{{cite book|last=Gomez|first=Oscar R|title= Tantrism in the Society of Jesus – from Tibet to the Vaticcan today |url=https://www.academia.edu/19202701 |year=2013|publisher=Editorial MenteClara|isbn=978-987-24510-3-5 |page=58}}</ref> One of his sons, [[Sultan Murad Mirza]], was entrusted to [[Antoni de Montserrat]] for his education.<ref>{{cite book |last=du Jarric |first=Pierre |translator-last=Payne |translator-first=C. H. |date=1926 |title=Akbar and the Jesuits |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75704 |series=Broadway Travellers |location=London |publisher=Harper & Brothers}}</ref><ref name="Durant2011">{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ru4LPyMAxxkC&pg=PT738 |date=7 June 2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-4668-9|pages=738– |access-date=27 August 2012}}</ref> While debating at court, the Jesuits did not confine themselves to the exposition of their own beliefs but also reviled Islam and Muhammad. Their comments enraged the [[Imam]]s and [[Ulama]], who objected to the remarks, but Akbar ordered their comments to be recorded and observed the Jesuits and their behavior. This event was followed by a rebellion of Muslim clerics in 1581 led by Mullah Muhammad Yazdi and Muiz-ul-Mulk, the chief [[Qadi]] of [[Bengal]]; the rebels wanted to overthrow Akbar and insert his brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim ruler of Kabul on the Mughal throne. Akbar successfully defeated the rebels, but he had grown more cautious about his guests and his proclamations, which he later checked with his advisers carefully.<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_12.html |title=XII. Religion at Akbar's Court |publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=18 January 2014}}</ref>

Akbar's effort to evolve a meeting point among the representatives of various religions was not very successful, as each of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respective religions by denouncing other religions. Meanwhile, the debates at the Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to their purpose of leading to a better understanding among religions, instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting in the discontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.<ref name="Chandra 2007 255">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=255}}</ref> However, his interaction with various religious theologians had convinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new religious movement known as [[Din-i-Ilahi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=256}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030480/Din-i-Ilahi |title=Din-i Ilahi&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 July 2009}}</ref>

Akbar's first wife and one of the chief consorts was his cousin, Princess [[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]],<ref name="Sang-E-Meel Pub"/><ref name="Thackston1999p437" /> the only daughter of his paternal uncle, Prince [[Hindal Mirza]],{{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=40}} and his wife Sultanam Begum. In 1551, Hindal Mirza died fighting valorously in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.<ref name="Erskine"/> Hindal's daughter Ruqaiya married Akbar about the time of his first appointment, at age nine, as governor of [[Ghazni Province]].<ref name="Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd"/> Humayun conferred on the imperial couple, all the wealth, army, and adherents of Hindal and Ghazni which one of Hindal's ''[[jagir]]'' was given to his nephew, Akbar, who was appointed as its viceroy and was also given the command of his uncle's army.<ref name="auto"/> Akbar's marriage with Ruqaiya was solemnized near [[Jalandhar]], Punjab, when both of them were 14 years old.<ref name="Eraly 2000 123, 272"/> She died childless in January 1626 and was buried next to her father's grave.

His second wife was the daughter of Abdullah Khan Mughal.<ref name="Burke1989"/> The marriage took place in 1557 during the siege of [[Mankot]]. [[Bairam Khan]] did not approve of this marriage, for Abdullah's sister was married to Akbar's uncle, Prince [[Kamran Mirza]], and so he regarded Abdullah as a partisan of Kamran. He opposed the match until Nasir-al-Mulk made him understand that opposition in such matters was unacceptable. Nasir-al-Mulk arranged an assemblage of pleasure and banquet of joy, and a royal feast was provided.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=88}}

His third wife and one of his three chief consorts was his cousin, [[Salima Sultan Begum]],<ref name="Burke1989">{{cite book|last1=Burke|first1=S. M.|title=Akbar: The Greatest Mogul|date=1989|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|pages=142, 143, 144|language=en}}</ref> the daughter of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Mirza and his wife Gulrukh Begum also known as Gulrang, the daughter of Emperor [[Babur]]. She was at first betrothed to Bairam Khan by Humayun. After Bairam Khan died in 1561, Akbar married her in the same year. She was the foster mother of Akbar's second son, [[Murad Mirza]]. She held a great influence on Akbar. She was a poetess and was regarded as a remarkable woman being a poetess, lover of books and actively played role in the politics of the Mughal court during Akbar's and Jahangir's reigns. She died childless on 2 January 1613.{{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=140}}

Akbar's favorite wife<ref name="farishta"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chaudhary|first1=S.N. Roy|title=Restoration of Split Milk|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|page=77|quote=The mother of Jahangir was a pious Hindu princess, the most favorite queen of Akbar|year=2011|isbn=9788121210461}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Esposito|first1=John L.|title=The Oxford History of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press, New York|year=1999|isbn=9780195107999|oclc =40838649}}</ref><ref name="indiatoday">{{cite web|title=Jodha Bai's 474th birth anniversary: 17 facts about the Queen Mother|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/jodha-bai-344257-2016-10-01}}</ref>{{sfn|Lal|1980|p=322}}<ref name=Qa>{{cite journal |last1=Safdar |first1=Aiysha |last2=Khan |first2=Muhammad Azam |date=January–June 2021 |title=History of Indian Ocean-A South Indian perspective |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/indianStudies/PDF/12_v7_1_21.pdf |journal=Journal of Indian Studies |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=186 |quote=The most influential queen of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542-1605), and mother of Emperor Jahangir, was the beautiful Empress Mariam-uz- Zamani, commonly known as Jodha Bai ... Akbar allowed his favourite and most loved wife to build ships for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the River Ravi.}}</ref> was the [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Harka Bai]], commonly known by misnomer Jodha Bai, whom he married in the year 1562. She was the daughter of the ruler of Amer, [[Raja Bharmal]] and was by birth of [[Rajput clans|Rajput caste]]. She was his fourth wife and became one of his chief consorts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mehta|first1=J.L.|title=Advance Study in the history of Medieval India|volume=III|publisher=Sterling Publisher Private Limited|year=1981|isbn=8120704320|quote=Bihari Mal gave rich dowry to his daughter and sent his son Bhagwan Das with a contingent of Rajput soldiers to escort his newly married sister to Agra as per Rajput custom. Akbar was deeply impressed by the highly dignified, sincere, and princely conduct of his Rajput relations. He took Man Singh, the youthful son of Bhagwant Das into the royal service. Akbar was fascinated by the charm and accomplishments of his Rajput wife; he developed real love for her and raised her to the status of chief queen. She came to exercise a profound impact on the socio-cultural environment of the entire royal household and changed the lifestyle of Akbar. Salim (later Jahangir), the heir to the throne, was born of this wedlock on 30th August 1569.}}</ref> She gradually became his most influential wife<ref name="Qa" /> and subsequently is the only wife buried close to him. Akbar bestowed her with the honorific name 'Wali Nimat Begum' (Blessings/Gift of God) shortly after her marriage. She was an extremely beautiful woman said to possess uncommon beauty.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tarikh-i-Salim Shahi|date=1829|editor-first=Mahor David|editor-last=Price}}</ref> Widely known for her beauty, grace, and intellect,<ref name=Ain-i-Akbari>{{cite book|last1=Mubarak|first1=Abul -Fazl|title=Ain-i-Akbari|date=1593|page=36}}</ref> she was a secular, amiable,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sleeman |first1=William Henry |author-link=William Henry Sleeman |title=Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official |volume=II |url=https://archive.org/details/ramblesrecollect02sleeuoft/page/65/mode/1up |year=1844 |page=65 |quote=We passed the tomb of Jodha Baee, the wife of the Emperor Akbar and the mother of Jehangeer. She was of Rajpoot caste, daughter of the Hindoo chief of Joudhpore, a very beautiful, and it is said a very amiable woman.}}</ref> sensible, and virtuous woman who was the prime driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism.<ref name=lal9>{{cite book|first=Muni|last=Lal|title=Akbar|year=1977|publisher=V.P. House Private ltd., Delhi|page=229}}</ref> This marriage took place when Akbar was on his way back from [[Ajmer]] after offering prayers to the tomb of [[Moinuddin Chishti]]. Raja Bharmal had conveyed to Akbar that he was being harassed by his brother-in-law Sharif-ud-din Mirza (the Mughal ''[[hakim (title)|hakim]]'' of [[Mewat]]). Akbar insisted that the Raja should submit to him personally, it was also suggested that his daughter should be married to him as a sign of complete submission.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|pp=240–243}} She became his first wife to honor the royal mansion with an heir. In the year 1564, she gave birth to twins named Mirza Hassan and Mirza Hussain. In the year 1569, she was honored with the prestigious title of Mariam-uz-Zamani after giving birth to their third son named Prince Salim (the future emperor [[Jahangir]]), the heir to the throne. She was also the foster mother of Akbar's favorite son, [[Daniyal Mirza]]. She was bestowed with three more titles of 'Mallika-e-Hindustan', 'Mallika-e-Muezamma' (Exalted Empress) and 'Shahi Begum' (Imperial Begum). As stated by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama, the Empress is said to have a superior rank in the imperial harem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fazl|first=Abul|title=Ain-I-Akbari|year=1590|volume=3|page=49|quote=When the world-conquering armies had been deputed, the Shāhinshāh proceeded stage by stage. On the day that he reached Sirohī, Mādhū* Singh and a number of men were sent to fetch that nursling of fortune's garden, Shahzāda Sultān Daniel, who had been conveyed from Ajmīr to Amber, so that he might be brought back to Ajmīr, and might come under the shadow of the Presence. In order to do honor to Rajah Bhagwān Das, his auspicious sister, who held high rank in the imperial harem, was sent off in order so that she might be present at the mourning for her brother Bhūpat, who had fallen in the battle of Sarnāl.}}</ref> She was a smart woman who established the international trade in the Mughal Empire and was the only wife of Akbar who had been authorized for the trade. In her time she was regarded as the most adventurous and fearsome businesswoman. She died on 19 May 1623 in Agra and was buried close to her husband in Sikandra. {{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=397}}

His next marriage took place in 1564 to the daughter of Miran Mubarak Shah, the ruler of [[Khandesh]]. In 1564, he sent presents to the court with a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. Miran's request acceded and an order was issued. Itimad Khan was sent with Miran's ambassadors, and when he came near the fort of Asir, which was Miran's residence. Miran welcomed Itimad with honor and despatched his daughter with Itimad. A large number of nobles accompanied her. The&nbsp; the marriage took place in September 1564 when she reached Akbar's court.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=352}} As a dowry, Mubarak Shah ceded Bijagarh and Handia to his imperial son-in-law.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mohd. Ilyas|last=Quddusi|title=Khandesh under the Mughals, 1601–1724 A.D.: mainly based on Persian sources|publisher=Islamic Wonders Bureau|year=2002|pages=4}}</ref>

He married another Rajput princess in 1570, Raj Kunwari, daughter of Kanha, the brother of Rai Kalyan Mal, the ruler of [[Bikanir]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dShuAAAAMAAJ&q="Raj+kanwari"+|title=A Persian historiography in India|year=2003|pages=78–79|isbn=9788173915376}}</ref> The marriage took place in 1570 when Akbar came to this part of the country. Kalyan made a homage to Akbar and requested that his brother's daughter be married to him. Akbar accepted his proposal, and the marriage was arranged.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fazl|first=Abu'l|title=Akbarnama|volume=II|pages=518}}</ref> He also married Bhanmati, daughter of Bhim Raj, another brother of Rai Kalyan Mal.<ref name=":1" /> He also married Nathi Bai, daughter of Rawal Har Rai, the ruler of [[Jaisalmer]] in 1570.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=518}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Manchanda|first=Bindu|title=Jaisalmer: The City of Golden Sands and Strange Spirits|location=Jaisalmer, India|pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Somani|first=Ramavallabha|title=History of Jaisalmer|pages=55}}</ref> Rawal had sent a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. The proposal was accepted by Akbar. Raja Bhagwan Das was despatched on this service. The marriage ceremony took place after Akbar's return from [[Nagor]].{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|pp=518–519}} She was the mother of Princess Mahi Begum, who died on 8 April 1577.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=283}} In 1570, Narhardas, a grandson of Rao Viramde of [[Merta City|Merta]], married his sister, Puram Bai, to Akbar in return for Akbar's support of Keshodas's claims on Merta.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan|volume=I|pages=4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan|volume=II|pages=362}}</ref>

Another of his wives was Bhakkari Begum, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud of Bhakkar.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mahmudul|last=Hasan Siddiqi|title=History of the Arghuns and Tarkhans of Sindh, 1507–1593: An Annotated Translation of the Relevant Parts of Mir Ma'sums Ta'rikh-i-Sindh, with an Introduction & Appendices |publisher=Institute of Sindhology, University of Sind|year=1972|pages=166}}</ref> On 2 July 1572, Akbar's envoy I'timad Khan reached Mahmud's court to escort his daughter to Akbar. Itimad Khan brought with him for Sultan Mahmud an elegant dress of honor, a bejeweled scimitar belt, a horse with a saddle and reins, and four elephants. Mahmud celebrated the occasion by holding extravagant feasts for fifteen days. On the day of the wedding, the festivities reached their zenith, and the ulema, saints, and nobles were adequately honored with rewards. Mahmud offered 30,000 rupees in cash and kind to Itimad Khan and farewelled his daughter with a grand dowry and an impressive entourage.<ref>{{cite book|first=Aitzaz|last=Ahsan|year=2005|title=The Indus Saga|publisher=Roli Books Private Limited|isbn=978-9-351-94073-9}}</ref> She came to Ajmer and waited upon Akbar. The gifts of Sultan Mahmud, carried by the delegation were presented to the ladies of the imperial harem.<ref>{{cite book|first=Muhammad Saleem|last=Akhtar|title=Sindh under the Mughals: An Introduction to, translation of and commentary on the Mazhar-i Shahjahani of Yusuf Mirak (1044/1634)|year=1983|pages=78, 79, 81}}</ref>

His ninth wife was Qasima Banu Begum,<ref name="Burke1989" /> the daughter of Arab Shah. The marriage took place in 1575. A great feast was given, and the high officers and other pillars of the state were present.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|pp=167–168}} In 1577, the Rawal Askaran of [[Dungarpur State]] petitioned a request that his daughter might be married to Akbar. Akbar had regard for his loyalty and granted his request.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=278}} Rai Loukaran and Rajah Birbar, servants of the Rajah were sent from Dihalpur to do the honor of conveying his daughter. The two delivered the lady at Akbar's court where the marriage took place on 12 July 1577.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=295}}

His eleventh wife was Bibi Daulat Shad.<ref name="Burke1989" /> She was the mother of Princess Shakr-un-Nissa Begum, and Princess [[Aram Banu Begum]]{{sfn|Jahangir|Thackston|1999|p=39}} born on 22 December 1584.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Akbarnama of Abu'l Fazl Volume III|pages=661|quote=One of the occurrences was the birth of Ārām Bānū Begam.* On 12 Dai, 22 December 1584, divine month, and the 19th degree of Sagittarius, and according to the calculation of the Indians, one degree and 54 minutes, that night-gleaming jewel of fortune appeared and glorified the harem of the Shāhinshāh.}}</ref>{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=661}} His next wife was the daughter of Shams Chak, a Kashmiri. The marriage took place on 3 November 1592. Shams belonged to the great men of the country and had long cherished this wish.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=958}} In 1593, he married the daughter of Qazi Isa and the cousin of Najib Khan. Najib told Akbar that his uncle had made his daughter a present for him. Akbar accepted his representation and on 3 July 1593, he visited Najib Khan's house and married Qazi Isa's daughter.{{sfn|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=985}}

At some point, Akbar took into his [[harem]] Rukmavati, a daughter of Rao [[Maldev Rathore|Maldev]] of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]] by his mistress, Tipu Gudi. This was a ''dolo'' union as opposed to formal marriage, representing the bride's lower status in her father's household, and serving as an expression of vassalage to an overlord. The dating of this event is not recorded.<ref name="Sreenivasan2006">{{citation|last=Sreenivasan|first=Ramya|authorlink=Ramya Sreenivasan|editor1=Indrani Chatterjee|editor2=Richard M. Eaton|editor-link2=Richard M. Eaton|title=Drudges, dancing girls, concubines: female slaves in the Rajput polity, 1500–1850|journal=Slavery and South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nsh8NHDQHlcC&pg=PA152|year=2006|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=0-253-11671-6|pages=152, 159}}</ref><ref name="Chandra1993">{{cite book|last=Chandra|first=Satish|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119462/page/n24/mode/1up|year=1993|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|location=New Delhi, India|isbn=978-0-7069-6385-4|pages=17–18}}</ref>

On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill from an attack of [[dysentery]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Remembering Akbar the Great: Facts about the most liberal Mughal emperor |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/akbar-the-great-348793-2016-10-27 |access-date=31 January 2021 |work=India Today |date=27 October 2016}}</ref> from which he never recovered. He is believed to have died on 27 October 1605. He was buried at [[Akbar's tomb|his mausoleum]] in Sikandra, Agra which lies a kilometer next to the [[Mariam's Tomb|tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani]], his favorite and chief consort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|pp=168–169}}</ref><ref name=farishta/><ref name=jlmehta/>

Akbar left a rich legacy both for the Mughal Empire as well as the Indian subcontinent in general. He firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal Empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign,<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=79}}</ref> establishing its military and diplomatic superiority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1984|p=170}}</ref> During his reign, the nature of the state changed to a secular and liberal one, with emphasis on cultural integration. He also introduced several far-sighted social reforms, including prohibiting ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'', legalizing widow remarriage, and raising the age of marriage.

 

[[Folklore|Folk tales]] revolving around him and [[Birbal]], one of his ''navratnas'', are popular in India. He and his Hindu wife, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], in the popular culture known as '' 'Jodha Bai' '' are widely popular as the latter is believed to have been the prime inspiration and driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and universal benevolence(Sulh-i-Qul).

* [[Mirza Hassan|Hassan Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 19 October 1564; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 5 November 1564) (twin with Hussain Mirza)—with [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum]]{{sfn|Lal|1980|p=133}}

* [[Hussain Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 19 October 1564; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 29 October 1564) (twin with Hassan Mirza)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum{{sfn|Lal|1980|p=133}}

* [[Jahangir|Shahzada Salim]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 31 August 1569; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 28 October 1627)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum—He succeeded Akbar to the throne.

* [[Murad Mirza (son of Akbar)|Murad Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 15 June 1570; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 12 May 1599)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum or a concubine—Fostered by [[Salima Sultan Begum]] for the first few years and then returned to his mother's care before 1575.

* [[Daniyal Mirza]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 11 September 1572; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 19 March 1605 )— with a concubine — Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum.

* Shahzada Khusrao ( {{Abbr|d.|death}} infancy)—with a niece Rai Kalyan Mal of [[Bikaner]]

* [[Shahzada Khanam]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 21 November 1569)—with Bibi Salima—Fostered by [[Mariam Makani]]—Married to Muzaffar Hussain Mirza, [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid Prince]].

* Mahi Begum ( {{Abbr|d.|death}} 7 April 1577)—with Nathi Bai

* [[Shakr-un-Nissa Begum]] ({{Abbr|d.|death}} 1 January 1653)—with Bibi Daulat Shad—Married to Shahrukh Mirza.

* Firoze Khannum ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 1575)—with a concubine —Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum

* [[Aram Banu Begum]] ( {{Abbr|b.|birth}} 22 December 1584; {{Abbr|d.|death}} 17 June 1624)—with Bibi Daulat Shad

* Kishnavati Bai ( {{Abbr|d.|death}} August 1609)—daughter of Sekhavat Kachvahi Durjan Sal. Akbar took her as his own and had her married to [[Sur Singh|Sawai Raja Sur Singh]] of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]. She became the mother of [[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Gaj Singh]] of Marwar and Manbhavati Bai, wife of [[Parviz Mirza]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan; Volume II|pages=51}}</ref>

* ''[[Shahenshah Akbar]]'' is a 1943 Indian [[Hindi]]-language film about the emperor, directed by G. R. Sethi.

* The [[Government of India]]'s [[Films Division]] produced ''Akbar'', a documentary film about the emperor, in 1967 which was directed by Shanti S. Varma. It won the [[National Film Award for Best Educational/Motivational/Instructional Film]].

* [[Om Shivpuri]] played Akbar in 1978 movie ''[[Bhakti Mein Shakti]]''.

* [[Akbar Salim Anarkali|Akbar Saleem Anarkali]] is a 1979 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film about the [[Anarkali|Anarkali legend]] directed by [[N. T. Rama Rao]], with Rao also portraying the role of Akbar.

* Akbar was portrayed by [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]] in 1979 movie ''[[Meera]]''.

* Akbar and Birbal were portrayed in the Hindi series ''Akbar-Birbal'' aired on [[Zee TV]] in the late 1990s where Akbar's role was played by [[Vikram Gokhale]].

* Abhishek Nigam portrayed Akbar in BIG MAGIC's historical drama ''Akbar – Rakht Se Takht Tak Ka Safar''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

* {{cite book|title=Akbar and His India|first=Irfan|last=Habib|author-link=Irfan Habib|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-563791-5}}

* {{cite book|title=People, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India|first=Shireen|last=Moosvi|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-569315-7}}

* {{cite book|title=The Oxford History of India|first=Vincent A.|last=Smith|author-link=Vincent Arthur Smith|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-561297-4|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00smit}}