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{{Short description|11th century ruler of Kerala, India}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}} | {{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}} | ||
{{Infobox royalty | {{Infobox royalty | ||
|name | | name = Rama Kulasekhara | ||
|title= Kulasekhara Perumal | | title = Kulasekhara Perumal • Koyil Adhikarikal • Cheraman Perumal • Cheramanar ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]) • Chakravarthikal ("Ma Ko") • Thiruvadi | ||
|image | | image = Perunna inscription of Rama Kulasekhara (1099 AD).jpg | ||
|image_size | | image_size = | ||
|caption | | caption = Perunna temple inscription (1099 AD) | ||
|succession | | succession = King of Chera Perumal Kingdom | ||
|reign | | reign = 1089/90–c.1122/23 AD<ref name=":435">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRnxDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%27Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|pages=122|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State|isbn=9781108857871}}</ref> | ||
|predecessor | | predecessor = Adithya Goda "Ranadithya"<ref name=":435" /> (c. 1036–1089 CE)<ref>As per [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] (1972)</ref> | ||
|successor | | successor = Vira Kerala<ref name=":399">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=86|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref> | ||
|issue | | issue = Vira Kerala<ref name=":399" /> | ||
|house | | house = [[Chera Perumal dynasty]] | ||
|religion | | religion = [[Hinduism]]| | ||
}} | |||
'''Rama Kulasekhara''' (''fl.'' late 11th century CE<ref>{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWluAAAAMAAJ|title=State and Society in Premodern South India|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2002|editor-last=Champakalakshmi|editor-first=R.|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=111–19|chapter=The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala|editor-last2=Veluthat|editor-first2=Kesavan|editor-last3=Venugopalan|editor-first3=T. R.}}</ref>) was the last ruler of the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal dynasty]] of medieval [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRnxDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%27Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|pages=121|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State|isbn=9781108857871}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref> He was a contemporary to Chola kings [[Kulottunga I]] (1070–1120) and [[Vikrama Chola]] (1118–35 AD).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref> Rama Kulaskehara is best known for briefly recovering [[Kollam]]-[[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]]-[[Nagercoil]] region from the powerful [[Chola dynasty|Chola empire]] around 1100/02 AD.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref> | |||
'''Rama Kulasekhara''' (''fl.'' late 11th century CE<ref | |||
Inscriptions | Inscriptions related to Rama Kulasekhara can be found at Panthalayani Kollam near [[Koyilandy|Quilandy]], [[Thiruvaloor Mahadeva Temple|Thiruvaloor]] (on [[Periyar (river)|Periyar]]), [[Perunna]] near [[Changanassery]], Nedumpuram Thali ([[Wadakkanchery]]) and at [[Kollam]].<ref name=":35">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=20, 125 - 130, 467 - 470|orig-date=1972}}</ref> Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions of Rama Kulasekhara. In 1099 AD, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, a state-sponsored temple.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781108494571|location=|pages=149|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref> In 1102 AD, Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the [[Brahmin]] community.<ref name=":1" /> An inscription dated to 1122 AD, found at [[Thiruvalanjuli|Thiruvalanchuzhi]], [[Tanjore]] (dated in the regnal year of king [[Vikrama Chola]]), also remembers Rama Kulasekhara.<ref name=":35" /> | ||
[[Kollam]] functioned as the second headquarters of the Chera Perumal kingdom towards the final phase of Rama Kulasekhara's rule. According to scholars, "the strategic advantage of marriage relations with the old ruling clan of Kollam in securing the loyalty of Venad can also be considered in the light of continuous Chola-Pandya attacks in south Kerala".<ref name=": | [[Kollam]] functioned as the second headquarters of the Chera Perumal kingdom towards the final phase of Rama Kulasekhara's rule (c. 1100/02 AD - c. 1122/23). According to scholars, "the strategic advantage of marriage relations with the old ruling clan of Kollam in securing the loyalty of Venad can also be considered in the light of continuous Chola-Pandya attacks in south Kerala".<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=154|orig-date=1972}}</ref> There is a tradition that Vira Kerala, a ruler of Kollam in early 12th century, was a son of the last Chera king.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=171|orig-date=1972}}</ref> | ||
== | == Career == | ||
''Corrections by [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] on [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] | ''Corrections by [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] (1972) on [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] (1955, revised) point out that Chola ruler [[Kulottunga Chola|Kulottunga I]] oversaw only one expedition to the Chera Perumal kingdom (in c. 1097). Sastri had assumed that Kulottunga led two military thrusts to south Kerala in c. 1077-1081 and in c. 1097.<ref name=":34">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|orig-date=1972}}</ref>'' | ||
Rama Kulasekhara came to the Chera Perumal throne in ''c.'' 1089/90.<ref name=":435" /><ref name=":5" /> Rama was the personal name and "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=24}}</ref> The first record of the king - as "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" - is found in the courtyard of the [[Koyilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]] Bhagavathi temple in northern Kerala.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|editor-last=Narayanan|editor-first=M. G. S.|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=467–70|chapter=Index to Cera Inscriptions|orig-date=1972}}</ref> Another inscription of "Kulasekhara Perumal" (1092 AD) can be found at the [[Thiruvaloor Mahadeva Temple|Thiruvaloor temple]] in the Periyar valley.<ref name=":9" /> Port [[Vizhinjam]] in the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]] was called "Rajendra Chola Pattinam" by [[Kulottunga Chola|Kulottunga I Chola]] in 1091 AD.''<ref name=":34" />'' | |||
=== Kulottunga Chola's south Kerala campaign === | === Kulottunga Chola's south Kerala campaign === | ||
Southern parts of Kerala ([[Venad]] and the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]]), as far north as [[Kollam]], again came under the Chola rule by 1097 AD.''<ref name=":34" />'' This military thrust was probably conducted by "Chola-Pandya" ruler Jatavarman Srivallabha<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=21-22 and 25-26}}</ref> or Chola general [[Naralokaviran|Naralokavira Kalinga Rayan]] for the Chola king [[Kulottunga I]] (1070–1120).''<ref name=":34" />'' Records of this campaign mention, among other things, the "chaver" warriors in Kuda Malai Nadu (meaning [[Kerala]] here) ascending the "unique heaven" in battles, "the subduing of the numerous forces of the Keralas", "making the rebel vassal kings obedient", "victory over the bow emblem" and "the Chera king's retreat from the battle field".''<ref name=":34" />'' A new era called "Kollam Azhintha Andu" was inaugurated by the Pandyas in 1097 AD.<ref name=":7" /> Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions from this period. In 1099 AD, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, an originally state-sponsored temple.<ref name=":1" /> Earlier in 1099, Rama Kulasekhara, with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the [[Thrikkunnappuzha]], is seen residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]].<ref name=":9" /> | |||
=== Recovery of Kollam === | === Recovery of Kollam === | ||
It seems that the Chera Perumal managed to recover [[Kollam]] c. 1100/02 AD.<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":34" />'' A possible major battle at [[Poonthura]], near [[Vizhinjam]], involving Mana Vikrama of Eranadu and his Nairs later known as "Poonthura Nairs", was instrumental in this recovery.<ref name=":7" /> Cholas eventually fixed their boundary at Kottar (leaving the [[Venad]] and the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]] to the Cheras).''<ref name=":34" />'' We have a mention of a council attended by king Rama Kulasekhara and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon (the future Zamorin, "the first among the samanthas") at [[Kollam]] in 1102 AD. Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] at this council.<ref name=":1" /> The record was probably made in the aftermath of the recovery of Kollam.<ref name=":7" /> | |||
=== Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign === | === Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign === | ||
Later years of Rama Kulasekhara witnessed [[Vikrama Chola]]'s south Kerala campaign (c. 1102–c. 1118 AD) against the Chera Perumals.''<ref name=":34" />'' This expedition was probably conducted by the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] Jatavarman Parakrama.''<ref name=":34" />'' Records mention the defeat of the Chera in a "single campaign" in Malai Nadu, the levying of tribute from the Chera king, and the capture of [[Venad]] and the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]] by the Chola-Pandyas. The "Kupaka" (meaning Venad here) ruler also seems to have offered his daughter in marriage to Parakrama Pandya (Parakrama also visited the [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Anantapuram Temple]] during this period).''<ref name=":34" />'' | |||
A Tanjore inscription of Vikrama Chola mentions "the flight of the Chera king".''<ref name=":34" />'' Rama Kulasekhara is also remembered in a [[Thiruvalanchuzhi|Thiruvalanjuli]] inscription (1122 AD) of certain [[Ko Kizhan Adikal|Kizhan Adikal]].<ref name=":6" /> By 1121, an unnamed Kupaka ruler had defeated Pandya king Rajasimha and conquered up to Nanjinadu and Kottar.''<ref name=":34" />'' Vira Kerala, the independent ruler of Venad (possibly the son of Rama Kulasekhara<ref name=":33" />), finds mention in a Cholapuram temple inscription dated to 1126 AD.<ref name=":5" /> | |||
== Epigraphic records == | == Epigraphic records == | ||
''Note: Material: granite, script: Vattezhuthu with Grantha, and language: | ''Note: Material: granite, script: Vattezhuthu with Grantha, and language: old Malayalam (unless otherwise stated)'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 67: | Line 49: | ||
! Royal Name | ! Royal Name | ||
! Notes<ref name=": | ! Notes<ref name=":35" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| c. 1089 (no regnal year) | | c. 1089 (no regnal year) | ||
| Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple inscription - courtyard of Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple | | [[Quilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]] Bhagavathi temple inscription - courtyard of Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple<ref name=":9" /> | ||
| Royal order | | Royal order | ||
| "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" | | "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" | ||
| Line 76: | Line 58: | ||
| Koyil Adhikarikal orders that out of the Annual Dues (the Attaikoil) from [[Quilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]], the Village Assembly (the Ur) was granted five nazhi out of every six nazhi and the melpadi of Thathamangalam | | Koyil Adhikarikal orders that out of the Annual Dues (the Attaikoil) from [[Quilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]], the Village Assembly (the Ur) was granted five nazhi out of every six nazhi and the melpadi of Thathamangalam | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 1092 AD (3rd regnal year) | |1092 AD (3rd regnal year) | ||
| | |||
Jupiter - Makaram<ref name=":9" /> | |||
|[[Thiruvaloor Mahadeva Temple|Thiruvaloor temple]] inscription (built into the entrance of the temple) - on [[Periyar (river)|Periyar]]<ref name=":9" /> | |||
| Temple committee resolution | | Temple committee resolution | ||
| Line 87: | Line 71: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 1099 AD (10th regnal year) | | 1099 AD (10th regnal year) | ||
|[[Perunna]] temple inscription (west side of the central shrine in temple) | Jupiter - Karkadakam (month -Vrishchikam)<ref name=":9" /> | ||
|[[Perunna]] temple inscription (west side of the central shrine in temple)<ref name=":9" /> | |||
| Royal order | | Royal order | ||
| "Kulasekhara" | | "Kulasekhara" | ||
| Line 93: | Line 78: | ||
|King residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]]. | |King residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]]. | ||
* King sitting in council with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the | * King sitting in council with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the [[Thrikkunnappuzha]] at the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]]. | ||
*The king ordered the cancellation of Annual Dues (the Attaikkol) and War Tax (the | *The king ordered the cancellation of Annual Dues (the Attaikkol) and War Tax (the Aranthai) from Perunneyathal. | ||
*The institution of ''Namaskaram'' and ''Maparatham'' with the above amount and handed it over to the Perunneyathal Village Assembly (the Ur) and Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval). | *The institution of ''Namaskaram'' and ''[[Mahabharata|Maparatham]]'' with the above amount and handed it over to the Perunneyathal Village Assembly (the Ur) and Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval). | ||
* Royal orders to this effect were sent to the '' | * Royal orders to this effect were sent to the ''Kudippadis'' through messengers. | ||
*The record specifically mentions that the | *The record specifically mentions that the assembly caused a stone marking the cancellation of the War Tax to be erected there. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 1099 (10th regnal year) | | 1099 (10th regnal year) | ||
| rowspan="2" |Nedumpuram Thali inscriptions (right side of half-wall of the entrance corridor through the v''athilmadam'' of the temple) | Jupiter - Karkadakam (month - Minam)<ref name=":9" /> | ||
| rowspan="2" |Nedumpuram Thali ([[Wadakkanchery]]) inscriptions (right side of half-wall of the entrance corridor through the v''athilmadam'' of the temple)<ref name=":9" /> | |||
|Temple inscription (10th year) | |Temple inscription (10th year) | ||
| Line 106: | Line 92: | ||
| | | | ||
* Period of Manangattu Kumaran Ravi as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu. | * Period of Manangattu Kumaran Ravi as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu ([[Wadakkanchery]]). | ||
*Pulloor Kumaran Kumarathichan, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, supervises the Nedumpuram temple, making some arrangements in the temple. | *Pulloor Kumaran Kumarathichan, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, supervises the Nedumpuram temple, making some arrangements in the temple. | ||
*Kumarathichan was perhaps not entitled to | *Kumarathichan was perhaps not entitled to supervise the Nedumpuram temple..<ref name=":1" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
|1100 AD (11th regnal year) | |1100 AD (11th regnal year) | ||
Jupiter - Chingam<ref name=":9" /> | |||
|Temple committee resolution (11th year) | |Temple committee resolution (11th year) | ||
|King's name or regnal year not mentioned (11th year) | |King's name or regnal year not mentioned (11th year) | ||
| Line 122: | Line 109: | ||
| | | | ||
* Dated in 278 [[Kollam era|Kollam Era]] | * Dated in 278 [[Kollam era|Kollam Era]] | ||
* 1102 AD (13th regnal year) | * 1102 AD (2+11 =13th regnal year)<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=19}}</ref> | ||
| Rameswaram temple inscription ([[Kollam]]) (pillar set up in the courtyard of Rameswaram temple) | *Jupiter - Kanni (month - [Chingam])<ref name=":9" /> | ||
| Rameswaram temple inscription ([[Kollam]]) (pillar set up in the courtyard of Rameswaram temple) or 'Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278' | |||
| Royal order | | Royal order | ||
| "Rama Thiruvadi | | "Rama Thiruvadi Koyil Adhikarikal ''alias'' Sri Kulasekhara Chakravarthikal" | ||
| | | | ||
* Rama Varma calls himself "Chakravarthikal" - i.e., independent ruler. Residing and issuing orders from Panankavil Palace, [[Kollam|"Kurakkeni" Kollam]] | * Rama Varma calls himself "Chakravarthikal" - i.e., independent ruler. Residing and issuing orders from Panankavil Palace, [[Kollam|"Kurakkeni" Kollam]].<ref name=":2" /> | ||
* King sitting in council with the Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali), the Leader of the Thousand Nairs (the Ayiram), the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of | * King sitting in council with the Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali), the Leader of the Thousand Nairs (the Ayiram), the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venad (the Arunutruvar), and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon, the chief of Eranadu (the first among the samanthas).<ref name=":2" /> | ||
* King made amends for some offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Crown Land for that purpose to Kumara Udaya Varma, the chief of [[Venad]]. | * King made amends for some offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Crown Land for that purpose to Kumara Udaya Varma, the chief of [[Venad]].<ref name=":2" /> | ||
* The king makes provision for Koothu (the Dance) and offering at Thirukkunavaya (Jain?) temple. | * The king makes provision for Koothu (the Dance) and offering at Thirukkunavaya (Jain?) temple.<ref name=":2" /> | ||
* Witnesses are mentioned | * Witnesses are mentioned | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 1122 AD - 4th regnal year of king Vikrama Chola (coronation 1118 AD)<br /> | | 1122 AD - 4th regnal year of king Vikrama Chola (coronation 1118 AD)<ref name=":6" /><br /> | ||
Material: granite blocks, script: Tamil, and language: Tamil. | Material: granite blocks, script: Tamil, and language: Tamil. | ||
| Thiruvanchuli/ | | [[Thiruvalanchuzhi|Thiruvanchuli/Thiruvalanjuli temple]] inscription ([[Thanjavur|Tanjore]]) - south wall of the mandapa in front of the central shrine in Kapardiswara temple | ||
| Temple inscription | | Temple inscription | ||
|"Cheramanar Rama Varma" | |"Cheramanar Rama Varma" | ||
| Line 143: | Line 131: | ||
| | | | ||
* Dated in the regnal years of king [[Vikrama Chola]]. | * Dated in the regnal years of king [[Vikrama Chola]]. | ||
* Mentions a gift of | * Mentions a gift of money for the daily offering of a garland to the deity of the temple for the benefit of the Chera king Rama Varma.<ref name=":6" /> | ||
* Certain [[Ko Kizhan Adikal|Kizhan Adikal]] - the Chera Perumal princess - is mentioned in another line.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=20}}</ref> | |||
|} | |} | ||
== Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278 == | |||
* Sources: Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume V)<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Travancore Archaeological Series|publisher=Government of Travancore|year=1924|editor-last=Ayyar|editor-first=A. S. Ramanatha|volume=V|location=Trivandrum|pages=44–46|chapter=Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278}}</ref> & 'Index to Cera Inscriptions' (1972)<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|editor-last=Narayanan|editor-first=M. G. S.|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=469–70|chapter=Index to Cera Inscriptions|orig-date=1972}}</ref> | |||
{{Quote box|fontsize=100% | |||
|quote = | |||
swasti śṛi '''I'''<br> | |||
[[Kollam Era|kollantoṉṛi]]-yirunūṛṛeḻupatteṭṭām-āṇṭai-kkaṉṉiyil viyāḻam pukka [ciṅṅa ñā]yiṛu oṉpatu ceṉṛa nāḷ iraṇṭām-āṇṭaikketir pati[norā]m āṇṭai[y <br> | |||
i]rāmar tiruvaṭi koyilatikārikaḷ-āyiṉa śṛi kulacekara-ccakkiravarttikaḷ [[Kollam|kurakkēṇi-kkollattu]] paṉaiṅkāviṉ koyilakattirunnaruḷa <br> | |||
[[Brahmin|āriyaroṭu]] vanna virotattiṉu vrāyaccit-ttattiṉu putten paṛaiyāl patiṉāḻi-kkoḷḷum paṛaiyāl niyatam oro-parai-cceytu nel [[Kollam Rameswaram Mahadeva Temple|irāmeccuvarattu]]...āriya brāhmaṇaruṅkūṭi-yirunnaṭattu...pakkal....yakkaṅkaiyil-ttirukkai naṉaicaruḷa <br> | |||
nāṉku taḷiyum āyi[ram a]ṛunūṛṛuvarum [[Eranad|eṛāṉaṭu]] vāḻkkai [[zamorin|māṉavikkiramaṉ-āṉa pūntuṛaikkōṉ]] mutalāyuḷḷa cāmantarun tirukkaikkiḻ-kkūṭiyirukka-ttirukkai naṉaicc-a[ru]ḷiyāvitu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
accerikkal kārāṇmai ceta [[Venad|veṇāṭṭu]] kumāraṉ-utaiya vāmmaṉ...i...<br> | |||
ainnāḻikoḷḷum-iṭaṅkaḻiyāl muppattaru kala nelli rāmecurattu maṇṭapattil [kūttaṅ]kūṭi-yirunnatil i[vvāṇṭu] mutal tiru...vaikkum tirukkūttuṅkūṭi-cce[lvatu] | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
kiṛṛaṭiccuvarattu meloṭitti...lu cennel muppattaṛu-kalam...lippaṭi-patiṉeṇkalam nellāl celaviṭuvitu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
vaiccanel patiṉaiṅkalattāl toḷḷāyira-nāḻi palākkāṭṭu kaṇṇan tevaṉ celaviṭuvitu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
toḷḷāyira-nāḻi mel ivvur cattipiramañ celaviṭuvitu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
celavu muṭṭikiṉṛe...mayālaññāḻi ari taṇṭapattu celaviṭuvitu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
kārāḷar mūvaruṅkūṭi cerikkal...kārāḷarum tirukkuṇavāttevar tirunaṭaiyil koṇṭu munnāḻikku‐okkum-iṭa[ṅ]kaḻi nānūṛṛu nāḻi nelāṭṭai kārāḷaru cerikkal koṭuppatu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
yivaṇṇ-a[m]maiccamaikku...kuṇavāyiraṉum yikkaṭai-kaṭamaiyāl...tiṉṛumaticcu okku...ṉṛunāḻi-uriyāl... <br> | |||
yirunāḻi akkiram patiṉāḻi ipperumāḷ naṭai cilaviṛku avaṛṛiṛku nāḻuri kiṛṛaṭiccurattu moloṭikku nāḻuri...koṭuktu...<br> | |||
ka...ṉṛa maṅṅalatt-iraviyirāyāṉ kaiyeḻuttu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
...ṉa...lakkaluṅyum...<br> | |||
micā-naṅkai-yāṭiyār āṛikku...ccṉeḻuttu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
araicūr ācāri kaiyeḻuttu | |||
'''I'''<br> | |||
tirupperūr maṛaikka...kaṇṭāccaaṉ kaiyeḻuttu <br> | |||
śṛi | |||
'''II''' | |||
|width = 75% | |||
|align = center | |||
}} | |||
== Literary evidences == | == Literary evidences == | ||
A medieval Malayalam ''sloka'' names the last "Cheraman" as "Rama Varma".<ref> | A medieval Malayalam ''sloka'' names the last "Cheraman" as "Rama Varma".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kunjan Pillai|first=Elamkulam, P. N.|title=Kerala Charithrathile Iruladanja Edukal|year=1963|location=Kottayam|pages=147-8|orig-date=1953}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ayyar|first=Ulloor S. Parameswara|title=Vijnana Deepika|volume=IV}}</ref> | ||
{{Quote box | {{Quote box | ||
|quote = ''"Arum nerittu nillar ariya netuvirippoteto vanmelallo<br>Nireki | |quote = ''"Arum nerittu nillar ariya netuvirippoteto vanmelallo<br>Nireki pantotukkattakhila gunanidhe Ceraman Rama Varma".'' | ||
|author = Medieval Malayalam sloka | |author = Medieval Malayalam sloka | ||
|source = Ulloor S. Parameswara Ayyar, ''Vijnanadeepika'', IV | |source = Ulloor S. Parameswara Ayyar, ''Vijnanadeepika'', IV | ||
| Line 160: | Line 207: | ||
Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1982|title=The Status of the Monarch|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141225|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|pages=147–157|jstor=44141225|issn=2249-1937|via=}}</ref> Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between [[Sthanu Ravi Varma|Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara]] and [[Rama Rajasekhara]]) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.<ref name=":8" /> Some scholars identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and with royal dramatist Kulasekhara Varma).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vielle|first=Christophe|date=2012|title=Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala|url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/11188|journal=Religions of South Asia|volume=5|issue=1|pages=365–387|doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365|via=}}</ref> This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/early-medieval-origins-india?format=PB&isbn=9781108748513|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=|location=|pages=229–30|chapter=The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre}}</ref> | Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1982|title=The Status of the Monarch|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141225|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|pages=147–157|jstor=44141225|issn=2249-1937|via=}}</ref> Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between [[Sthanu Ravi Varma|Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara]] and [[Rama Rajasekhara]]) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.<ref name=":8" /> Some scholars identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and with royal dramatist Kulasekhara Varma).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vielle|first=Christophe|date=2012|title=Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala|url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/11188|journal=Religions of South Asia|volume=5|issue=1|pages=365–387|doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365|via=}}</ref> This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/early-medieval-origins-india?format=PB&isbn=9781108748513|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=|location=|pages=229–30|chapter=The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre}}</ref> | ||
==See also== | == See also == | ||
* [[Chera Dynasty|Chera dynasty]] | * [[Chera Dynasty|Chera dynasty]] | ||
* [[Kulothunga Chola I]] | * [[Kulothunga Chola I]] | ||
Latest revision as of 22:53, 2 February 2022
| Rama Kulasekhara | |
|---|---|
| Kulasekhara Perumal • Koyil Adhikarikal • Cheraman Perumal • Cheramanar (Tamil) • Chakravarthikal ("Ma Ko") • Thiruvadi | |
.jpg) Perunna temple inscription (1099 AD) | |
| King of Chera Perumal Kingdom | |
| Reign | 1089/90–c.1122/23 AD[1] |
| Predecessor | Adithya Goda "Ranadithya"[1] (c. 1036–1089 CE)[2] |
| Successor | Vira Kerala[3] |
| Issue | Vira Kerala[3] |
| House | Chera Perumal dynasty |
| Religion | Hinduism |
Rama Kulasekhara (fl. late 11th century CE[4]) was the last ruler of the Chera Perumal dynasty of medieval Kerala.[5][6] He was a contemporary to Chola kings Kulottunga I (1070–1120) and Vikrama Chola (1118–35 AD).[6] Rama Kulaskehara is best known for briefly recovering Kollam-Trivandrum-Nagercoil region from the powerful Chola empire around 1100/02 AD.[6]
Inscriptions related to Rama Kulasekhara can be found at Panthalayani Kollam near Quilandy, Thiruvaloor (on Periyar), Perunna near Changanassery, Nedumpuram Thali (Wadakkanchery) and at Kollam.[7] Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions of Rama Kulasekhara. In 1099 AD, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, a state-sponsored temple.[8] In 1102 AD, Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the Brahmin community.[8] An inscription dated to 1122 AD, found at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Tanjore (dated in the regnal year of king Vikrama Chola), also remembers Rama Kulasekhara.[7]
Kollam functioned as the second headquarters of the Chera Perumal kingdom towards the final phase of Rama Kulasekhara's rule (c. 1100/02 AD - c. 1122/23). According to scholars, "the strategic advantage of marriage relations with the old ruling clan of Kollam in securing the loyalty of Venad can also be considered in the light of continuous Chola-Pandya attacks in south Kerala".[9] There is a tradition that Vira Kerala, a ruler of Kollam in early 12th century, was a son of the last Chera king.[10]
Career[edit | edit source]
Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972) on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1955, revised) point out that Chola ruler Kulottunga I oversaw only one expedition to the Chera Perumal kingdom (in c. 1097). Sastri had assumed that Kulottunga led two military thrusts to south Kerala in c. 1077-1081 and in c. 1097.[11]
Rama Kulasekhara came to the Chera Perumal throne in c. 1089/90.[1][12] Rama was the personal name and "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title.[13] The first record of the king - as "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" - is found in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple in northern Kerala.[14] Another inscription of "Kulasekhara Perumal" (1092 AD) can be found at the Thiruvaloor temple in the Periyar valley.[14] Port Vizhinjam in the Ay country was called "Rajendra Chola Pattinam" by Kulottunga I Chola in 1091 AD.[11]
Kulottunga Chola's south Kerala campaign[edit | edit source]
Southern parts of Kerala (Venad and the Ay country), as far north as Kollam, again came under the Chola rule by 1097 AD.[11] This military thrust was probably conducted by "Chola-Pandya" ruler Jatavarman Srivallabha[15] or Chola general Naralokavira Kalinga Rayan for the Chola king Kulottunga I (1070–1120).[11] Records of this campaign mention, among other things, the "chaver" warriors in Kuda Malai Nadu (meaning Kerala here) ascending the "unique heaven" in battles, "the subduing of the numerous forces of the Keralas", "making the rebel vassal kings obedient", "victory over the bow emblem" and "the Chera king's retreat from the battle field".[11] A new era called "Kollam Azhintha Andu" was inaugurated by the Pandyas in 1097 AD.[15] Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions from this period. In 1099 AD, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, an originally state-sponsored temple.[8] Earlier in 1099, Rama Kulasekhara, with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the Thrikkunnappuzha, is seen residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.[14]
Recovery of Kollam[edit | edit source]
It seems that the Chera Perumal managed to recover Kollam c. 1100/02 AD.[13][11] A possible major battle at Poonthura, near Vizhinjam, involving Mana Vikrama of Eranadu and his Nairs later known as "Poonthura Nairs", was instrumental in this recovery.[15] Cholas eventually fixed their boundary at Kottar (leaving the Venad and the Ay country to the Cheras).[11] We have a mention of a council attended by king Rama Kulasekhara and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon (the future Zamorin, "the first among the samanthas") at Kollam in 1102 AD. Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the Brahmins at this council.[8] The record was probably made in the aftermath of the recovery of Kollam.[15]
Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign[edit | edit source]
Later years of Rama Kulasekhara witnessed Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign (c. 1102–c. 1118 AD) against the Chera Perumals.[11] This expedition was probably conducted by the Pandya Jatavarman Parakrama.[11] Records mention the defeat of the Chera in a "single campaign" in Malai Nadu, the levying of tribute from the Chera king, and the capture of Venad and the Ay country by the Chola-Pandyas. The "Kupaka" (meaning Venad here) ruler also seems to have offered his daughter in marriage to Parakrama Pandya (Parakrama also visited the Anantapuram Temple during this period).[11]
A Tanjore inscription of Vikrama Chola mentions "the flight of the Chera king".[11] Rama Kulasekhara is also remembered in a Thiruvalanjuli inscription (1122 AD) of certain Kizhan Adikal.[16] By 1121, an unnamed Kupaka ruler had defeated Pandya king Rajasimha and conquered up to Nanjinadu and Kottar.[11] Vira Kerala, the independent ruler of Venad (possibly the son of Rama Kulasekhara[10]), finds mention in a Cholapuram temple inscription dated to 1126 AD.[12]
Epigraphic records[edit | edit source]
Note: Material: granite, script: Vattezhuthu with Grantha, and language: old Malayalam (unless otherwise stated)
| Year | Location | Contents | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nature | Royal Name | Notes[7] | ||||
| c. 1089 (no regnal year) | Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple inscription - courtyard of Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple[14] | Royal order | "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" | Koyil Adhikarikal orders that out of the Annual Dues (the Attaikoil) from Panthalayani Kollam, the Village Assembly (the Ur) was granted five nazhi out of every six nazhi and the melpadi of Thathamangalam | ||
| 1092 AD (3rd regnal year)
Jupiter - Makaram[14] |
Thiruvaloor temple inscription (built into the entrance of the temple) - on Periyar[14] | Temple committee resolution | "Kulasekhara Perumal" |
| ||
| 1099 AD (10th regnal year)
Jupiter - Karkadakam (month -Vrishchikam)[14] |
Perunna temple inscription (west side of the central shrine in temple)[14] | Royal order | "Kulasekhara" | King residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.
| ||
| 1099 (10th regnal year)
Jupiter - Karkadakam (month - Minam)[14] |
Nedumpuram Thali (Wadakkanchery) inscriptions (right side of half-wall of the entrance corridor through the vathilmadam of the temple)[14] | Temple inscription (10th year) | "Ma[ha] Ko Rama" (10th year) |
| ||
| 1100 AD (11th regnal year)
Jupiter - Chingam[14] |
Temple committee resolution (11th year) | King's name or regnal year not mentioned (11th year) |
| |||
|
Rameswaram temple inscription (Kollam) (pillar set up in the courtyard of Rameswaram temple) or 'Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278' | Royal order | "Rama Thiruvadi Koyil Adhikarikal alias Sri Kulasekhara Chakravarthikal" |
| ||
| 1122 AD - 4th regnal year of king Vikrama Chola (coronation 1118 AD)[16] Material: granite blocks, script: Tamil, and language: Tamil. |
Thiruvanchuli/Thiruvalanjuli temple inscription (Tanjore) - south wall of the mandapa in front of the central shrine in Kapardiswara temple | Temple inscription | "Cheramanar Rama Varma" |
| ||
Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278[edit | edit source]
swasti śṛi I
kollantoṉṛi-yirunūṛṛeḻupatteṭṭām-āṇṭai-kkaṉṉiyil viyāḻam pukka [ciṅṅa ñā]yiṛu oṉpatu ceṉṛa nāḷ iraṇṭām-āṇṭaikketir pati[norā]m āṇṭai[y
i]rāmar tiruvaṭi koyilatikārikaḷ-āyiṉa śṛi kulacekara-ccakkiravarttikaḷ kurakkēṇi-kkollattu paṉaiṅkāviṉ koyilakattirunnaruḷa
āriyaroṭu vanna virotattiṉu vrāyaccit-ttattiṉu putten paṛaiyāl patiṉāḻi-kkoḷḷum paṛaiyāl niyatam oro-parai-cceytu nel irāmeccuvarattu...āriya brāhmaṇaruṅkūṭi-yirunnaṭattu...pakkal....yakkaṅkaiyil-ttirukkai naṉaicaruḷa
nāṉku taḷiyum āyi[ram a]ṛunūṛṛuvarum eṛāṉaṭu vāḻkkai māṉavikkiramaṉ-āṉa pūntuṛaikkōṉ mutalāyuḷḷa cāmantarun tirukkaikkiḻ-kkūṭiyirukka-ttirukkai naṉaicc-a[ru]ḷiyāvitu
I
accerikkal kārāṇmai ceta veṇāṭṭu kumāraṉ-utaiya vāmmaṉ...i...
ainnāḻikoḷḷum-iṭaṅkaḻiyāl muppattaru kala nelli rāmecurattu maṇṭapattil [kūttaṅ]kūṭi-yirunnatil i[vvāṇṭu] mutal tiru...vaikkum tirukkūttuṅkūṭi-cce[lvatu]
I
kiṛṛaṭiccuvarattu meloṭitti...lu cennel muppattaṛu-kalam...lippaṭi-patiṉeṇkalam nellāl celaviṭuvitu
I
vaiccanel patiṉaiṅkalattāl toḷḷāyira-nāḻi palākkāṭṭu kaṇṇan tevaṉ celaviṭuvitu
I
toḷḷāyira-nāḻi mel ivvur cattipiramañ celaviṭuvitu
I
celavu muṭṭikiṉṛe...mayālaññāḻi ari taṇṭapattu celaviṭuvitu
I
kārāḷar mūvaruṅkūṭi cerikkal...kārāḷarum tirukkuṇavāttevar tirunaṭaiyil koṇṭu munnāḻikku‐okkum-iṭa[ṅ]kaḻi nānūṛṛu nāḻi nelāṭṭai kārāḷaru cerikkal koṭuppatu
I
yivaṇṇ-a[m]maiccamaikku...kuṇavāyiraṉum yikkaṭai-kaṭamaiyāl...tiṉṛumaticcu okku...ṉṛunāḻi-uriyāl...
yirunāḻi akkiram patiṉāḻi ipperumāḷ naṭai cilaviṛku avaṛṛiṛku nāḻuri kiṛṛaṭiccurattu moloṭikku nāḻuri...koṭuktu...
ka...ṉṛa maṅṅalatt-iraviyirāyāṉ kaiyeḻuttu
I
...ṉa...lakkaluṅyum...
micā-naṅkai-yāṭiyār āṛikku...ccṉeḻuttu
I
araicūr ācāri kaiyeḻuttu
I
tirupperūr maṛaikka...kaṇṭāccaaṉ kaiyeḻuttu
śṛi
IILiterary evidences[edit | edit source]
A medieval Malayalam sloka names the last "Cheraman" as "Rama Varma".[19][20]
"Arum nerittu nillar ariya netuvirippoteto vanmelallo
Nireki pantotukkattakhila gunanidhe Ceraman Rama Varma".
Nireki pantotukkattakhila gunanidhe Ceraman Rama Varma".
Medieval Malayalam sloka, Ulloor S. Parameswara Ayyar, Vijnanadeepika, IV
Patron of Vasubhatta[edit | edit source]
Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.[21] Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara and Rama Rajasekhara) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.[21] Some scholars identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and with royal dramatist Kulasekhara Varma).[22] This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.[23]
See also[edit | edit source]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 9781108857871.
- ↑ As per M. G. S. Narayanan (1972)
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. p. 86. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2002). "The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala". In Champakalakshmi, R.; Veluthat, Kesavan; Venugopalan, T. R. (eds.). State and Society in Premodern South India. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 111–19.
- ↑ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 9781108857871.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 125–130. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 20, 125–130, 467–470. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 9781108494571.
- ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. p. 154. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. p. 171. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 125–130. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 19.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 24.
- ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 Narayanan, M. G. S., ed. (2013) [1972]. "Index to Cera Inscriptions". Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 467–70.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 21-22 and 25-26.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 20.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Narayanan, M. G. S., ed. (2013) [1972]. "Index to Cera Inscriptions". Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 469–70.
- ↑ Ayyar, A. S. Ramanatha, ed. (1924). "Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278". Travancore Archaeological Series. Vol. V. Trivandrum: Government of Travancore. pp. 44–46.
- ↑ Kunjan Pillai, Elamkulam, P. N. (1963) [1953]. Kerala Charithrathile Iruladanja Edukal. Kottayam. pp. 147–8.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Ayyar, Ulloor S. Parameswara. Vijnana Deepika. Vol. IV.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Veluthat, Kesavan (1982). "The Status of the Monarch". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 43: 147–157. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141225.
- ↑ Vielle, Christophe (2012). "Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala". Religions of South Asia. 5 (1): 365–387. doi:10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365.
- ↑ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–30.
