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Pulakeshin II: Difference between revisions
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{{ | {{Short description|610–642 ruler of Vatapi (Badami, India)}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date= | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | {{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}} | ||
{{Redirect|Immadi Pulikeshi|the 1967 Indian film|Immadi Pulikeshi (film)}}{{Infobox royalty | {{Redirect|Immadi Pulikeshi|the 1967 Indian film|Immadi Pulikeshi (film)}}{{Infobox royalty | ||
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== Military conquests == | == Military conquests == | ||
After Mangalesha's death, Pulakeshin appears to have faced opposition from multiple rivals, including those who were loyal to Mangalesha and those who wanted to take advantage of the turmoil resulting from the Chalukya war of succession.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The [[Aihole inscription]] declares that "the whole world was enveloped in the darkness that was the enemies". Pulakeshin subjugated these enemies, and established the Chalukyas as the dominant power in the Indian peninsula.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} | After [[Mangalesha]]'s death, Pulakeshin appears to have faced opposition from multiple rivals, including those who were loyal to Mangalesha and those who wanted to take advantage of the turmoil resulting from the Chalukya war of succession.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=72}} The [[Aihole inscription]] declares that "the whole world was enveloped in the darkness that was the enemies". Pulakeshin subjugated these enemies, and established the Chalukyas as the dominant power in the Indian peninsula.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=58}} | ||
=== Appayika and Govinda === | === Appayika and Govinda === | ||
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The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu|Talakad]], who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated the Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | The Aihole inscription credits Pulakeshin with subjugating the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Gangas]] of [[Talakadu|Talakad]], who had matrimonial ties with the Kadambas. The Mahakuta pillar inscription of his predecessor Mangalesha states his father Kirttivarman also subjugated the Gangas. It is possible that the Gangas accepted the Chalukya suzerainty during Kirttivarman's reign, but subsequently gave up this allegiance taking advantage of the war of succession between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin. After Pulakeshin's victory over the Kadambas, the Gangas again accepted the Chalukya suzerainty, possibly without any military conflict.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} | ||
The Ganga ruler [[Durvinita]] married his daughter to Pulakeshin;{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} she was the mother of Pulakeshin's son [[Vikramaditya I]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} The Gangas probably hoped to gain Chalukya support against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]], who had captured the Kongunadu region from them. The Gangas subsequently defeated the Pallava ruler Kaduvetti of Kanchi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | The Ganga ruler [[Durvinita]] married his daughter to Pulakeshin;{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=76}} she was the mother of Pulakeshin's son [[Vikramaditya I]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} The Gangas probably hoped to gain Chalukya support against the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]], who had captured the [[Kongunadu]] region from them. The Gangas subsequently defeated the Pallava ruler Kaduvetti of Kanchi.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=77}} | ||
=== Mauryas of Konkana=== | === Mauryas of Konkana=== | ||
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== War with the Pallavas and death == | == War with the Pallavas and death == | ||
{{see also|Battle of Pullalur|Battle of Vatapi}} | {{see also|Battle of Pullalur|Battle of Vatapi}} | ||
[[File:The defeat of Pulikesin II, the Chalukhya, byMahamalla Pallava at Badami.jpg|thumb|300px|''"The defeat of Pulakeshin II, the | [[File:The defeat of Pulikesin II, the Chalukhya, byMahamalla Pallava at Badami.jpg|thumb|300px|''"The defeat of Pulakeshin II, the Chalukya, by Mahamalla Pallava at Badami''", an artistic depiction of Pulakeshin's death]] | ||
The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava king. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=93}} | The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] were the southern neighbours of the Chalukyas. The Vishnukundins were their allies at the time, and Pulakeshin's subjugation of the Vishnukundins brought him in conflict with the Pallava king. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas fought several battles without conclusive results.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=93}} | ||
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By 641 CE, during Pulakeshin's lifetime, his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Chalukya dynasty of Vengi]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of Pulakeshin, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} | By 641 CE, during Pulakeshin's lifetime, his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnu-vardhana]] had carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of the Chalukya empire, resulting in the establishment of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Chalukya dynasty of Vengi]].{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=95}} According to one theory, this arrangement may have happened with the approval of Pulakeshin, who did not want his brother to wage a war of succession like Mangalesha.{{sfn|K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|1960|p=217}} | ||
Pulakeshin had | Pulakeshin had seven sons, and the order of succession after him is not clear from the available historical evidence: | ||
* [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]].{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}} | * [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]] (c.643-645?) is attested by his [[Kurnool]] inscription, which describes him as a powerful ruler and gives him imperial titles. Historian [[T. V. Mahalingam]] theorizes that Adityavarman was simply a former name of Vikramaditya I.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|pp=75–76}} However, historian D. P. Dikshit disputes this identification, and believes that Adityavarman succeeded Pulakeshin, and in turn, was succeeded by his son [[Abhinavaditya]] (c.645-646?).{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=114–116}} | ||
* [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] | * [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] (c.646-649?) attested by the Nerur and Kochre grant inscriptions of his wife [[Vijaya-Bhattarika]], which accord him imperial titles, but are dated in the regnal years of his wife. It is possible that Chandraditya held the throne after Abhinavaditya, and after his death, his wife acted as a regent for their minor son (c.649-655). His brother Vikramaditya I, appears to have restored Chalukya power as the supreme commander of the Chalukya army during this period, becoming the de facto ruler in the process.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|pp=116-119}} | ||
* Ranaragha-varman is attested by the Honnur inscription dated to the 16th regnal year of his younger brother Vikramaditya. The inscription states that Ranaragha-varman's daughter was the wife of the Ganga prince Madhava, a subordinate of Vikramaditya.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | * Ranaragha-varman is attested by the Honnur inscription dated to the 16th regnal year of his younger brother Vikramaditya. The inscription states that Ranaragha-varman's daughter was the wife of the Ganga prince Madhava, a subordinate of Vikramaditya.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | ||
* [[Vikramaditya I]] restored the Chalukya power,{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} and recaptured Vatapi from the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=59}} | * [[Vikramaditya I]] (655-680) restored the Chalukya power,{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} and recaptured Vatapi from the Pallavas.{{sfn|Abraham Eraly|2011|p=59}} | ||
* [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Dharashraya Jayasimhavarman|Dharashraya Jayasimha-varman]], a younger brother of Vikramaditya, is attested by the 671 CE Navsari grant inscription.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | * [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Dharashraya Jayasimhavarman|Dharashraya Jayasimha-varman]], a younger brother of Vikramaditya, is attested by the 671 CE Navsari grant inscription.{{sfn|T. V. Mahalingam|1977|p=73}} | ||
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In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian king sent a return embassy to the Chalukya kingdom.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=181}} This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct:{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}} the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sassanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana [[Jataka tales|Jataka]], in which the enthroned king can be identified as the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous births as a King.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} The inclusions of numerous men in Sassanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sassanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an object of intense interest by the Indians.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | In the 1870s, architectural historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]] theorized that a painting at the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta Cave 1]] depicted a Sasanian embassy to Pulakeshin's court. The painting depicts several figures in foreign dress: Fergusson identified the dress as Sasanian, and proposed that the Sasanian king sent a return embassy to the Chalukya kingdom.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=181}} This theory was widely accepted by other scholars, but is no longer considered correct:{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=182}} the painting, which does indeed include the visit of foreigners in Persian or Sassanian dress, actually depicts a scene from the Maha-sudarsana [[Jataka tales|Jataka]], in which the enthroned king can be identified as the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous births as a King.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} The inclusions of numerous men in Sassanian clothing in the caves of Ajanta seems to reflect the great number of Sassanian traders or workers in Central India at that time, and the fact that they were an object of intense interest by the Indians.{{sfn|Walter M. Spink|2005|p=183}} | ||
The good relations between Indian and the [[Sasanian Empire]] encouraged the migration to India of [[Zoroastrians]], who were persecuted by the rise of [[Islam]]. They settled on the West coast of the Deccan and established the [[Parsi Community]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Publishing |first1=Britannica Educational |title=The History of India |date=1 April 2010 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-201-7 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdmcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
== Religion == | == Religion == | ||
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Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature [[varaha]], an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | Pulakeshin was a [[Vaishnavite]], as attested by the Lohner copper-plate inscription which calls him a Parama-bhagavata ("devotee of Vishnu"), and the Pimpalner copper-plate inscription which states that he belonged to the line of Vishnu. Several of his inscriptions begin with salutations to Vishnu, and bear seals with emblems that feature [[varaha]], an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Durga Prasad Dikshit|1980|p=68}} | ||
He was tolerant of other faiths: The construction of the [[Shaivite]] shrines now called the Upper Shivalaya, the Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya, started during his reign.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}} The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] mentions that there were over 100 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monasteries in his kingdom; over 5,000 monks - both Mahayana and Hinayana - lived in these monasteries.{{sfn|Lal Mani Joshi|1987|p=40}} The Meguti [[Jainism|Jain]] temple at | He was tolerant of other faiths: The construction of the [[Shaivite]] shrines now called the Upper Shivalaya, the Lower Shivalaya, and Malegitti Shivalaya, started during his reign.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}} The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] mentions that there were over 100 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monasteries in his kingdom; over 5,000 monks - both Mahayana and Hinayana - lived in these monasteries.{{sfn|Lal Mani Joshi|1987|p=40}} The Meguti [[Jainism|Jain]] temple at Aihole was also built during his reign, by Ravikirrti, who composed the [[Aihole inscription]] engraved on the wall of this temple.{{sfn|B. Chaitanya Deva|1989|p=3}}{{sfn|K. V. Ramesh|1984|p=90}} | ||
== Cultural activities == | == Cultural activities == | ||
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=== Bibliography === | === Bibliography === | ||
{{commons category| | {{commons category|Pulakeshin II}} | ||
{{ref begin}} | {{ref begin}} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |author-link=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA58 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 }} | * {{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |author-link=Abraham Eraly |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA58 |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 }} | ||
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* {{cite book |author=K. V. Ramesh |title=Chalukyas of Vātāpi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAwhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan |oclc=567370037 }} | * {{cite book |author=K. V. Ramesh |title=Chalukyas of Vātāpi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAwhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan |oclc=567370037 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Lal Mani Joshi |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&pg=PA40 |year=1987 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 }} | * {{cite book |author=Lal Mani Joshi |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&pg=PA40 |year=1987 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 }} | ||
* {{cite journal |author1=Shreenand L. Bapat |author2=Pradeep S. Sohoni |title=The Bijapur-Mumbai copperplate grant of Călukya ruler Pulakeśin II, dated April 04, 619 CE, mentioning his triumph over emperor Harṣavardhana |editor1=S. S. Bahulkar |editor2=Shilpa Sumant |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute | * {{cite journal |author1=Shreenand L. Bapat |author2=Pradeep S. Sohoni |title=The Bijapur-Mumbai copperplate grant of Călukya ruler Pulakeśin II, dated April 04, 619 CE, mentioning his triumph over emperor Harṣavardhana |editor1=S. S. Bahulkar |editor2=Shilpa Sumant |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=XCIII |year=2017 |pages=205–209 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34011338 |ref={{harvid|P. S. Sohoni|S. L. Bapat|2017}} }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Sally Wriggins |title=The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSYKO5zLgZkC&pg=PT132 |year=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2544-1 }} | * {{cite book |author=Sally Wriggins |title=The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSYKO5zLgZkC&pg=PT132 |year=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2544-1 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Sandhya Jain |title=The India They Saw |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 |year=2011 |publisher=Ocean Books |isbn=978-81-8430-106-9 }} | * {{cite book |author=Sandhya Jain |title=The India They Saw |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 |year=2011 |publisher=Ocean Books |isbn=978-81-8430-106-9 }} | ||