Dharma: Difference between revisions

*James Fitzgerald (2004), "Dharma and its Translation in the Mahābhārata", ''Journal of Indian philosophy'', 32(5), pp. 671–685; Quote – "virtues enter the general topic of dharma as 'common, or general, dharma', ..."</ref>

| image4 = Balanced scales.svg| caption4 = Law and justice<ref>Bernard S. Jackson (1975), "From dharma to law", ''The American Journal of Comparative Law'', Vol. 23, No. 3 (Summer, 1975), pp. 490–512.</ref>

* Austin Creel (1975), "The Reexamination of Dharma in Hindu Ethics", ''Philosophy East and West'', 25(2), pp. 161–173; Quote – "Dharma pointed to duty, and specified duties..";

* Gisela Trommsdorff (2012), Development of "agentic" regulation in cultural context: the role of self and world views, Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), pp. 19–26.; Quote – "Neglect of one's duties (dharma – sacred duties toward oneself, the family, the community, and humanity) is seen as an indicator of immaturity."</ref>

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In [[Hinduism]], dharma is one of the four components of the ''[[Puruṣārtha]]'', the aims of life, and signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with ''[[Ṛta]]'', the order that makes life and universe possible.<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" />{{refn|group=note|name="ODWR-Dharma"|From the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]'': "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."<ref name="ODWR-Dharma">"[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 Dharma]", ''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions''.</ref>}} It includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name=srdtce>see: *"Dharma", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0-7876-5015-5}}; *Steven Rosen (2006), Essential Hinduism, Praeger, {{ISBN|0-275-99006-0}}, Chapter 3.</ref>  

In [[Sikhism]], dharma means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice and one's own moral duties toward God.<ref name="rinehart138" />

==Etymology==

* J Ganeri (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pp. 119–135.</ref> There is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism, observes [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Ingalls]]; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, ultimately concluding that the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.<ref>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksa", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...)In the Epic, free will has the upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with the doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among the ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given the following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasise destiny.{{'"}} (Mahabharata 12.106.20).</ref> The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.<ref>[[Huston Smith]], The World Religions, {{ISBN|978-0-06-166018-4}}, HarperOne (2009); For summary notes: [http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm Background to Hindu Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040922160422/http://staff.gps.edu/montgomery/World%20Religions/Faiths/hinduism/Background%20to%20Hindu%20Literature.htm |date=2004-09-22 }}</ref>

# Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner)

Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various [[schools of Buddhism]] have developed to help explain and to expand upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the dharma as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan: ''Chö'').

===Chan Buddhism===

==Jainism==

{{Main|Dharma (Jainism)}}

The word ''dharma'' in Jainism is found in all its key texts. It has a contextual meaning and refers to a number of ideas. In the broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas,<ref name="ODWR-Dharma" /> or teachings of any competing spiritual school,<ref>{{cite book|first=John E. |last=Cort|title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC&pg=PA192 |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803037-9|page=100}}</ref> a supreme path,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter B. Clarke|author2=Peter Beyer|title=The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC |year=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-21100-4|page=325}}</ref> socio-religious duty,<ref>{{cite book|first=Torkel |last=Brekke|title=Makers of Modern Indian Religion in the Late Nineteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6YUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-925236-7|page=124}}</ref> and that which is the highest {{lang|sa|mangala}} (holy).<ref name="Cort2001p192">{{cite book|first=John E. |last=Cort|title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC&pg=PA192 |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803037-9|pages=192–194}}</ref>

==Sikhism==

[[File:Khanda Orange.jpg|thumb|140px|Sikhism]]

For [[Sikh]]s, the word ''dharam'' ({{lang-pan|ਧਰਮ|dharam}}) means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.<ref name=rinehart138>Rinehart, Robin (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (Editors), ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-19-969930-8}}, [[Oxford University Press]], pp. 138–139.</ref> [[Guru Granth Sahib]] connotes dharma as duty and moral values.<ref>W. Owen Cole (2014), in Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech (Editors), ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-19-969930-8}}, Oxford University Press, pp. 254.</ref> The [[3HO]] movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly as all that constitutes religion, moral duty and way of life.<ref>Verne Dusenbery (2014), in Pashaura Singh and Louis E. Fenech (Editors), ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-19-969930-8}}, Oxford University Press, pp. 560–568.</ref>

==Dharma in symbols==