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'''''Bhakti''''' ({{lang-sa|[[:wikt:भक्ति#Sanskrit|भक्ति]]}}) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".<ref name=monier>See [[Monier-Williams]], ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899.</ref> It was originally used in [[Hinduism]], referring to devotion and love for a [[Ishvara|personal god]] or a representational god by a devotee.<ref name=encyclopediabrit>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti Bhakti], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2009)</ref><ref name=karen /> In ancient texts such as the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'', the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards [[moksha]], as in ''bhakti marga''.<ref>John Lochtefeld (2014), ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Rosen Publishing (New York), {{ISBN|978-0823922871}}, pages 98-100. Also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga.</ref> | '''''Bhakti''''' ({{lang-sa|[[:wikt:भक्ति#Sanskrit|भक्ति]]}}) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".<ref name=monier>See [[Monier-Williams]], ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899.</ref> It was originally used in [[Hinduism]], referring to devotion and love for a [[Ishvara|personal god]] or a representational god by a devotee.<ref name=encyclopediabrit>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti Bhakti], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2009)</ref><ref name=karen /> In ancient texts such as the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'', the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards [[moksha]], as in ''bhakti marga''.<ref>John Lochtefeld (2014), ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Rosen Publishing (New York), {{ISBN|978-0823922871}}, pages 98-100. Also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga.</ref> | ||
Bhakti in Indian religions is "emotional devotionalism", particularly to a personal god or to spiritual ideas.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hans G. Kippenberg|author2=Yme B. Kuiper|author3=Andy F. Sanders|title=Concepts of Person in Religion and Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdYfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA295|year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-087437-2|page=295}}, Quote: "The foundations of emotional devotionalism (bhakti) were laid in south India in the second half of the first millennium of our era (...)".</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Indira Viswanathan Peterson|title=Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQwABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year= 2014|publisher= Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6006-7|pages=4, footnote 4}}</ref> Thus, bhakti requires a relationship between the devotee and the deity.<ref name="nirgun">{{cite journal |last1=DeNapoli |first1=Antoinette |title=Earning God through the "One-Hundred Rupee Note": Nirguṇa Bhakti and Religious Experience among Hindu Renouncers in North India |journal=Religions |date=2018 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=408 |doi=10.3390/rel9120408 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> The term also refers to a [[Bhakti movement|movement]], pioneered by [[Alvars]] and [[Nayanars]], that developed around the gods Vishnu ([[Vaishnavism | Bhakti in Indian religions is "emotional devotionalism", particularly to a personal god or to spiritual ideas.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hans G. Kippenberg|author2=Yme B. Kuiper|author3=Andy F. Sanders|title=Concepts of Person in Religion and Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdYfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA295|year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-087437-2|page=295}}, Quote: "The foundations of emotional devotionalism (bhakti) were laid in south India in the second half of the first millennium of our era (...)".</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Indira Viswanathan Peterson|title=Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQwABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year= 2014|publisher= Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6006-7|pages=4, footnote 4}}</ref> Thus, bhakti requires a relationship between the devotee and the deity.<ref name="nirgun">{{cite journal |last1=DeNapoli |first1=Antoinette |title=Earning God through the "One-Hundred Rupee Note": Nirguṇa Bhakti and Religious Experience among Hindu Renouncers in North India |journal=Religions |date=2018 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=408 |doi=10.3390/rel9120408 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> The term also refers to a [[Bhakti movement|movement]], pioneered by [[Alvars]] and [[Nayanars]], that developed around the gods Vishnu ([[Vaishnavism]]), Shiva ([[Shaivism]]) and Devi ([[Shaktism]]) in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name=encyclopediabrit /><ref name=karen>Karen Pechelis (2011), "Bhakti Traditions", in ''The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies'' (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, {{ISBN|978-0826499660}}, pages 107-121</ref><ref name="Rinehart">{{cite book|last=Rinehart|first=Robin|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=45|isbn=978-1-57607-905-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA45|year=2004}}</ref><ref name="Flood">{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1996|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/131 131]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Embree" /><ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 120.</ref> | ||
Bhakti ideas have inspired many popular texts and saint-poets in India. The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', for example, is a [[Krishna]]-related text associated with the Bhakti movement in Hinduism.<ref name="Cutler" /> Bhakti is also found in other religions practiced in India,<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2003|page=185|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C&pg=PA185}}</ref><ref name="Neill 2002 412">{{cite book|last=Neill|first=Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India, 1707–1858|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|pages=412|isbn=978-0-521-89332-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC&pg=PA412}}</ref><ref name="Kelting 2001 87">{{cite book|last=Kelting|first=Mary Whitney |author-link=Mary Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Maṇḍaḷ Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|pages=87|isbn=978-0-19-514011-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC&pg=PA87}}</ref> and it has influenced interactions between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era.<ref>A. Frank Thompson (1993), ''Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters'' (Editor: Harold Coward), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120811584}}, pages 176-186</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), ''The Embodiment of Bhakti'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, see Introduction chapter</ref> ''Nirguni bhakti'' (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found in [[Sikhism]], as well as Hinduism.<ref name=davidlorenzen /><ref name=hardip /> Outside India, emotional devotion is found in some Southeast Asian and East Asian Buddhist traditions, and it is sometimes referred to as ''Bhatti''.<ref name=swearer9 /><ref name=werner45 /><ref name=karunaratna435 /> | Bhakti ideas have inspired many popular texts and saint-poets in India. The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', for example, is a [[Krishna]]-related text associated with the Bhakti movement in Hinduism.<ref name="Cutler" /> Bhakti is also found in other religions practiced in India,<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2003|page=185|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C&pg=PA185}}</ref><ref name="Neill 2002 412">{{cite book|last=Neill|first=Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India, 1707–1858|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|pages=412|isbn=978-0-521-89332-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC&pg=PA412}}</ref><ref name="Kelting 2001 87">{{cite book|last=Kelting|first=Mary Whitney |author-link=Mary Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Maṇḍaḷ Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|pages=87|isbn=978-0-19-514011-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC&pg=PA87}}</ref> and it has influenced interactions between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era.<ref>A. Frank Thompson (1993), ''Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters'' (Editor: Harold Coward), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120811584}}, pages 176-186</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), ''The Embodiment of Bhakti'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, see Introduction chapter</ref> ''Nirguni bhakti'' (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found in [[Sikhism]], as well as Hinduism.<ref name=davidlorenzen /><ref name=hardip /> Outside India, emotional devotion is found in some Southeast Asian and East Asian Buddhist traditions, and it is sometimes referred to as ''Bhatti''.<ref name=swearer9 /><ref name=werner45 /><ref name=karunaratna435 /> | ||
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Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature (''stavan'') though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=87–88}}</ref> The ''Avasyaka sutra'' of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this ''bhakti'' as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to [[Paul Dundas]], such textual references to devotional activity suggests that ''bhakti'' was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year= 2003|publisher =Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-26605-5|pages= 170–171}}</ref> | Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature (''stavan'') though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=87–88}}</ref> The ''Avasyaka sutra'' of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this ''bhakti'' as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to [[Paul Dundas]], such textual references to devotional activity suggests that ''bhakti'' was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year= 2003|publisher =Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-26605-5|pages= 170–171}}</ref> | ||
According to Jeffery Long, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of ''bhakti'' or devotion just like their Hindu | According to [[Jeffery D. Long]], along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of ''bhakti'' or devotion just like their Hindu counterparts. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. ''Abhisekha'', festival prayers, community recitals and ''Murti puja'' (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice. Some Jain monks, however, reject Bhakti.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gAAwAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-392-6|pages=111–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sherry Fohr|title=Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMXuBQAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-2755-1|pages=91–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|pages=xii, 2, 12–13, 117–126}}</ref> | ||
== See also == | == See also == | ||