Zerat - Revision history

Wleness at 09:29, 18 March 2025

2025-03-18T09:29:18Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:59, 18 March 2025
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	~~:''for the village in Afghanistan see [[Zerat, Afghanistan]]''~~
	[[File:Indigofera tinctoria1.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[[Indigo plant]]]]		[[File:Indigofera tinctoria1.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[[Indigo plant]]]]
	[[File:Indigo factory bengal2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[Indigo]] manufacturing factory in [[Bengal]]]]		[[File:Indigo factory bengal2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[Indigo dye\|Indigo]] manufacturing factory in [[Bengal]]]]
	'''Zerat''' is a [[Land tenure\|land ownership]] system in early [[colonial India]]. The zerat system was particularly common in [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]].<ref name="SinhaCommittee1996">{{cite book\|last1=Sinha\|first1=Narendra Krishna\|last2=Committee\|first2=History of Bengal Publication\|title=The history of Bengal, 1757–1905\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSNuAAAAMAAJ\|access-date=21 January 2011\|year=1996\|publisher=University of Calcutta}}</ref> It refers to the private land of the landlord, which would often be cultivated by peasants.<ref name="SinhaCommittee1996"/><ref name="Economics1970">{{cite book\|author=Delhi School of Economics\|title=The Indian economic and social history review\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDouAAAAIAAJ\|access-date=21 January 2011\|year=1970\|publisher=Vikas Pub. House\|pages=213–16}}</ref> Zerat was mainly responsible for a change in traditional forms of agricultural organization in some parts of India, replacing the [[ryot]] system.<ref name="Economics1970"/> It produced a strain on the peasant economy, despite peasants being free to grow their own crops.<ref name="Economics1970"/>		'''Zerat''' is a [[Land tenure\|land ownership]] system in early [[colonial India]]. The zerat system was particularly common in [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]].<ref name="SinhaCommittee1996">{{cite book\|last1=Sinha\|first1=Narendra Krishna\|last2=Committee\|first2=History of Bengal Publication\|title=The history of Bengal, 1757–1905\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSNuAAAAMAAJ\|access-date=21 January 2011\|year=1996\|publisher=University of Calcutta}}</ref> It refers to the private land of the landlord, which would often be cultivated by peasants.<ref name="SinhaCommittee1996"/><ref name="Economics1970">{{cite book\|author=Delhi School of Economics\|title=The Indian economic and social history review\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDouAAAAIAAJ\|access-date=21 January 2011\|year=1970\|publisher=Vikas Pub. House\|pages=213–16}}</ref> Zerat was mainly responsible for a change in traditional forms of agricultural organization in some parts of India, replacing the [[ryot]] system.<ref name="Economics1970"/> It produced a strain on the peasant economy, despite peasants being free to grow their own crops.<ref name="Economics1970"/>

	In [[indigo]] cultivation practiced by planters in Bihar and Bengal, the ''rayat'' and ''zerat'' were common practices which represented two labour hiring processes. The ryot (or raiyat) ("peasant") was a small land holder who took financial support from the planter and in return had to come to a written understanding to turn over the produce from his land to the planter at a predetermined amount.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008">{{cite book\| last1 = Chaudhuri \| first1= Binay Bhushan \| editor = D. P. Chattopadhyaya \| title = History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization \| chapter = Peasant history of late pre-colonial and colonial India\|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljmIJySEm4UC&pg=PA455\|access-date=23 January 2011\|year=2008\|publisher=Pearson Education India\|isbn=978-81-317-1688-5\|pages=455–456}}</ref>		In [[indigo]] cultivation practiced by planters in Bihar and Bengal, the ''rayat'' and ''zerat'' were common practices which represented two labour hiring processes. The ryot (or raiyat) ("peasant") was a small land holder who took financial support from the planter and in return had to come to a written understanding to turn over the produce from his land to the planter at a predetermined amount.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008">{{cite book\| last1 = Chaudhuri \| first1= Binay Bhushan \| editor = D. P. Chattopadhyaya \| title = History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization \| chapter = Peasant history of late pre-colonial and colonial India\|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljmIJySEm4UC&pg=PA455\|access-date=23 January 2011\|year=2008\|publisher=Pearson Education India\|isbn=978-81-317-1688-5\|pages=455–456}}</ref>

	''Zerat'' cultivation, which is direct cultivation by the planter, however, was an exclusive practice of the planter in which he hired labour to work on his fields to grow crops of his choice. 'Zerat' literally means ~~“the~~ [[Zamindar]]s private land, [[demesne]]”, which had a direct impact on the peasants. The ploy of the planter in demesne was to encroach the land of the peasant and eventually claim it as his own and expand his control over the peasantry as a Zamindar.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008"/>		''Zerat'' cultivation, which is direct cultivation by the planter, however, was an exclusive practice of the planter in which he hired labour to work on his fields to grow crops of his choice. 'Zerat' literally means "the [[Zamindar]]s private land, [[demesne]]", which had a direct impact on the peasants. The ploy of the planter in demesne was to encroach the land of the peasant and eventually claim it as his own and expand his control over the peasantry as a Zamindar.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008"/>

	In the Magistrate of [[Darbhanga district\|Darbhanga]]'s Administration Report for the year 1876–77, he reports that indigo cultivation in Bengal is divided into three methods that planters refer to as "tirhut". These are characterized as systems of tenure and conditions of indigo cultivation. The first of these, "zerat", is used if the land is in the planter's sole possession, and the ryot employed to work the land is a hired labourer. The term "assamiviar" is relevant when the land is in the rayat's possession and he is compelled (being the planter's tenant) to grow indigo on it at fixed rates. Lastly, the term "khooshgee" is appropriate when the rayat, under no compulsion, grows the plant as a remunerative crop.<ref name="WattAgriculture1890">{{cite book\|last1=Watt\|first1=Sir George\|author2=India. Dept. of Revenue and Agriculture\|title=A dictionary of the economic products of India\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbZLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA424\|access-date=22 January 2011\|year=1890\|publisher=Printed by the Superintendent of Government Printing\|pages=424–}}</ref> Sometimes referred to as "compulsory labour", [[Eminent domain\|expropriated]] peasants made up the largest group of the zerat labour force.<ref name="KumarRaychaudhuri1983">{{cite book\|last1=Kumar\|first1=Dharma\|last2=Raychaudhuri\|first2=Tapan\|last3=Desai\|first3=Meghnad\|title=The Cambridge economic history of India\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ew8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA326\|access-date=22 January 2011\|year=1983\|publisher=CUP Archive\|isbn=978-0-521-22802-2\|pages=326–}}</ref>		In the Magistrate of [[Darbhanga district\|Darbhanga]]'s Administration Report for the year 1876–77, he reports that indigo cultivation in Bengal is divided into three methods that planters refer to as "tirhut". These are characterized as systems of tenure and conditions of indigo cultivation. The first of these, "zerat", is used if the land is in the planter's sole possession, and the ryot employed to work the land is a hired labourer. The term "assamiviar" is relevant when the land is in the rayat's possession and he is compelled (being the planter's tenant) to grow indigo on it at fixed rates. Lastly, the term "khooshgee" is appropriate when the rayat, under no compulsion, grows the plant as a remunerative crop.<ref name="WattAgriculture1890">{{cite book\|last1=Watt\|first1=Sir George\|author2=India. Dept. of Revenue and Agriculture\|title=A dictionary of the economic products of India\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbZLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA424\|access-date=22 January 2011\|year=1890\|publisher=Printed by the Superintendent of Government Printing\|pages=424–}}</ref> Sometimes referred to as "compulsory labour", [[Eminent domain\|expropriated]] peasants made up the largest group of the zerat labour force.<ref name="KumarRaychaudhuri1983">{{cite book\|last1=Kumar\|first1=Dharma\|last2=Raychaudhuri\|first2=Tapan\|last3=Desai\|first3=Meghnad\|title=The Cambridge economic history of India\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ew8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA326\|access-date=22 January 2011\|year=1983\|publisher=CUP Archive\|isbn=978-0-521-22802-2\|pages=326–}}</ref>
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	[[Category:Labour relations in India]]		[[Category:Labour relations in India]]
	[[Category:Land management in India]]		[[Category:Land management in India]]
			[[Category:Indigo dye production]]

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← Older revision		Revision as of 02:43, 5 June 2022
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	{{Reflist\|2}}		{{Reflist\|2}}

	[[Category:~~History of~~ Bengal]]		[[Category:Bengal Presidency]]
	[[Category:Labour relations in India]]		[[Category:Labour relations in India]]
	[[Category:Land management in India]]		[[Category:Land management in India]]

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2021-01-14T14:15:29Z

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:''for the village in Afghanistan see [[Zerat, Afghanistan]]''
[[File:Indigofera tinctoria1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Indigo plant]]]]
[[File:Indigo factory bengal2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Indigo]] manufacturing factory in [[Bengal]]]]
'''Zerat''' is a [[Land tenure|land ownership]] system in early [[colonial India]]. The zerat system was particularly common in [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]].<ref name="SinhaCommittee1996">{{cite book|last1=Sinha|first1=Narendra Krishna|last2=Committee|first2=History of Bengal Publication|title=The history of Bengal, 1757–1905|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSNuAAAAMAAJ|access-date=21 January 2011|year=1996|publisher=University of Calcutta}}</ref> It refers to the private land of the landlord, which would often be cultivated by peasants.<ref name="SinhaCommittee1996"/><ref name="Economics1970">{{cite book|author=Delhi School of Economics|title=The Indian economic and social history review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDouAAAAIAAJ|access-date=21 January 2011|year=1970|publisher=Vikas Pub. House|pages=213–16}}</ref> Zerat was mainly responsible for a change in traditional forms of agricultural organization in some parts of India, replacing the [[ryot]] system.<ref name="Economics1970"/> It produced a strain on the peasant economy, despite peasants being free to grow their own crops.<ref name="Economics1970"/>

In [[indigo]] cultivation practiced by planters in Bihar and Bengal, the ''rayat'' and ''zerat'' were common practices which represented two labour hiring processes. The ryot (or raiyat) ("peasant") was a small land holder who took financial support from the planter and in return had to come to a written understanding to turn over the produce from his land to the planter at a predetermined amount.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008">{{cite book| last1 = Chaudhuri | first1= Binay Bhushan | editor = D. P. Chattopadhyaya | title = History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization | chapter = Peasant history of late pre-colonial and colonial India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljmIJySEm4UC&pg=PA455|access-date=23 January 2011|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1688-5|pages=455–456}}</ref>

''Zerat'' cultivation, which is direct cultivation by the planter, however, was an exclusive practice of the planter in which he hired labour to work on his fields to grow crops of his choice. 'Zerat' literally means “the [[Zamindar]]s private land, [[demesne]]”, which had a direct impact on the peasants. The ploy of the planter in demesne was to encroach the land of the peasant and eventually claim it as his own and expand his control over the peasantry as a Zamindar.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008"/>

In the Magistrate of [[Darbhanga district|Darbhanga]]'s Administration Report for the year 1876–77, he reports that indigo cultivation in Bengal is divided into three methods that planters refer to as "tirhut". These are characterized as systems of tenure and conditions of indigo cultivation. The first of these, "zerat", is used if the land is in the planter's sole possession, and the ryot employed to work the land is a hired labourer. The term "assamiviar" is relevant when the land is in the rayat's possession and he is compelled (being the planter's tenant) to grow indigo on it at fixed rates. Lastly, the term "khooshgee" is appropriate when the rayat, under no compulsion, grows the plant as a remunerative crop.<ref name="WattAgriculture1890">{{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=Sir George|author2=India. Dept. of Revenue and Agriculture|title=A dictionary of the economic products of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbZLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA424|access-date=22 January 2011|year=1890|publisher=Printed by the Superintendent of Government Printing|pages=424–}}</ref> Sometimes referred to as "compulsory labour", [[Eminent domain|expropriated]] peasants made up the largest group of the zerat labour force.<ref name="KumarRaychaudhuri1983">{{cite book|last1=Kumar|first1=Dharma|last2=Raychaudhuri|first2=Tapan|last3=Desai|first3=Meghnad|title=The Cambridge economic history of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ew8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA326|access-date=22 January 2011|year=1983|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-22802-2|pages=326–}}</ref>

The ryot option was preferred by the planter, as his involvement was limited only to finance the cultivation and not pay for any other costs of labour and other inputs required to raise the crop or even loss of crop, particularly in indigo cultivation. The risk was entirely that of the peasant, who at times of loss of crop suffered losses and was even unable to cover the loan taken from the planter. The basic difference in the Zerat system was the planter had not only to pay for the labour costs but also bear all risks involved with raising the crop, and as such he did not prefer this option.<ref name="ChaudhuriScience2008"/>

== See also ==
* [[Indian feudalism]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:History of Bengal]]
[[Category:Labour relations in India]]
[[Category:Land management in India]]