Women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir - Revision history

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	{{Short description\|none}} <!-- No short description per [[WP:SDNONE]] -->		{{Short description\|none}} <!-- No short description per [[BP:SDNONE]] -->
	{{Use Indian English\|date=May 2019}}		{{Use Indian English\|date=May 2019}}
	'''Women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir''' is a major issue. Belonging to a [[patriarchy\|patriarchal society]], they have had to fight [[gender inequality\|inequality]] and routine [[discrimination]]. ~~Since the onset of~~ [~~[insurgency~~ in ~~Jammu and~~ Kashmir~~\|insurgency in 1988]~~], ~~rape has been leveraged as a popular 'weapon~~ of ~~war'~~ by Indian ~~security~~ forces ~~as well as opposing militants~~.<ref>Chinkin, Christine. "Rape and sexual abuse of women in international law." ''[[European Journal of International Law]]'' 5.3 (1994): 327. "women in Kashmir who have suffered rape and death under the administration of the Indian army."</ref><ref name=":43">Inger Skjelsbæk (2001) [[doi:10.1080/13533310108413896\|Sexual violence in times of war: A new challenge for peace operations?]], International Peacekeeping, 8:2, 75–76 "</ref><ref name="Frederick2001">{{cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gU-6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT101\|title=Rape: Weapon of Terror\|publisher=World Scientific\|year=2001\|isbn=978-981-4350-95-2\|pages=101–\|author=Sharon Frederick\|access-date=19 April 2017\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420060202/https://books.google.com/books?id=gU-6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT101\|archive-date=20 April 2017\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF "RAPE IN KASHMIR: A Crime of War"] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904012347/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF \|date=4 September 2012 }} (PDF). ''Asia Watch & Physicians for Human Rights A Division of Human Rights Watch''. '''5''' (9): 6.</ref><ref name="Swati Parashar 2011">{{Cite journal \| doi=10.1080/1057610X.2011.551719\| title=Gender, ''Jihad'', and Jingoism: Women as Perpetrators, Planners, and Patrons of Militancy in Kashmir\| journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism\| volume=34\| issue=4\| pages=295–317\| year=2011\| last1=Parashar\| first1=Swati}}</ref><ref name="BakshHarcourt2015">{{cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SupcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA683\|title=The Oxford Handbook of Transnational Feminist Movements\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=2015\|isbn=978-0-19-994349-4\|pages=683–\|author1=Rawwida Baksh\|author2=Wendy Harcourt}}</ref>		'''Women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir''' is a major issue. Belonging to a [[patriarchy\|patriarchal society]], they have had to fight [[gender inequality\|inequality]] and routine [[discrimination]].<ref>Kazi, Seema. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191213021611/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0165?_hi=0&_pos=1 ''Gender and Militarization in Kashmir'']. ''Oxford Islamic Studies Online''. Oxford University Press. "Sordid and gruesome as the militant record of violence against Kashmiri women and civilians is, it does not compare with the scale and depth of abuse by Indian State forces for which justice has yet to be done."</ref><ref>Chinkin, Christine. "Rape and sexual abuse of women in international law." ''[[European Journal of International Law]]'' 5.3 (1994): 327. "women in Kashmir who have suffered rape and death under the administration of the Indian army."</ref><ref name=":43">Inger Skjelsbæk (2001) [[doi:10.1080/13533310108413896\|Sexual violence in times of war: A new challenge for peace operations?]], International Peacekeeping, 8:2, 75–76 "</ref><ref name="Frederick2001">{{cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gU-6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT101\|title=Rape: Weapon of Terror\|publisher=World Scientific\|year=2001\|isbn=978-981-4350-95-2\|pages=101–\|author=Sharon Frederick\|access-date=19 April 2017\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420060202/https://books.google.com/books?id=gU-6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT101\|archive-date=20 April 2017\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF "RAPE IN KASHMIR: A Crime of War"] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904012347/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF \|date=4 September 2012 }} (PDF). ''Asia Watch & Physicians for Human Rights A Division of Human Rights Watch''. '''5''' (9): 6.</ref><ref name="Swati Parashar 2011">{{Cite journal \| doi=10.1080/1057610X.2011.551719\| title=Gender, ''Jihad'', and Jingoism: Women as Perpetrators, Planners, and Patrons of Militancy in Kashmir\| journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism\| volume=34\| issue=4\| pages=295–317\| year=2011\| last1=Parashar\| first1=Swati}}</ref><ref name="BakshHarcourt2015">{{cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SupcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA683\|title=The Oxford Handbook of Transnational Feminist Movements\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=2015\|isbn=978-0-19-994349-4\|pages=683–\|author1=Rawwida Baksh\|author2=Wendy Harcourt}}</ref>
	Women's rights in [[Kashmir Valley]] has major issues<ref>{{cite web \| title=The disappointing case of patriarchy and rising crimes against women \| website=Kashmir Times \| url=http://www.kashmirtimes.com/newsdet.aspx?q=97260 \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> as there is harassment of young muslim women participating in sports activities,<ref>{{cite web \| title=Kashmir's suffocating patriarchy! \| website=Daily Excelsior \| date=2020-09-25 \| url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/kashmirs-suffocating-patriarchy/ \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> demands of [[dowry]] after marriage,<ref>{{cite web \| author=Guest \| title=Victims of Dowry in Srinagar: Five Case Studies \| website=Kashmir Reader \| date=2020-09-25 \| url=https://kashmirreader.com/2020/09/26/victims-of-dowry-in-srinagar-five-case-studies/ \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> [[domestic violence]] incidents,<ref>{{cite web \| title=Patriarchal Society: Celebrate individual excellence of women \| website=Rising Kashmir \| date=2020-09-07 \| url=http://risingkashmir.com/article/patriarchal-society--celebrate-individual-excellence-of-women \| access-date=2020-09-26}} {{dead link\|date=March 2022}}</ref> acid attacks on women ,<ref>{{cite web \| last=Jamwal \| first=Anuradha Bhasin \| title=Kashmiri Women as Stone Pelters: It Is Not Just Anti-Militarism, It \| website=The Citizen \| date=2020-09-26 \| url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/2/10538/Kashmiri-Women-as-Stone-Pelters-It-Is-Not-Just-Anti-Militarism-Its-About-Empowerment \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> and men being generally taken in a higher regard than women. Many small organisations have been formed to struggle for women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>[http://shur.luiss.it/files/2009/05/ray.pdf] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918201811/http://shur.luiss.it/files/2009/05/ray.pdf\|date=2017-09-18}} Dr. Ayesha Ray "Kashmiri Women and the Politics of Identity" (paper presented to SHUR Final Conference on Human Rights and Civil Society, Rome, June 2009) at 14.</ref>		Women's rights in [[Kashmir Valley]] has major issues<ref>{{cite web \| title=The disappointing case of patriarchy and rising crimes against women \| website=Kashmir Times \| url=http://www.kashmirtimes.com/newsdet.aspx?q=97260 \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> as there is harassment of young muslim women participating in sports activities,<ref>{{cite web \| title=Kashmir's suffocating patriarchy! \| website=Daily Excelsior \| date=2020-09-25 \| url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/kashmirs-suffocating-patriarchy/ \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> demands of [[dowry]] after marriage,<ref>{{cite web \| author=Guest \| title=Victims of Dowry in Srinagar: Five Case Studies \| website=Kashmir Reader \| date=2020-09-25 \| url=https://kashmirreader.com/2020/09/26/victims-of-dowry-in-srinagar-five-case-studies/ \| access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> [[domestic violence]] incidents,<ref>{{cite web \| title=Patriarchal Society: Celebrate individual excellence of women \| website=Rising Kashmir \| date=2020-09-07 \| url=http://risingkashmir.com/article/patriarchal-society--celebrate-individual-excellence-of-women \| access-date=2020-09-26}} {{dead link\|date=March 2022}}</ref> acid attacks on women ,<ref>{{cite web \| last=Jamwal \| first=Anuradha Bhasin \| title=Kashmiri Women as Stone Pelters: It Is Not Just Anti-Militarism, It \| website=The Citizen \| date=2020-09-26 \| url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/2/10538/Kashmiri-Women-as-Stone-Pelters-It-Is-Not-Just-Anti-Militarism-Its-About-Empowerment \| access-date=2020-09-26 \| archive-date=2020-09-23 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923135221/https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/2/10538/Kashmiri-Women-as-Stone-Pelters-It-Is-Not-Just-Anti-Militarism-Its-About-Empowerment \| url-status=dead }}</ref> and men being generally taken in a higher regard than women. Many small organisations have been formed to struggle for women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>[http://shur.luiss.it/files/2009/05/ray.pdf] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918201811/http://shur.luiss.it/files/2009/05/ray.pdf\|date=2017-09-18}} Dr. Ayesha Ray "Kashmiri Women and the Politics of Identity" (paper presented to SHUR Final Conference on Human Rights and Civil Society, Rome, June 2009) at 14.</ref>

	==Education==		==Education==
	J&K's social, economic and political conditions have increased gender disparity in the region, with men dominating its [[socioeconomics\|socio-economic]] and political processes.{{~~citation needed~~\|date=~~November 2019~~}} Women's roles have traditionally been domestic, and women in [[rural area]]s do not have access to education.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}} According to a 2011 census, the [[literacy]] rate in J&K was 68.74 per cent; literacy among women was 58.01 per cent.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}} The female high-school [[Dropping out\|dropout rate]] is higher than the male rate, and one out of every three adult women in J&K is unable to read or write (compared with one out of five adult males).{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}}		J&K's social, economic and political conditions have increased gender disparity in the region, with men dominating its [[socioeconomics\|socio-economic]] and political processes.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Malik \|first=Mohd Amin \|title=IDWGS: Her Voice in Science \|url=https://m.greaterkashmir.com/article/idwgs-her-voice-in-science/371259 \|access-date=2025-02-16 \|website=Greaterkashmir \|language=en}}</ref> Women's roles have traditionally been domestic, and women in [[rural area]]s do not have access to education.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}} According to a 2011 census, the [[literacy]] rate in J&K was 68.74 per cent; literacy among women was 58.01 per cent.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}} The female high-school [[Dropping out\|dropout rate]] is higher than the male rate, and one out of every three adult women in J&K is unable to read or write (compared with one out of five adult males).{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}}

	In many rural areas, the birth of a son is celebrated; the birth of a daughter is not. Males are seen as able to get a job and help support a family; females are seen as an expense, since they will marry and leave home.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}}		In many rural areas, the birth of a son is celebrated; the birth of a daughter is not. Males are seen as able to get a job and help support a family; females are seen as an expense, since they will marry and leave home.{{citation needed\|date=November 2019}}
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	=== {{anchor\|Women's Self Defense Corps (WSDC)}}Women's Self Defense Corps ===		=== {{anchor\|Women's Self Defense Corps (WSDC)}}Women's Self Defense Corps ===
	In 1947, the volunteer Women's Self Defense Corps (WSDC) was founded as the female wing of the Jammu and Kashmir National Militia. The group's aim is "to train women for self-defense and to resist invaders".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.gfgrg.org/women-and-resistance-in-kashmir-by-yogesh-mishra/\|title=Women and Resistance in Kashmir\|last=Mishra\|first=Yogesh\|date=June 27, 2018\|website=Gender and Feminist Geographies Research Group\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205193301/http://www.gfgrg.org/women-and-resistance-in-kashmir-by-yogesh-mishra/\|archive-date=December 5, 2018\|url-status=~~live~~\|access-date=November 30, 2018\|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In addition to weapons training, the group also provided a forum where women "steeped in centuries-old traditions, abysmal ignorance, poverty and superstition could discuss their issues".<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Islam, Women, and Violence in Kashmir: Between India and Pakistan\|last=Khan\|first=Nyla Ali\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|year=2010\|location=New York\|pages=134}}</ref> The corps also worked at a political and cultural level for increased impact.		In 1947, the volunteer Women's Self Defense Corps (WSDC) was founded as the female wing of the Jammu and Kashmir National Militia. The group's aim is "to train women for self-defense and to resist invaders".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.gfgrg.org/women-and-resistance-in-kashmir-by-yogesh-mishra/\|title=Women and Resistance in Kashmir\|last=Mishra\|first=Yogesh\|date=June 27, 2018\|website=Gender and Feminist Geographies Research Group\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205193301/http://www.gfgrg.org/women-and-resistance-in-kashmir-by-yogesh-mishra/\|archive-date=December 5, 2018\|url-status=usurped\|access-date=November 30, 2018\|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In addition to weapons training, the group also provided a forum where women "steeped in centuries-old traditions, abysmal ignorance, poverty and superstition could discuss their issues".<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Islam, Women, and Violence in Kashmir: Between India and Pakistan\|last=Khan\|first=Nyla Ali\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|year=2010\|location=New York\|pages=134}}</ref> The corps also worked at a political and cultural level for increased impact.

	== {{anchor\|Cross-border Collaborations}}Cross-border collaboration ==		== {{anchor\|Cross-border Collaborations}}Cross-border collaboration ==

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{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
'''Women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir''' is a major issue. Belonging to a [[patriarchy|patriarchal society]], they have had to fight [[gender inequality|inequality]] and routine [[discrimination]]. Since the onset of [[insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir|insurgency in 1988]], rape has been leveraged as a popular 'weapon of war' by Indian security forces as well as opposing militants.<ref>Chinkin, Christine. "Rape and sexual abuse of women in international law." ''[[European Journal of International Law]]'' 5.3 (1994): 327. "women in Kashmir who have suffered rape and death under the administration of the Indian army."</ref><ref name=":43">Inger Skjelsbæk (2001) [[doi:10.1080/13533310108413896|Sexual violence in times of war: A new challenge for peace operations?]], International Peacekeeping, 8:2, 75–76 "</ref><ref name="Frederick2001">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gU-6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT101|title=Rape: Weapon of Terror|publisher=World Scientific|year=2001|isbn=978-981-4350-95-2|pages=101–|author=Sharon Frederick|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420060202/https://books.google.com/books?id=gU-6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT101|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF "RAPE IN KASHMIR: A Crime of War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904012347/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF |date=4 September 2012 }} (PDF). ''Asia Watch & Physicians for Human Rights A Division of Human Rights Watch''. '''5''' (9): 6.</ref><ref name="Swati Parashar 2011">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/1057610X.2011.551719| title=Gender, ''Jihad'', and Jingoism: Women as Perpetrators, Planners, and Patrons of Militancy in Kashmir| journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism| volume=34| issue=4| pages=295–317| year=2011| last1=Parashar| first1=Swati}}</ref><ref name="BakshHarcourt2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SupcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA683|title=The Oxford Handbook of Transnational Feminist Movements|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0-19-994349-4|pages=683–|author1=Rawwida Baksh|author2=Wendy Harcourt}}</ref>
Women's rights in [[Kashmir Valley]] has major issues<ref>{{cite web | title=The disappointing case of patriarchy and rising crimes against women | website=Kashmir Times | url=http://www.kashmirtimes.com/newsdet.aspx?q=97260 | access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> as there is harassment of young muslim women participating in sports activities,<ref>{{cite web | title=Kashmir's suffocating patriarchy! | website=Daily Excelsior | date=2020-09-25 | url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/kashmirs-suffocating-patriarchy/ | access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> demands of [[dowry]] after marriage,<ref>{{cite web | author=Guest | title=Victims of Dowry in Srinagar: Five Case Studies | website=Kashmir Reader | date=2020-09-25 | url=https://kashmirreader.com/2020/09/26/victims-of-dowry-in-srinagar-five-case-studies/ | access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> [[domestic violence]] incidents,<ref>{{cite web | title=Patriarchal Society: Celebrate individual excellence of women | website=Rising Kashmir | date=2020-09-07 | url=http://risingkashmir.com/article/patriarchal-society--celebrate-individual-excellence-of-women | access-date=2020-09-26}} {{dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref> acid attacks on women ,<ref>{{cite web | last=Jamwal | first=Anuradha Bhasin | title=Kashmiri Women as Stone Pelters: It Is Not Just Anti-Militarism, It | website=The Citizen | date=2020-09-26 | url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/2/10538/Kashmiri-Women-as-Stone-Pelters-It-Is-Not-Just-Anti-Militarism-Its-About-Empowerment | access-date=2020-09-26}}</ref> and men being generally taken in a higher regard than women. Many small organisations have been formed to struggle for women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>[http://shur.luiss.it/files/2009/05/ray.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918201811/http://shur.luiss.it/files/2009/05/ray.pdf|date=2017-09-18}} Dr. Ayesha Ray "Kashmiri Women and the Politics of Identity" (paper presented to SHUR Final Conference on Human Rights and Civil Society, Rome, June 2009) at 14.</ref>

==Education==
J&K's social, economic and political conditions have increased gender disparity in the region, with men dominating its [[socioeconomics|socio-economic]] and political processes.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Women's roles have traditionally been domestic, and women in [[rural area]]s do not have access to education.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} According to a 2011 census, the [[literacy]] rate in J&K was 68.74 per cent; literacy among women was 58.01 per cent.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} The female high-school [[Dropping out|dropout rate]] is higher than the male rate, and one out of every three adult women in J&K is unable to read or write (compared with one out of five adult males).{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

In many rural areas, the birth of a son is celebrated; the birth of a daughter is not. Males are seen as able to get a job and help support a family; females are seen as an expense, since they will marry and leave home.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

Article 10 of the [[United Nations General Assembly]]'s [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] recognises that such gender inequality can be eliminated only by education.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} The [[government of Jammu and Kashmir]], realising that gender disparity in education must be removed for women in the [[Kashmir Valley]], has begun a number of initiatives.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Qualified female teachers are underemployed, however; school [[infrastructure]] is poor, and [[student-teacher ratio]]s are high.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

==Citizenship==
According to the UN General Assembly's [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], the principle of [[citizenship]] operates on the assumption of [[Social equality|equality]] between men and women.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1177/097152150601400109|title = Citizenship Rights of Women in Jammu and Kashmir|journal = Indian Journal of Gender Studies|volume = 14|pages = 157–171|year = 2007|last1 = Singh|first1 = Jasbir|last2 = Vohra|first2 = Anupama}}</ref> In Jammu and Kashmir, however, citizenship is unequal among men and women.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/> If a woman from J&K marries a [[alien (law)|foreigner]], she loses her right to [[inheritance|inherit]], own or buy immovable property in the state;<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011">{{cite journal |author=Nyla Ali Khan |title=Negotiating the boundaries of gender, community and nationhood: A case study of Kashmir |year=2011 |volume=18 |issue=1 |journal=Pakistan Journal of Women's Studies: Alam-e-Niswan |pages=1–13}}</ref> no such law affects a male in a similar situation.<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011"/> [[Secularist]]s and [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic nationalists]] believe that J&K can survive amid [[globalization]] with its identity intact only by protecting [[culture of Kashmir|Kashmiri culture]],<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011"/> and Kashmiri women are discouraged from crossing the cultural threshold;<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011"/> inequality in citizenship is justified as preserving the state.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/>

On 7 October 2002, the [[Jammu and Kashmir High Court]] overturned the established legal position.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/> The court ruled that by marrying an outsider, a J&K woman did not lose her permanent-resident status.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/> It was further stated that the original document that had been used as evidence for depriving women of their citizenship did not expressly state so.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/> The decision was contested by the state's political parties, who drafted a bill known as the Daughters Bill or the Permanent Residents' (Disqualification) Bill stripping a woman of permanent resident-status if she married a foreigner.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/> According to law minister [[Muzaffar Hussain Baig|Muzaffar Beg]], it was "universally accepted that the woman follows the [[domicile (law)|domicile]] of her husband."<ref name="dnaindia.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/main-article-kashmir-vs-women-1374449 |title=Kashmir vs Women |access-date=2017-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006001513/http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/main-article-kashmir-vs-women-1374449 |archive-date=2017-10-06 |url-status=live |date=2010-04-23 }}</ref>

Although the bill was not passed, a similar bill was introduced in March 2010 ostensibly to stave off [[demography|demographic]] change;<ref name="dnaindia.com"/> however, the rationale did not address the male role (through intermarriage) in demographic change.<ref name="dnaindia.com"/> That bill was not passed, but it has considerable support.<ref name="dnaindia.com"/>

==Role of women in the conflict==
In 1989, Kashmiri dissatisfaction with Indian rule led to the Kashmir conflict resulting in the abuse of women in the region<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> According to a report by Human Rights Watch in 1993, the Indian security forces use rape as a method of retaliation against Kashmiri civilians during reprisal attacks after militant ambushes.<ref name=":42">Inger Skjelsbæk (2001) [[doi:10.1080/13533310108413896|Sexual violence in times of war: A new challenge for peace operations?]], International Peacekeeping, 8:2, 75-76.</ref><ref name=":12">[https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/INDIA935.PDF "Rape in Kashmir: A Crime of War"] (PDF). ''Asia Watch & Physicians for Human Rights A Division of Human Rights Watch''. '''5''' (9): 1.</ref><ref>Littlewood, Roland. "Military Rape". ''[[Anthropology Today]]'', vol. 13, no. 2, 1997, pp. 7–16.</ref> Professor William Baker states that rape in Kashmir was not the result of a few undisciplined soldiers but an active attempt by the Indian security forces to humiliate and intimidate the Kashmiri population.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/0049085715589471| title=A Gender Critique of AFSPA: Security for Whom?| journal=Social Change| volume=45| issue=3| pages=440–457| year=2015| last1=Ranjan| first1=Amit}}</ref>

When public support of the militancy began to diminish, many militants turned to the political arena; however, the voices of women have not been accorded their rightful place in the dialogues of the Kashmiri conflict and politics.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> Although women have been the hardest-hit victims of the conflict and have played pivotal roles in [[separatism]] and the armed insurgency,<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> their activities are barely mentioned in mainstream narratives of Kashmiri militancy.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> The media seems uneasy with the idea of female Kashmiri involvement in militancy; when a woman is charged as an overground operative of a militant group, the media swiftly declares her innocent or justifies her.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/>

==={{anchor|Dukhtaran-e-Milat (DeM)}}Dukhtaran-e-Milat===
[[Dukhtaran-e-Millat]] (DeM) is a women's organisation which was founded in 1981 by [[Asiya Andrabi]].<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> The group's early goal was to educate [[Muslim]] women about [[Islam]] and make them aware of their rights.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> Over time, however, it began morally policing women and encouraged them to support militants waging [[jihad]] in Kashmir.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> The group has often had to go underground after the government prohibited its activities.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> In 1987, the organisation became more political and demanded seats reserved for women on [[public transport]]; the government ignored their demands.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> When the insurgency began in 1988, DeM appealed to women to run their households and support the mujahideen.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/>

According to Andrabi, she has stopped many young women from going to Pakistan for training in armed combat at militant camps.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> DeM's timeline is full of bans and arrests under the Public Safety Act.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> DeM can be classified as a [[Islamic extremism|radical religious group]] which uses coercion to impose a [[conservatism|conservative]] version of Islam on Kashmiri women.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> Its moral-police initiatives primarily target what are considered centres of immorality, including cafes, restaurants and shops selling alcohol and gifts.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> DeM campaigns for [[sex segregation]] and strict [[gender role]] based on the [[five pillars of Islam]].<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> Viewing the Kashmir conflict as religious in nature, they seek the unification of J&K with Pakistan.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/> Although DeM has not been proven to engage in direct armed struggle, Andrabi said in an interview that the women might take up arms or become [[suicide attack|suicide bombers]] if needed.<ref name="Swati Parashar 2011"/>

Organisations which share DeM's [[ideology]] promote a homogenous culture, without the liberties and choices for women which are traditionally an integral part of the Kashmiri culture.<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011"/> Their strict measures, such as imposition of the [[burqa]], strengthen the patriarchal structure of Kashmiri society.<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011"/> According to some commentators, DeM's efforts would be more effective if directed at the creation of [[women in government|quotas for women]] in [[Parliament]], the [[legislative assembly]] and the [[judiciary]]; female representation would increase, triggering a cultural shift in gender-role expectations.<ref name="Nyla Ali Khan 2011"/>

=== {{anchor|Women's Self Defense Corps (WSDC)}}Women's Self Defense Corps ===
In 1947, the volunteer Women's Self Defense Corps (WSDC) was founded as the female wing of the Jammu and Kashmir National Militia. The group's aim is "to train women for self-defense and to resist invaders".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gfgrg.org/women-and-resistance-in-kashmir-by-yogesh-mishra/|title=Women and Resistance in Kashmir|last=Mishra|first=Yogesh|date=June 27, 2018|website=Gender and Feminist Geographies Research Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205193301/http://www.gfgrg.org/women-and-resistance-in-kashmir-by-yogesh-mishra/|archive-date=December 5, 2018|url-status=live|access-date=November 30, 2018|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In addition to weapons training, the group also provided a forum where women "steeped in centuries-old traditions, abysmal ignorance, poverty and superstition could discuss their issues".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islam, Women, and Violence in Kashmir: Between India and Pakistan|last=Khan|first=Nyla Ali|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|location=New York|pages=134}}</ref> The corps also worked at a political and cultural level for increased impact.

== {{anchor|Cross-border Collaborations}}Cross-border collaboration ==
{{See also|Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir}}
Cross-border collaborations can be traced back to the beginning of conflict between India and Pakistan. Women in both countries shared a number of issues, such as public and domestic violence, [[Rape during the Kashmir conflict|rape]], [[Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir|human-rights abuses]] and inequality, and the environment created by the Kashmir conflict had a negative impact. Groups and initiatives fostering cross-border collaboration created a space for the women and an atmosphere for developing human relationships and substantive dialogue on issues like the [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|Indo-Pakistani wars]].

Women's cross-border initiatives have changed and contributed to peace between [[India–Pakistan relations|India and Pakistan]]. It provides opportunities for face-to-face interactions and dialogue, and has facilitated much-needed understanding between the people of both countries. Women have participated in several processes through meetings with government officials and civil-society groups, addressed concerns such as education and visas, and initiated a media exchange between the countries.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sewak|first=Manjiri|date=2004|title=Women's Initiatives for Peace between Pakistan and India|journal=Pakistan Horizon|volume=57|issue=3|pages=121–126|jstor=41394062}}</ref> When only civil-society groups and government officials had the right to make decisions, groups and initiatives like this were negotiated and sustained cross-border dialogue.<ref name=":0" /> Women's experiences and groups are an alternative, nonviolent means of negotiating an end to conflict.

=== Women's Bus for Peace ===
In 1999, 40 Indian women of different religions and political views took a 12-hour bus trip from [[New Delhi]] to [[Lahore]] which was organized by the Women's Initiative for Peace in South Asia (WIPSA). The Women's Bus for Peace was one of many several cross-border collaborations by women from Pakistan and India.<ref name=":0"/> The initiative began with communication, since the women had common issues and struggles. What brought them together was the need to build strategies for peace. The Women's Bus for Peace focused on the need for communication between the people of Pakistan and India.

=== {{anchor|LOC Conference}}Line of Control conference ===
A November 2007 conference for Pakistani and Indian women, "Connecting Women across the Line of Control (LOC)", was held in [[Kashmir]]. Discussion topics at the conference ranged from aiding victims of violence and untreated illnesses to mobilizing women in the political and social arenas. The participants "vehemently endorsed diplomacy and peaceful negotiations in order to further the India–Pakistan peace process; withdrawal of forces from both sides of the [[Line of Control|LOC]]; decommissioning of militants; rehabilitation of [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s to rebuild the syncretic fabric of [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] society; and rehabilitation of detainees".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islam, Women, and Violence in Kashmir: Between India and Pakistan|last=Khan|first=Nyla Ali|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|location=New York|pages=142}}</ref> Regardless of ethnicity, the women worked together to find solutions to problems caused by the Kashmir conflict and end the decades-long feud.

==See also==
*[[Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir]]
*[[Pragaash]] band controversy

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kashmir/back.htm Behind the Kashmir conflict]
* [http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/lead-article-politics-of-rape-in-kashmir/article6909603.ece Politics of rape in Kashmir]
* [https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/asia-and-the-pacific/india/report-india/ Amnesty International on human rights abuses in Kashmir]
* [https://www.awid.org/news-and-analysis/womens-resistance-kashmir Women's Resistance in Kashmir]
{{Jammu and Kashmir topics}}
{{Kashmir conflict}}

[[Category:Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Women's rights in India]]