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{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Erotic Sculpture at Tripurantakesvara Temple in Balligavi.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Kamasutra art, 1070, Tripurantakesvara Temple, [[Shimoga district]]]]
The '''[[Western Chalukyas]]''' (Kannada:'''ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು''') were a prominent South Indian [[Kannadiga]] dynasty who ruled most of western Deccan India during the 10th century - 12th century. They are also known as '''Kalyani Chalukya''' after their capital at [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]], known today as [[Basavakalyan]] in [[Karnataka]] state. '''Later Chalukya''' is another commonly used name for this empire from the popular theory that they were related to the 6th century [[Chalukya]] dynasty of [[Badami]].

==Chalukya society==
The rise of [[Veerashaiva]]ism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing [[Hindu caste system]] which nonetheless retained regal patronage. The role of women in society was varied and largely depended on their economic status and level of education in a period that may generally be considered liberal. This freedom was, however, more easily available to women in royal and affluent urban families. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi and [[Kalachuris of Kalyani|Kalachuri]] queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music, compositions of thirty [[Vachana]] poets including the 12th century [[Virashaiva]] mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the ''bhakti'' movement is well known.<ref name="mystic">She was not only a pioneer in the era of Women's emancipation but also an example of a transcendental world-view, Romila Thapar, ''The Penguin History of Early India, From Origin to 1300 AD'', 2003, Penguin, p392</ref>

Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]]) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals.<ref name="wars">[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|Nilakanta Sastri, K.A.]] (1955), ''A History of South India'', OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p286</ref><ref name="retire">This is in stark contrast to the literature of the time (like ''Vikramankadeva Charita'' of Bilhana) that portrayed women as retiring, overly romantic and unconcerned with affairs of the state, Romila Thapar, ''The Penguin History of Early India, From Origin to 1300 AD'', 2003, Penguin, p392</ref> Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were ''Sangita Chudamani'', ''Sangita Samayasara'' and ''Sangitha Ratnakara''.<ref name="instrument">''Sangita Ratnakara'' being written in the court of feudatory [[Seuna]] kingdom, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), ''A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present'', Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), p115</ref> Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that [[Sati (practice)|Sati]] though present was on a voluntary basis.<ref name="sati">The Belathur inscription of 1057 describes the end of a widow called Dekabbe who committed Sati despite the requests of her parents not to. Some widows such as Chalukya Queen [[Attimabbe]] long survived their deceased husbands, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), ''A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present'', Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), pp 112-113</ref> Ritual deaths to achieve salvation are known with [[Jainism|Jains]] preferring to fast to death ([[Sallekhana]]), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (''Shoolabrahma'') or walking into fire on an eclipse.

In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present, [[Brahmin]]s enjoyed a privileged position as imparters of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning, with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who induced learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and home. Relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated and in the interest of the kingdom as they were seen as a people of detachment from wealth and power and their knowledge was useful to impart education, ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local daily problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (''Panchayat'').<ref name="panchayat">According to Charles Eliot, the intellectual qualifications of the Brahmins made them apt to serve as ministers and advisers of Kings(''Rajguru''), Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), ''A History of South India'', OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p289</ref>

In food habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while consumption of different kinds of meat was popular with other communities. Vendors in the marketplace sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat from partridges, hares, wild fowl and boars.<ref name="fowl">Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), ''A History of South India'', OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p288</ref> People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (''Kusti'') or watching animal fights such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time.<ref name="cock">Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), ''A History of South India'', OUP (Reprinted 2002), p289</ref> In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were plenty and often made entertaining by travelling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians.<ref name="games">The ''Manasollasa'' written by King [[Someshvara III]] contains significant information of the social life of Western Chalukyan times, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), ''A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present'', Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), p112</ref>

Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Market places served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and consider local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu ''[[Matha]]'', Jain ''Palli'' and Buddhist ''[[Vihara]]''.<ref name="choir">The practice of orchestras was popularised by the Kalamukhas, a cult who worshipped Lord Shiva, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), ''A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present'', Jupiter books, MCC, (Reprinted 2002), pp 115</ref> These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries (''Saraswati Bhandara''). Learning was imparted in the local language and Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called ''Brahmapuri'' (or ''Ghatika'' or ''Agrahara''). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments in their cause.

Inscriptions prove that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen.<ref name="subjects">Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), ''A History of South India'', OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p292</ref> The four subjects popular with students from royalty were Economics (''Vartta''), Political Science (''Dandaniti''), Veda (''trayi'') and Philosophy (''[[Anviksiki|Anvikshiki]]''), subjects that find mention as early as [[Kautilya]]'s ''[[Arthashastra]]''. Other subjects (''Vidya'') were the four [[Veda]]s, six auxiliary subjects (''Angas'') namely Phonetics, Prosody, Grammar, Etymology, [[Astronomy]] and Ritual (''[[Purana]]''), Logic (''Tarka''), Exegesis (''Mimamsa'') and Law (''Dharmasastra''). To this were added [[Medicine]] (''Ayurveda''), [[Archery]] (''Dhanurveda''), Music (''Gandharvaveda'') and Politics (''Arthashastra'') to complete what seems a comprehensive list of subjects. Well known centers of learning (from a present-day geographical perspective) were at Bagevadi, Kadalevad and Manigavalli in [[Bijapur district, Chhattisgarh|Bijapur district]], Nargund and Hottur in [[Dharwad district]], [[Balligavi]] in [[Shimoga district]], and Nagayi in [[Gulbarga district]].

==Notes==
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== References ==
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* [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|Nilakanta Sastri, K.A.]] (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) {{ISBN|0-19-560686-8}}.
* [[Suryanath U. Kamath]] (2001). A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041.
* [[Romila Thapar]], The Penguin History of Early India, From Origin to 1300 AD., 2003, Penguin, New Delhi {{ISBN|0-14-302989-4}}.
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[[Category:Western Chalukya Empire]]
[[Category:Historical Societies of Karnataka]]

Western Chalukya society - Revision history

imported>Dl2000: image->file; en-IN