MD. TARIQUL ISLAM: minor changes

2026-01-25T17:28:01Z

minor changes

imported>Jellysandwich0 at 13:12, 26 August 2021

2021-08-26T13:12:01Z

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{{multiple image
| width = 60
| total_width = 500
| image1 = Kalleshvara temple at Kuknur.JPG
| alt1 = Aerial view of the temple
| image2 = Kallesvara temple, Kukkanur Karnataka.jpg
| alt2 = Floor plan of the temple
| footer = Kallesvara temple at Kukkanur (1000-1025 CE) pioneered the Vesara architecture, by integrating Nagara elements into Dravida plan with its innovations with the ''bhadra'' section (Right: in the floor plan, note the bulge in the ''mandapa'' and the ''garbhagriya'').<ref name=Sinha/>
}}
'''Vesara''' is a hybrid form of Indian temple architecture, with South Indian plan and a shape that features North Indian details. This fusion style likely originated in the historic architecture schools of the [[Dharwad]] region. It is common in the surviving temples of later Chalukyas and Hoysalas in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region, particularly [[Karnataka]]. According to Indian texts, Vesara was popular in central parts of India such as between the [[Vindhyas]] and the [[river Krishna]].<ref>Harle, 254</ref><ref name="Kramrischp291"/><ref name=dhaky1977/> It is one of six major types of Indian temple architecture found in historic texts along with Nagara, Dravida, Bhumija, Kalinga and Varata.<ref name=ahardy102>{{cite book|author=Adam Hardy| title= Indian temple typologies, in Glimpses of Indian History and Art Reflections on the Past, Perspectives for the Future|editor1 = Tiziana Lorenzetti| editor2 = Fabio Scialpi| publisher = Sapienza Università di Roma| isbn= 978-88-95814-85-8| p=102}}</ref>

The term was used by ancient writers, but possibly not with the same meaning as in modern usage. For this and other reasons, it is avoided by some writers, such as [[Adam Hardy]].<ref>Hardy, 8</ref> Alternative terms for the whole time span of the tradition, from the 7th to the 13th century CE, include ''Karnata Dravida'' (Hardy's choice),<ref>Hardy, 8, referring to the very early [[Karnata Kingdom]], which occupied roughly the north of the modern state of [[Karnataka]].</ref> 'Central Indian temple architecture style', 'Deccan architecture', or for shorter periods, terms referring to local dynasties, such as "Chalukyan architecture", or more precisely Early Chalukya or [[Badami Chalukya architecture]] and Later or Kalyana Chalukya or [[Western Chalukya architecture]],<ref>Hardy, 8: "Chalukyan" is used by the pioneering Victorian historian [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]]. Early and Later Chalukya are used by George Michell, who avoids "vesara". See Michell, 146-149</ref> and [[Hoysala architecture]] to those built during the Hoysala dynasty rule.

Among those who do use "vesara", there is some disagreement as to what periods to use it for. Such disagreements are very largely restricted to matters of nomenclature: whether the term is useful, and if so, what it should cover, in particular whether the Early as well as the Later Chalukya is included in "Vesara". There is general agreement about most aspects of the actual surviving buildings.

==Etymology==
[[File:Sudi twin tower shiva temple 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Joda-kalasha temple, Sudi, Karnataka – another early innovator of the Vesara-style (''c.'' 1060 CE).<ref name=Sinha/>]]
''Vesara'' means [[mule]], "an issue of heterogeneous parents", states Stella Kramrisch.<ref name="Kramrischp291">{{cite book | last=Kramrisch | first=Stella | title=The Hindu Temple, Volume 2| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | year=1976 | isbn=978-81-208-0224-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-aS52MgIkMC | page=291}}</ref> The south Indian text ''Kamika-agama'' explains that this name is drived from its mixed nature, where it is a Dravida architecture in plan, yet its shape is Nagara architecture in the details.<ref name="Kramrischp291"/> The same text says that Vesara is also called ''Sankara'' – "hybrid" – for the same reason.<ref name=dhaky1977>M.A. Dhaky (1977), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VyW32NwcMr4C The Indian Temple Forms in Karnata Inscriptions and Architecture]'', Abhinav, {{ISBN|978-81-7017-065-5}}, pp. 21–24</ref>

Vesara reflects the [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] nature of the style.<ref>Hardy, 8</ref>

==Texts==
The Vesara style is not mentioned in north Indian texts on architecture, states Dhaky – a scholar of Indian temple architecture. In contrast, it is a term found in most South Indian texts on architecture along with Dravida and Nagara, something that suggests that the Vesara style emerged and was championed in the south.<ref name=dhaky1977/> The ''Manasara'' categorizes Nagara to north, Dravida to south and Vesara to the middle. It goes on to state that Nagara emphasizes the four sides, Dravida a polygon (octagon), while Vesara compliments both in between with circular or elliptical forms. Given the many post-10th-century Hindu and Jain temple structures and ruins in Vesara form that have survived in Karnataka, the Vesara style has been linked to Karnataka and texts composed there.<ref>{{cite book|author=Adam Hardy| title= Indian temple typologies, in Glimpses of Indian History and Art Reflections on the Past, Perspectives for the Future|editor1 = Tiziana Lorenzetti| editor2 = Fabio Scialpi| publisher = Sapienza Università di Roma| isbn= 978-88-95814-85-8| p=103}}</ref>

In general, many South Indian texts state that Vesara is a building that is "circular or round" in plan above ''karna'' (base) or ''kantha'' (neck). For example, this description is found for Vesara in verse 50.15–17 of the ''Svayambhuva-agama'', verse 7.117 of the ''Karana-agama'', verse 12.68 of the ''Ajita-agama'', verse 30.41 of the ''Suprebheda-agama'' and others.<ref name=dhaky1977/> On the other hand, the verse 7.15 of the ''Dipta-agama'', the verse 9.3 of the ''Padma-samhita'', and the verse 30.44–45 of ''Ishana-Sivagurudeva-Paddhati'' state that a Vesara may be circular, elliptical or apsidal in plan. A third view is proferred in the section 6 of the Marichi samhita, verses 18.47–48 of the ''Manasara'', and verses 19.36–38 of the ''Mayamata'', which states that a Vesara can be circular or it can be a square up to prastara and then is circular from ''griva'' (neck) onwards.<ref name=dhaky1977/>{{refn|group=note|The ''Manasara'' states that the Vesara can be circular or elliptical all the way from base to stupi, or square below and round above, or an apsidal temple.<ref name=dhaky1977/>}}

There are other theoretical classifications of Hindu temple architecture, with South Indian texts using the plan and North Indian texts using the overall shape and form, in particular of the superstructure. However, the real temples that were built before the 17th-century show an abundance of experimentation with core ideas, innovations and overlapping varieties that scholars generally avoid the theoretical terms. For example, while the theory in ''Manasara'' states that Dravida temples are those south Indian temples that have an octagonal (or polygonal) plan, historic Dravidian temples with octagonal plan either were never built or have not survived into the modern age.<ref name=ahardy102/> Similarly, even on the walls of Hindu and Jain temples of Karnataka, there is no depiction of elliptical temple.<ref name=dhaky1977/> This may be because the sthanpati (architect) and silpins (artisans) in 9th to 11th-century Karnataka were deliberately ignoring the texts and experimenting with novel and innovative synthesis.<ref name=dhaky1977/>

==History==
{{multiple image
| width = 60
| align = right
| total_width = 500
| image1 = 11th century Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 13 with labels.jpg
| alt1 = Aerial view of the temple
| image2 = 11th century Kasivisvesvara temple plan, Lakkundi Karnataka.jpg
| alt2 = Floor plan of the temple
| footer = Kasivisvesvara temple at Lakkundi (1075 CE) fully illustrates the Vesara architecture. Left: On the pronounced bhadra are Nagara and Bhumija motifs; Right: in the floor plan, the ''bhadra'' bulge helps fuse Dravida-Nagara ideas, harmonizing the aesthetics outside and inside the temple.<ref name=Sinha>Ajay J. Sinha (1996), ''Architectural Invention in Sacred Structures: The Case of Vesara Temples of Southern India'', Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 382-399, {{JSTOR|991180}}</ref> In the 19th-century, the British scholar Burgess remarked, this temple has "one of the finest surviving illustration of Hindu decorative artwork in India".
}}
The ''vesara'' style originated in the region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that is contemporary north Karnataka. According to some art historians, the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] of Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or [[Badami Chalukya architecture]] built temples in a style that mixed some features of the ''nagara'' and the ''dravida'' styles, for example using both the northern [[shikhara]] and southern [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]] type of superstructure over the sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at [[Pattadakal]]. This style was further refined by the [[Rashtrakutas]] of [[Manyakheta]] (750-983AD) in sites such as [[Ellora]]. Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style,<ref>Michell, 149</ref> other writers only date the start of Vesara to the later [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]] of [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] (983-1195 AD),<ref>Harle, 254</ref> in sites such as [[Lakkundi]], [[Doddabasappa Temple|Dambal]], [[Mahadeva Temple, Itagi|Itagi]], and [[Gadag]],<ref>Harle, 256-261</ref> and continued by the [[Hoysala empire]] (1000-1330 AD).

Other art historians such as Sinha state that experimentation and innovations in Hindu temple architecture began quite early in Karnataka at sites such as [[Aihole]], [[Pattadakal]], [[Badami]] and [[Mahakuta]] where both Nagara and Dravida temples were built close to each other. However, these more or less retained their historic identity.<ref name="Sinha77">{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A.J. | title=Imagining Architects: Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India | publisher=University of Delaware Press | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-87413-684-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WvqLzaSUGi8C | pages=77–83}}</ref> ''Vesara'', states Sinha, should not be considered as a simple mixture of ''nagara'' or ''dravida'', but as an architectural invention that was difficult and a deliberate creative synthesis given the materials and construction methods available in India over the 7th to 12th-centuries.<ref name=Sinha/> This view is supported by inscriptions discovered in the north Karnataka region. For example, at the mid-11th-century Joda-kalasha Hindu temple in Sudi – an early ''vesara'' example – is an inscription in a mix of Sanskrit and Kannada below Shaiva iconography, that mentions Somesvara I and ''saka'' 981 (''c.'' 1060 CE).<ref name=Sinha/> After mentioning Hindu dynasties all over the Indian subcontinent, successful public works, ascetics and the schools of the ''silpins'', it states in verses 16–17:

{{Quote|
Shankararya constructed in the middle of the town of Shundi{{refn|group=note|now spelled Sudi}} a dwelling for Nagesvara [Shiva] so that the finials were completed in a manner that none could possibly imagine.
|– Translated by Lionel Barnett, quoted by Ajay Sinha<ref name=Sinha/>{{refn|group=note|For the complete inscription and the context, see ''Epigraphia Indica'', Vol. 15 Part 1, pp. 85–94.}}
}}

The Joda-kalasha temple thus was a challenging innovation over a trend whose earliest surviving sample is in what is now the Kukkanur village of Karnataka, the [[Kallesvara Temple, Kukkanur|Kallesvara (Shiva) temple]] (1000–1025 CE). The Kukkanur temple shows most of the Dravidian features, particularly in the superstructure.<ref name=Sinha/> The sanctum and mandapa, however, introduces a projecting ''bhadra'' with rhythmically placed thin pilasters. This thereby introduces Nagara style and takes the first step to harmonizing the relationship between how the viewer aesthetically experiences the temple from the outside and inside of the temple.<ref name=Sinha/> This ''bhadra'' innovation required changes in how the temple was assembled and the layout of the superstructure. These changes were further perfected as the decades of the 11th-century unfolded in Karnataka. The Sudi temple was a significant step forward. The [[Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi|Kasivisvesvara temple in Lakkundi]] marked a high point of architectural and artistic accomplishment in the Vesara genre. Thereafter, many more innovations were introduced and increasingly sophisticated Kalayana Chalukya and Hoysala temples were built in the emerging Vesara-style through the 13th-century.<ref name=Sinha/>

==Description==
[[File:7th-century Dravida architecture versus 11th-century Vesara architecture, Indian temples.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Upper: 7th-century Mahakutesvara temple with Dravida architecture (Mahakuta complex of Hindu temples, east of Badami);<ref name=Sinha/> Lower: 11th-century [[Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi]] in developed Vesara form (highly evolved ''bhadra'', with miniature northern [[shikhara]]s as motifs).]]
The Vesara architecture departs from the Dravida architecture in the way it projects the ''bhadra'', widens the sanctum (and mandapa), takes it ever closer to a rounded form, adds motifs and decoration to the outer walls, and how the temple aesthetically appears both outside and inside to the pilgrims. The Vesara form allowed the architect and artisans to add more narrative panels about the Epics, the Puranas, the Vedic legends, scenes of artha, kama, dharma (divine iconography) along with ornamentation and illustrations of different types of temple ''shikaras'' as aedicules to the outside and inside in contrast to the plain structures found in the Dravida temples of earlier centuries. Vesara architecture, thus marked a conceptual shift in both construction and how the visitor experiences the temple space.<ref name="Sinha77"/><ref name=Sinha/>

The ''Vesara'' style (if defined as beginning only with the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]] in the late 10th-century) contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles. In particular the shape of the superstructure over the sanctum is usually pyramidal in profile, and shorter than the northern [[shikhara]] tower. In plan the walls and superstructure are broadly circular, or a straight-sided cone, though its geometry is based on rotating a square imposed on a circle. It has rather different decoration and motifs to either. A common motif is in fact miniature shikharas, often of the [[bhumija]] type, showing that the architects were well aware of northern styles.<ref>Harle, 254</ref> Like the southern vimana superstructure, the Vesara equivalent is strongly divided into storeys or steps, but there are more of them, and the [[kapota]] roof motif that is so common in contemporary southern vimanas is less dominant.

George Michell describes a characteristic feature as "the obscuring of the outer profile of the building by multiplying the projections of the walls and superstructure; these move restlessly from one plane to another, relying upon effects of light and shade to lend the building its solidity and shape."<ref>Michell, 146-147</ref>

There are generally prominent [[sukanasa]] projections from the tower on the roof over an [[antarala]] antechamber to the sanctum. The mandapa is generally larger than the sanctum and its vimana. Further open mandapas may be larger still. Temples with more than one shrine develop, especially those with three.<ref>Harle, 256</ref> These are usually with three entrances off the same mandapa, as at the [[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura]] and [[Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi]]; the two side shrines are at 90° to the central, main one.

;Comparisons with Bhumija and Varata architectures
According to Dubey, there is no consensus in pre-13th-century Indian tradition as to how Vesara should be described or identified. The conditions and "mixed" features for Vesara are also found in Bhumija and Varata architecture, where synthesis and innovation drives the North Indian and South Indian towards being variants of each other. The discovery of early examples of elliptical, circular, apsidal Hindu temples, states Dubey, may correspond to the Vesara as they once existed and what the South Indian texts were referring to, at the time they were composed.<ref>Lal Mani Dubey (1978), Some Observations on the Vesara School of Hindu Architecture, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 39, Issue II, pp. 1000-1006, {{JSTOR|44139449}}</ref> Adam Hardy states that these inventive forms are better understood in terms of the architecture schools and their geographical context, with the note that these schools shared and competed in their ideas. Vesara evolved in Karnataka, Varata in Vidarbha-Berar region, Kalinga in Odisha, and Bhumija in Malwa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Adam Hardy| title= Indian temple typologies, in Glimpses of Indian History and Art Reflections on the Past, Perspectives for the Future|editor1 = Tiziana Lorenzetti| editor2 = Fabio Scialpi| publisher = Sapienza Università di Roma| isbn= 978-88-95814-85-8| pp=102–107}}</ref>

==Examples==
The early Vesara temples are primarily near and between the Tungabhadra river and Krishna river before they merge. These sites include:<ref name=Sinha/>
*Kallesvara temple, Kukkanur
*Ramalingesvara temple, Gudur
*Mahadeva temple, Ittagi
*Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other temples at Lakkundi)
*Brahmadeva temple, Savadi – notable for being fully stellate
*Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi (and Joda-kalasha temple)

Later Vesara temples include the Hoysala temples at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], [[Halebid]]u and [[Somnathpura]] are leading examples of the Vesara style.<ref>Harle, 261-263</ref> These temples are now proposed as a UNESCO world heritage site.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Dodda Basappa Temple.JPG|Dodda Basappa Temple at [[Dambal]], a unique 24-pointed, uninterrupted stellate (star-shaped), 7-tiered ''dravida'' plan, 12th century
File:Vesara style vimana and stellate shrine in Keshava temple at Somanathapura.jpg|[[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura]], 1258
File:ChennaKeshava Temple, Belur.JPG|The Kesava shrine at the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur]]
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Bibliography===
*[[Adam Hardy|Hardy, Adam]], ''Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries'', 1995, Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|8170173124}}, 9788170173120, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA183 google books]
*Harle, J.C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, {{ISBN|0300062176}}
*Michell, George (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070203120944/http://chitralakshana.com/history-12.htm History of Indian art]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070106225819/http://www.sanathanadharma.com/temple/history.htm Brief History of Hindu Temples]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian architectural styles]]
[[Category:Hindu temple architecture]]

Vesara - Revision history

MD. TARIQUL ISLAM: minor changes

imported>Jellysandwich0 at 13:12, 26 August 2021