Vertisol - Revision history

Rahuljogi at 18:30, 25 November 2025

2025-11-25T18:30:50Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:00, 26 November 2025
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	\|image=Vertisol.jpg		\|image=Vertisol.jpg
	\|image_size=250px		\|image_size=250px
	\|image_caption=~~a Vertisol~~ profile		\|image_caption=A vertisol profile
	\|classification_system=[[World Reference Base for Soil Resources\|WRB]], [[USDA soil taxonomy]]		\|classification_system=[[World Reference Base for Soil Resources\|WRB]], [[USDA soil taxonomy]]
	\|profile=OAC		\|profile=OAC
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	\|climate=[[tropical savanna climate\|tropical savanna]], [[semi-arid climate\|semi-arid]], [[humid subtropical climate\|humid subtropical]], [[Mediterranean climate\|Mediterranean]]		\|climate=[[tropical savanna climate\|tropical savanna]], [[semi-arid climate\|semi-arid]], [[humid subtropical climate\|humid subtropical]], [[Mediterranean climate\|Mediterranean]]
	}}		}}
	A '''vertisol''' is a Soil Order in the [[USDA soil taxonomy]]<ref name=ST>{{Cite web\|url = https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Keys-to-Soil-Taxonomy.pdf\|title = Keys to Soil Taxonomy 13th edition\|author=Soil Survey Staff\|year = 2022\|publisher = USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service}}</ref> and a Reference Soil Group in the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).<ref name=WRB>{{Cite web\|url = https://wrb.isric.org/files/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18.pdf\|title = World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition\|author=IUSS Working Group WRB\|year = 2022\|publisher = International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna}}</ref> It is also defined in many other soil classification systems. In the [[Australian Soil Classification]] it is called '''vertosol'''.<ref>{{Cite web\|url = http://www.clw.csiro.au/aclep/asc_re_on_line/ve/vertsols.htm\|title = Australian Soil Classification - Vertosols\|access-date = 8 February 2016\|publisher = CSIRO}}</ref> Vertisols have a high content of [[expansive clay]] minerals, many of them belonging to the [[montmorillonite]]s that form deep cracks in drier seasons or years. In a phenomenon known as [[argillipedoturbation]], alternate shrinking and swelling causes ''self-ploughing'', where the soil material consistently mixes itself, causing some vertisols to have an extremely deep [[A horizon]] and no [[B horizon]]. (A soil with no B horizon is called an ''A/C soil''). This heaving of the underlying material to the surface often creates a microrelief known as ''[[gilgai]]''.

	~~Vertisols typically form from highly~~ [[~~base (chemistry)~~\|~~basic~~]] ~~rocks, such as~~ [[~~basalt~~]], in climates that are seasonally humid or subject to erratic [[droughts]] and [[floods]], or that impeded drainage. Depending on the parent material and the climate, they can range from grey or red to the more familiar deep black (known as "black earths" in Australia, "black gumbo" in East Texas, "black cotton" soils in East Africa, and "vlei soils" in South Africa).		[[File:VertisolWorld.jpg\|upright=1.6\|thumb\|Vertisols of the world]]
			[[File:Vertisol.gif\|thumb\|A more detailed map of the global distribution of Vertisols]]

			A '''vertisol''' is a Soil Order in the [[USDA soil taxonomy]]<ref name=ST>{{Cite web\|url = https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Keys-to-Soil-Taxonomy.pdf\|title = Keys to Soil Taxonomy 13th edition\|author=Soil Survey Staff\|year = 2022\|publisher = USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service}}</ref> and a Reference Soil Group in the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).<ref name=WRB>{{Cite web\|url = https://wrb.isric.org/files/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18.pdf\|title = World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition\|author=IUSS Working Group WRB\|year = 2022\|publisher = International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna}}</ref> It is also defined in many other soil classification systems. In the [[Australian Soil Classification]] it is called '''vertosol'''.<ref>{{Cite web\|url = http://www.clw.csiro.au/aclep/asc_re_on_line/ve/vertsols.htm\|title = Australian Soil Classification - Vertosols\|access-date = 8 February 2016\|publisher = CSIRO\|archive-date = 7 March 2016\|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160307085258/http://www.clw.csiro.au/aclep/asc_re_on_line/ve/vertsols.htm\|url-status = dead}}</ref> The natural vegetation of vertisols is [[grassland]], [[savanna]], or grassy [[woodland]]. The heavy texture and unstable behaviour of the soil makes it difficult for many tree species to grow, and forest is uncommon.

			==Composition==
			Vertisols have a high content of [[expansive clay]] minerals (many of them belonging to the [[montmorillonite]]s) that form deep cracks in drier seasons or years. In a phenomenon known as [[argillipedoturbation]], alternate shrinking and swelling causes ''self-ploughing'', where the soil material consistently mixes itself, causing some vertisols to have an extremely deep [[A horizon]] and no [[B horizon]]. (A soil with no B horizon is called an ''A/C soil''). This heaving of the underlying material to the surface often creates a microrelief known as ''[[gilgai]]''.

			Vertisols typically form from highly [[base (chemistry)\|basic]] rocks, such as [[basalt]], in climates that are seasonally humid or subject to erratic [[droughts]] and [[floods]], or that impeded drainage. Depending on the parent material and the climate, they can range from grey or red to the more familiar deep black (known as "black earths" in Australia, "black gumbo" in East Texas, "black cotton" soils in East Africa, and "turf soil" or "vlei soils" in South Africa).

			==Occurrence==
	Vertisols are found between 50°N and 45°S of the equator. Major areas where vertisols are dominant are eastern Australia (especially inland [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]]), the [[Deccan Plateau]] of India, and parts of southern [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Chad]] (the ''Gezira''), South Africa, and the lower [[Paraná River]] in South America. Other areas where vertisols are dominant include southern [[Texas]] and adjacent [[Mexico]], central [[India]], northeast [[Nigeria]], [[Thrace]], New Caledonia and parts of eastern China.		Vertisols are found between 50°N and 45°S of the equator. Major areas where vertisols are dominant are eastern Australia (especially inland [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]]), the [[Deccan Plateau]] of India, and parts of southern [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Chad]] (the ''Gezira''), South Africa, and the lower [[Paraná River]] in South America. Other areas where vertisols are dominant include southern [[Texas]] and adjacent [[Mexico]], central [[India]], northeast [[Nigeria]], [[Thrace]], New Caledonia and parts of eastern China.

	~~The natural vegetation of vertisols~~ is [[~~grassland~~]], [[~~savanna~~]], ~~or grassy~~ [[~~woodland~~]]. ~~The heavy texture~~ and ~~unstable behaviour of~~ the ~~soil makes it difficult~~ for ~~many tree species~~ to ~~grow, and forest is uncommon~~.		==Utilization==
			When [[irrigation]] is available, crops such as [[cotton]], [[wheat]], [[sorghum]] and [[rice]] can be grown. Vertisols are especially suitable for rice because they are almost impermeable when saturated.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2023}} Rainfed farming is very difficult because vertisols can be worked only under a very narrow range of moisture conditions: they are very hard when dry and very sticky when wet. However, in Australia, vertisols are highly regarded, because they are among the few soils that are not acutely deficient in available [[phosphorus]]. Some, known as "crusty vertisols", have a thin, hard crust when dry that can persist for two to three years before they have crumbled enough to permit seeding.

	The shrinking and swelling of vertisols can damage buildings and roads, leading to extensive subsidence. Vertisols are generally used for grazing of [[cattle]] or [[sheep]]. It is not unknown for livestock to be injured through falling into cracks in dry periods. Conversely, many wild and domestic ungulates do not like to move on this soil when inundated. However, the shrink-swell activity allows rapid recovery from compaction.		The shrinking and swelling of vertisols can damage buildings and roads, leading to extensive subsidence. Vertisols are generally used for grazing of [[cattle]] or [[sheep]]. It is not unknown for livestock to be injured through falling into cracks in dry periods. Conversely, many wild and domestic ungulates do not like to move on this soil when inundated. However, the shrink-swell activity allows rapid recovery from compaction.

	When [[irrigation]] is available, crops such as [[cotton]], [[wheat]], [[sorghum]] and [[rice]] can be grown. Vertisols are especially suitable for rice because they are almost impermeable when saturated.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2023}} Rainfed farming is very difficult because vertisols can be worked only under a very narrow range of moisture conditions: they are very hard when dry and very sticky when wet. However, in Australia, vertisols are highly regarded, because they are among the few soils that are not acutely deficient in available [[phosphorus]]. Some, known as "crusty vertisols", have a thin, hard crust when dry that can persist for two to three years before they have crumbled enough to permit seeding.		==Classification==

	In the USDA soil taxonomy,<ref name=ST/> vertisols are subdivided into:		In the USDA soil taxonomy,<ref name=ST/> vertisols are subdivided into:
	* '''Aquerts''': Vertisols which are subdued aquic conditions for some time in most years and show [[redoximorphic features]] are grouped as Aquerts. ~~Because~~ of the high clay content, ~~the permeability is slowed~~ and aquic conditions are likely to occur. ~~In general, when~~ precipitation exceeds [[evapotranspiration]], ponding may occur. Under wet soil moisture conditions, iron and manganese are mobilized and reduced. ~~The manganese~~ may be ~~partly~~ responsible for the dark color of the soil profile.		* '''Aquerts''': Vertisols which are subdued aquic conditions for some time in most years and show [[redoximorphic features]] are grouped as Aquerts. The permeability is slowed because of the high clay content, and aquic conditions are likely to occur. When precipitation exceeds [[evapotranspiration]], ponding may occur. Under wet soil moisture conditions, iron and manganese are mobilized and reduced. Manganese may partly be responsible for the dark color of the soil profile.
	* '''Cryerts''': They have a cryic soil temperature regime. Cryerts are most extensive in the grassland and forest-grassland transitions zones of the Canadian Prairies and at similar latitudes in Russia.		* '''Cryerts''': They have a cryic soil temperature regime. Cryerts are most extensive in the grassland and forest-grassland transitions zones of the Canadian Prairies and at similar latitudes in Russia.
	* '''Xererts''': ~~They~~ have a thermic, mesic, or frigid soil temperature regime. They show cracks ~~that are~~ open at least 60 consecutive days during the summer, but ~~are~~ closed at least 60 consecutive days during winter. Xererts are most extensive in the eastern Mediterranean and parts of California.		* '''Xererts''': These have a thermic, mesic, or frigid soil temperature regime. They show cracks open for at least 60 consecutive days during the summer, but closed for at least 60 consecutive days during the winter. Xererts are most extensive in the eastern Mediterranean and parts of California.
	* '''Torrerts''': They have cracks ~~that are~~ closed for less than 60 consecutive days when the soil temperature at 50 cm is above 8 °C. These soils are not extensive in the U.S., and occur mostly in west Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and South Dakota, but are the most extensive suborder of vertisols in Australia.		* '''Torrerts''': They have cracks closed for less than 60 consecutive days when the soil temperature at 50 cm is above 8 °C. These soils are not extensive in the U.S., and occur mostly in west Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and South Dakota, but are the most extensive suborder of vertisols in Australia.
	* '''Usterts''': They have cracks ~~that are~~ open for at least 90 cumulative days per year. Globally, this suborder is the most extensive of the vertisols order, encompassing the vertisols of the tropics and monsoonal climates in Australia, India, and Africa. In the U.S. the Usterts are common in Texas, Montana, Hawaii, and California.		* '''Usterts''': They have cracks open for at least 90 cumulative days per year. Globally, this suborder is the most extensive of the vertisols order, encompassing the vertisols of the tropics and monsoonal climates in Australia, India, and Africa. In the U.S. the Usterts are common in Texas, Montana, Hawaii, and California.
	* '''Uderts''': They have cracks ~~that are~~ open less than 90 cumulative days per year and less than 60 consecutive days during the summer. In some areas, cracks open only in drought years. Uderts are of small extent globally, being most abundant in [[Uruguay]] and eastern [[Argentina]], but also found in parts of [[Queensland]] and the "Black Belt" of [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]].		* '''Uderts''': They have cracks open less than 90 cumulative days per year and less than 60 consecutive days during the summer. In some areas, cracks open only in drought years. Uderts are of small extent globally, being most abundant in [[Uruguay]] and eastern [[Argentina]], but also found in parts of [[Queensland]] and the "Black Belt" of [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]].

	The WRB<ref name=WRB/> defines the diagnostic '''vertic horizon'''. It is usually a subsoil horizon and has at least 30% clay, shrink-swell cracks and [[soil structure\|wedge-shaped aggregates]] and/or [[slickenside]]s.		The WRB<ref name=WRB/> defines the diagnostic '''vertic horizon'''. It is usually a subsoil horizon and has at least 30% clay, shrink-swell cracks and [[soil structure\|wedge-shaped aggregates]] and/or [[slickenside]]s.

	==See also==		==See also==
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	{{Reflist}}		{{Reflist}}

	* {{cite web \| url =~~http~~://~~soils~~.usda.gov/~~technical~~/~~classification~~/~~orders~~/~~vertisols.html~~\| title =Vertisols\| publisher =USDA-NRCS\| access-date =2006-05-14 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030828181022/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/vertisols.html \|archive-date=2003-08-28 \|url-status=~~dead~~}}		* {{cite web \| url =https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/conservation-basics/natural-resource-concerns/soil/soil-science\| title =Vertisols\| publisher =USDA-NRCS\| access-date =2006-05-14 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030828181022/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/vertisols.html \|archive-date=2003-08-28 \|url-status=live}}
	* {{cite web \| url =http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/vertisols.htm \| title =Vertisols\| publisher =University of Florida \| access-date =2006-05-14 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227052053/http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/vertisols.htm \|archive-date = 2007-12-27}}		* {{cite web \| url =http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/vertisols.htm \| title =Vertisols\| publisher =University of Florida \| access-date =2006-05-14 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227052053/http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/vertisols.htm \|archive-date = 2007-12-27}}
	* {{cite web \| url =http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/vertisols.htm \| title =Vertisols\| publisher =University of Idaho		* {{cite web \| url =http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/vertisols.htm \| title =Vertisols\| publisher =University of Idaho

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article

2023-08-23T05:09:45Z

Created a new article

New page

{{short description|Clay-rich soil, prone to cracking}}
{{Infobox soil
|name=Vertisol
|alternative_name=
|image=Vertisol.jpg
|image_size=250px
|image_caption=a Vertisol profile
|classification_system=[[World Reference Base for Soil Resources|WRB]], [[USDA soil taxonomy]]
|profile=OAC
|parent_material=
|code=VR
|process=clay [[pedoturbation]]
|climate=[[tropical savanna climate|tropical savanna]], [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]], [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]
}}
A '''vertisol''' is a Soil Order in the [[USDA soil taxonomy]]<ref name=ST>{{Cite web|url = https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Keys-to-Soil-Taxonomy.pdf|title = Keys to Soil Taxonomy 13th edition|author=Soil Survey Staff|year = 2022|publisher = USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service}}</ref> and a Reference Soil Group in the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB).<ref name=WRB>{{Cite web|url = https://wrb.isric.org/files/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18.pdf|title = World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition|author=IUSS Working Group WRB|year = 2022|publisher = International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna}}</ref> It is also defined in many other soil classification systems. In the [[Australian Soil Classification]] it is called '''vertosol'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.clw.csiro.au/aclep/asc_re_on_line/ve/vertsols.htm|title = Australian Soil Classification - Vertosols|access-date = 8 February 2016|publisher = CSIRO}}</ref> Vertisols have a high content of [[expansive clay]] minerals, many of them belonging to the [[montmorillonite]]s that form deep cracks in drier seasons or years. In a phenomenon known as [[argillipedoturbation]], alternate shrinking and swelling causes ''self-ploughing'', where the soil material consistently mixes itself, causing some vertisols to have an extremely deep [[A horizon]] and no [[B horizon]]. (A soil with no B horizon is called an ''A/C soil''). This heaving of the underlying material to the surface often creates a microrelief known as ''[[gilgai]]''.

Vertisols typically form from highly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] rocks, such as [[basalt]], in climates that are seasonally humid or subject to erratic [[droughts]] and [[floods]], or that impeded drainage. Depending on the parent material and the climate, they can range from grey or red to the more familiar deep black (known as "black earths" in Australia, "black gumbo" in East Texas, "black cotton" soils in East Africa, and "vlei soils" in South Africa).

Vertisols are found between 50°N and 45°S of the equator. Major areas where vertisols are dominant are eastern Australia (especially inland [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]]), the [[Deccan Plateau]] of India, and parts of southern [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Chad]] (the ''Gezira''), South Africa, and the lower [[Paraná River]] in South America. Other areas where vertisols are dominant include southern [[Texas]] and adjacent [[Mexico]], central [[India]], northeast [[Nigeria]], [[Thrace]], New Caledonia and parts of eastern China.

The natural vegetation of vertisols is [[grassland]], [[savanna]], or grassy [[woodland]]. The heavy texture and unstable behaviour of the soil makes it difficult for many tree species to grow, and forest is uncommon.

The shrinking and swelling of vertisols can damage buildings and roads, leading to extensive subsidence. Vertisols are generally used for grazing of [[cattle]] or [[sheep]]. It is not unknown for livestock to be injured through falling into cracks in dry periods. Conversely, many wild and domestic ungulates do not like to move on this soil when inundated. However, the shrink-swell activity allows rapid recovery from compaction.

When [[irrigation]] is available, crops such as [[cotton]], [[wheat]], [[sorghum]] and [[rice]] can be grown. Vertisols are especially suitable for rice because they are almost impermeable when saturated.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} Rainfed farming is very difficult because vertisols can be worked only under a very narrow range of moisture conditions: they are very hard when dry and very sticky when wet. However, in Australia, vertisols are highly regarded, because they are among the few soils that are not acutely deficient in available [[phosphorus]]. Some, known as "crusty vertisols", have a thin, hard crust when dry that can persist for two to three years before they have crumbled enough to permit seeding.

In the USDA soil taxonomy,<ref name=ST/> vertisols are subdivided into:
* '''Aquerts''': Vertisols which are subdued aquic conditions for some time in most years and show [[redoximorphic features]] are grouped as Aquerts. Because of the high clay content, the permeability is slowed and aquic conditions are likely to occur. In general, when precipitation exceeds [[evapotranspiration]], ponding may occur. Under wet soil moisture conditions, iron and manganese are mobilized and reduced. The manganese may be partly responsible for the dark color of the soil profile.
* '''Cryerts''': They have a cryic soil temperature regime. Cryerts are most extensive in the grassland and forest-grassland transitions zones of the Canadian Prairies and at similar latitudes in Russia.
* '''Xererts''': They have a thermic, mesic, or frigid soil temperature regime. They show cracks that are open at least 60 consecutive days during the summer, but are closed at least 60 consecutive days during winter. Xererts are most extensive in the eastern Mediterranean and parts of California.
* '''Torrerts''': They have cracks that are closed for less than 60 consecutive days when the soil temperature at 50 cm is above 8 °C. These soils are not extensive in the U.S., and occur mostly in west Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and South Dakota, but are the most extensive suborder of vertisols in Australia.
* '''Usterts''': They have cracks that are open for at least 90 cumulative days per year. Globally, this suborder is the most extensive of the vertisols order, encompassing the vertisols of the tropics and monsoonal climates in Australia, India, and Africa. In the U.S. the Usterts are common in Texas, Montana, Hawaii, and California.
* '''Uderts''': They have cracks that are open less than 90 cumulative days per year and less than 60 consecutive days during the summer. In some areas, cracks open only in drought years. Uderts are of small extent globally, being most abundant in [[Uruguay]] and eastern [[Argentina]], but also found in parts of [[Queensland]] and the "Black Belt" of [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]].

The WRB<ref name=WRB/> defines the diagnostic '''vertic horizon'''. It is usually a subsoil horizon and has at least 30% clay, shrink-swell cracks and [[soil structure|wedge-shaped aggregates]] and/or [[slickenside]]s.

==See also==
*[[Pedogenesis]]
*[[Pedology (soil study)]]
*[[Soil classification]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

* {{cite web | url =http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/vertisols.html| title =Vertisols| publisher =USDA-NRCS| access-date =2006-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030828181022/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/vertisols.html |archive-date=2003-08-28 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web | url =http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/vertisols.htm | title =Vertisols| publisher =University of Florida | access-date =2006-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227052053/http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/vertisols.htm |archive-date = 2007-12-27}}
* {{cite web | url =http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/vertisols.htm | title =Vertisols| publisher =University of Idaho
| access-date =2006-05-14}}

==Further reading==
* W. Zech, P. Schad, G. Hintermaier-Erhard: Soils of the World. Springer, Berlin 2022, Chapter 9.3.3. {{ISBN|978-3-540-30460-9}}

== External links ==
* [https://wrb.isric.org/picture-gallery/ profile photos (with classification)] WRB homepage
* [https://www.iuss.org/index.php?article_id=73|title=IUSS profile photos (with classification)] IUSS World of Soils
{{Soil type}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pedology]]
[[Category:Types of soil]]
[[Category:Patterned grounds]]