CleanupBot: /* Phonology */clean up

2022-01-03T12:54:55Z

Phonology: clean up

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:24, 3 January 2022
Line 71:		Line 71:
	* The vowels ''ai'' and ''au'' were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long [[diphthong]]s ''āi'' and ''āu'', but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: ''{{IAST\|dyā́us}}'' > ''{{IAST\|dyáus}}''.<ref name=Mac4b/>		* The vowels ''ai'' and ''au'' were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long [[diphthong]]s ''āi'' and ''āu'', but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: ''{{IAST\|dyā́us}}'' > ''{{IAST\|dyáus}}''.<ref name=Mac4b/>
	* The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (''dantamūlīya'', [[alveolar consonant\|alveolar]]), but they became pure [[dental consonant\|dentals]] later, whereas most other systems including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.<ref name=Deshpande138>Deshpande, p. 138.</ref>		* The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (''dantamūlīya'', [[alveolar consonant\|alveolar]]), but they became pure [[dental consonant\|dentals]] later, whereas most other systems including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.<ref name=Deshpande138>Deshpande, p. 138.</ref>
	* The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about {{IPAblink\|r}} but generally claim that it was also a ''dantamūlīya''. According to Pāṇini it is a [[retroflex consonant]].<ref>Whitney, §52.</ref~~><ref name=Deshpande138/~~>		* The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about {{IPAblink\|r}} but generally claim that it was also a ''dantamūlīya''. According to Pāṇini it is a [[retroflex consonant]].<ref name=Deshpande138/><ref>Whitney, §52.</ref>
	* The ''pluti'' ([[mora (linguistics)\|trimoraic]]) vowels were on the verge of becoming [[phoneme\|phonemicized]] during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.		* The ''pluti'' ([[mora (linguistics)\|trimoraic]]) vowels were on the verge of becoming [[phoneme\|phonemicized]] during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.
	* Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in [[hiatus (linguistics)\|hiatus]] without merger during [[sandhi]], which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old [[laryngeal consonant\|laryngeal]] still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: [[Proto-Indo-European language\|PIE]] ''*h₂we'''h₁'''·nt-'' → ''va·ata-''.{{efn-ua\|''vā́ta-'', wind}}<ref>Clackson, pp. 58-59.</ref>		* Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in [[hiatus (linguistics)\|hiatus]] without merger during [[sandhi]], which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old [[laryngeal consonant\|laryngeal]] still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: [[Proto-Indo-European language\|PIE]] ''*h₂we'''h₁'''·nt-'' → ''va·ata-''.{{efn-ua\|''vā́ta-'', wind}}<ref>Clackson, pp. 58-59.</ref>

imported>Nolicmahr: /* See also */

2021-08-25T12:00:03Z

See also

New page

{{Short description|Archaic language in the Vedas (2nd millennium BCE)}}
{{Distinguish|text=the [[Vedda language]]}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Vedic Sanskrit
|nativename=
|region=[[Indian subcontinent]] and eastern [[Iranian plateau]]
|states=[[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]
|era={{circa|1500}} - 600 BCE
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
|iso3=–
|iso3comment=({{code|vsn}} is proposed)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2011-041|title=Change Request Documentation: 2011-041|publisher=[[SIL International]]}}</ref>{{update after|2012|6}}
|linglist=vsn
|linglist2=qnk
|lingname2=Rigvedic
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Vedic Sanskrit''' was an ancient language of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] subgroup of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family. It is attested in the [[Vedas]] and related literature<ref>Burrow, p. 43.</ref> compiled over the period of the mid-[[2nd millennium BCE|2nd]] to mid-1st millennium BCE.<ref name="Mair2006p160">{{cite book|author=Michael Witzel|author-link=Michael Witzel|chapter=Early Loanwords in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations|editor=Victor H. Mair|title=Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA160|year=2006|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-2884-4|page=160}}</ref> It was [[oral tradition|orally preserved]], predating the advent of writing by several centuries.<ref>Macdonnell, §1.2.</ref><ref>Reich, p. 122.</ref>

Extensive ancient literature in the Vedic Sanskrit language has survived into the modern era, and this has been a major source of information for reconstructing [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] and [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] history.<ref name="Baldi1983p51"/><ref name=beckwith366/>

In the [[pre-historic era]], Proto-Indo-Iranian split into [[Proto-Iranian]] and Proto-Indo-Aryan and the two languages evolved independently of each other.<ref name="Baldi1983p51">{{cite book|author=Philip Baldi|author-link=Philip Baldi|title=An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PA51 |year=1983|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=978-0-8093-1091-3|pages=51–52}}</ref><ref name=beckwith366>{{cite book|author=Christopher I. Beckwith|title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC |year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13589-2|pages=363–368}}</ref>

==History==

===Prehistoric derivation===
{{further|Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit}}

The separation of Proto-Indo-Iranian language into Proto-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan is estimated, on linguistic grounds, to have occurred around or before 1800 BCE.<ref name="Baldi1983p51"/><ref>{{Cite book| last =Mallory | first =J.P. | author-link =J.P. Mallory | year =1989 | title =In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth | place =London | publisher =Thames & Hudson | page=38f}}</ref>
The date of composition of the oldest hymns of the [[Rigveda]] is vague at best, generally estimated to roughly 1500 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|author1=J. P. Mallory|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|page=306}}</ref> Both [[Asko Parpola]] (1988) and [[J. P. Mallory]] (1998) place the locus of the division of Indo-Aryan from Iranian in the Bronze Age culture of the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC). Parpola (1999) elaborates the model and has "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans intrude the BMAC around 1700 BCE. He assumes early Indo-Aryan presence in the [[Indus Valley Civilization#Collapse and Late Harappan|Late Harappan]] horizon from about 1900 BCE, and "Proto-Rigvedic" (Proto-Dardic) intrusion to the Punjab as corresponding to the [[Gandhara grave culture]] from about 1700 BCE. According to this model, Rigvedic within the larger Indo-Aryan group is the direct ancestor of the [[Dardic languages]].<ref>Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.</ref>

The early Vedic Sanskrit language was far less homogeneous compared to the language defined by Pāṇini, i.e., Classic Sanskrit. The language in the early [[Upanishads]] of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit.<ref name="Gombrich2006p24">{{cite book|author=Richard Gombrich|title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-90352-8|pages=24–25}}</ref> The formalization of the late form of Vedic Sanskrit language into the [[Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]] form is credited to [[Pāṇini]]'s ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', along with [[Patanjali]]'s ''Mahabhasya'' and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patanjali's work.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gérard Huet|author2=Amba Kulkarni|author3=Peter Scharf|title=Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C |year=2009|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-00154-3|pages=v–vi}}</ref><ref>Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat. ''L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes'', vol.II pp.86–90, [[École française d'Extrême-Orient]], 1953, reprinted 2000. {{ISBN|2-85539-903-3}}.</ref>

===Chronology===
Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the Vedic language:{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24>{{cite book|author=Klaus G. Witz|title=The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jnPlEqwe_UC&pg=PA24|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1573-5|page=24 with note 73}}</ref><ref>Burrow, pp. 43.</ref>

# Ṛg-vedic
# Mantra
# [[Saṃhitā]] prose
# [[Brāhmaṇa]] prose
# [[Sūtras]]

The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās{{efn-ua|'compiled', 'put together'<ref>MWW, p. 1123.</ref>}} comprising the four Vedas:{{efn-ua|from ''vid-'', 'to know', cognate with Eng. 'wit'<ref>MWW, p.963.</ref>}} ṛk, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.<ref name=jb12>J&B, pp. 1-2.</ref>

====Ṛg-vedic====
Many words in the Vedic Sanskrit of the ''[[Rigveda|Ṛg·veda]]'' have cognates or direct correspondences with the ancient Avestan language, but these do not appear in post-Rigvedic Indian texts. The text of the  ''Ṛg·veda'' must have been essentially complete by around the 12th century BCE. The pre-1200 BCE layers mark a gradual change in Vedic Sanskrit, but there is disappearance of these archaic correspondences and linguistics in the post-Rigvedic period.{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24/>

====Mantra language====
This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the ''Ṛg·veda'' [[Khilani]], the ''[[Samaveda]]'' Saṃhitā, and the mantras of the [[Yajurveda]]. These texts are largely derived from the Ṛg·veda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. For example, the more ancient injunctive verb system is no longer in use.{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24/>

====Saṃhitā====
An important linguistic change is the disappearance of the [[injunctive mood|injunctive]], subjunctive, optative, imperative (the [[aorist]]). New innovations in Vedic Sanskrit appear such as the development of periphrastic aorist forms. This must have occurred before the time of [[Pāṇini]] because Panini makes a list of those from northwestern region of India who knew these older rules of Vedic Sanskrit.{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=115-127 (see pp. 26-30 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24/>

====Brāhmaṇa prose====
In this layer of Vedic literature, the archaic Vedic Sanskrit verb system has been abandoned, and a prototype of pre-Panini Vedic Sanskrit structure emerges. The ''Yajñagāthās'' texts provide a probable link between Vedic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit and languages of the Epics. Complex meters such as ''[[Anuṣṭubh]]'' and rules of [[Sanskrit prosody]] had been or were being innovated by this time, but parts of the Brāhmaṇa layers show the language is still close to Vedic Sanskrit.{{sfn|Michael Witzel|1989|pp=121-127 (see pp. 29-31 in the archived-url)}}<ref name=witz24/>

====Sūtra language====
This is the last stratum of Vedic literature, comprising the bulk of the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)#Śrauta Sutras|Śrautasūtras]] and [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Gṛhyasūtras]] and some ''[[Upanishads|Upaniṣad]]''s such as the ''[[Katha Upanishad|Kaṭha Upaniṣad]]'' and ''[[Maitrayaniya Upanishad|Maitrāyaṇiya Upaniṣad]]''.<ref name=witz24/> These texts elucidate the state of the language which formed the basis of Pāṇini's codification into Classical Sanskrit.<ref>Burrow, pp44.</ref>

==Phonology==
Vedic differs from Classical Sanskrit to an extent comparable to the difference between [[Homeric Greek]] and [[Classical Greek]].

The following differences may be observed in the phonology:

* Vedic had a [[voiceless bilabial fricative]] ({{IPAblink|ɸ}}, called ''upadhmānīya''{{efn-lr|उपध्मानीय}}) and a [[voiceless velar fricative]] ({{IPAblink|x}}, called ''jihvāmūlīya''{{efn-lr|जिह्वामूलीय}})—which used to occur as [[allophones]] of ''visarga'' ''ḥ'' appeared before voiceless [[labial consonant|labial]] and [[velar consonant]]s respectively. Both of them were lost in Classical Sanskrit to give way to the simple ''visarga''. ''Upadhmānīya'' occurs before ''{{IAST|p}}'' and ''{{IAST|ph}}'', ''jihvāmūlīya'' before ''{{IAST|k}}'' and ''{{IAST|kh}}''.<ref>Macdonnell, §43.</ref>
* Vedic had a [[retroflex lateral approximant]] ([ɭ]){{efn-lr|{{lang|sa|ळ}}}} as well as its breathy-voiced counterpart ([ɭʱ]),{{efn-lr|{{lang|sa|ळ्ह}}}} which are not found in classical Sanskrit, with the corresponding plosives ''ḍ''(/ɖ/)and ''ḍh''(/ɖʱ/) instead;<ref>Macdonell, 1916, §15.2d.</ref> it was also metrically a cluster, suggesting [[Proto-Indo-Aryan]] pronunciations of *{{IPA|[ʐɖ]}} and *{{IPA|[ʐɖʱ]}} (see [[Mitanni-Aryan]]) before the loss of voiced sibilants, which occurred after the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian.<ref>Macdonnell, §15.</ref>

* The vowels ''e'' and ''o'' were actually realized in Vedic as [[diphthong]]s ''ai'' and ''au'', but they became pure [[monophthong]]s in later Sanskrit, such as ''{{IAST|daivá-}}'' > ''{{IAST|devá-}}''and ''{{IAST|áika-}}''>''{{IAST|ekā-}}''. However, the dipthongal behaviour still resurfaces in sandhi.<ref name=Mac4b>Macdonnell, §4.b.</ref>
* The vowels ''ai'' and ''au'' were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long [[diphthong]]s ''āi'' and ''āu'', but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|dyā́us}}'' > ''{{IAST|dyáus}}''.<ref name=Mac4b/>
* The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the root of the teeth (''dantamūlīya'', [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]), but they became pure [[dental consonant|dentals]] later, whereas most other systems including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.<ref name=Deshpande138>Deshpande, p. 138.</ref>
* The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about {{IPAblink|r}} but generally claim that it was also a ''dantamūlīya''. According to Pāṇini it is a [[retroflex consonant]].<ref>Whitney, §52.</ref><ref name=Deshpande138/>
* The ''pluti'' ([[mora (linguistics)|trimoraic]]) vowels were on the verge of becoming [[phoneme|phonemicized]] during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.
* Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] without merger during [[sandhi]], which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old [[laryngeal consonant|laryngeal]] still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] ''*h₂we'''h₁'''·nt-'' → ''va·ata-''.{{efn-ua|''vā́ta-'', wind}}<ref>Clackson, pp. 58-59.</ref>

===Accent===
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2021}}
{{main|Vedic accent}}
Vedic had a [[pitch accent]]<ref>Burrow, §3.24.</ref> which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Pāṇini's time, as we can infer by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end.{{efn|Today, the pitch accent can be heard only in the traditional Vedic chantings.}}

Since a small number of words in the late pronunciation of Vedic carry the so-called "independent ''[[svarita]]''" on a short vowel, one can argue that ''late'' Vedic was ''marginally'' a [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal language]]. Note however that in the metrically-restored versions of the ''[[Rig Veda]] ''almost all of the syllables carrying an [[independent svarita|independent ''svarita'']] must revert to a sequence of two syllables, the first of which carries an ''[[udatta|udātta]]'' and the second a so-called dependent ''[[svarita]]''. Early Vedic was thus definitely not a tone language like [[Chinese language|Chinese]] but a pitch accent language like [[Japanese language|Japanese]], which was inherited from the [[Proto-Indo-European accent]].

Pitch accent was not restricted to Vedic: early Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini]] gives both accent rules for the spoken language of his (post-Vedic) time as well as the differences of Vedic accent. We have, however, no extant post-Vedic text with accents.

===Pluti===
[[File:O3m AryaSamaj.PNG|right|thumb|150px|The syllable [[Om|Aum]] ({{Script|Deva|ओ३म्}}) rendered with pluti.]]
'''Pluti''' is the term for the phenomenon of [[overlong vowel]]s in [[Sanskrit]]; the overlong vowels are themselves called '''pluta'''. Pluta vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" (indicating a length of three [[mora (linguistics)|morae]]), {{IAST|ā3, ī3, ū3, ṝ3, ḹ3}}, also {{IAST|e3 (ā3i), o3 (ā3u)}}.

Pluta vowels are recorded a total of 3 times in the [[Rigveda]] and 15 times in the [[Atharvaveda]], typically in cases of questioning and particularly where two options are being compared. For example:

* RV 10.129.5d {{IAST|adháḥ svid āsî3d upári svid āsī3t}} "Was it above? Was it below?"
* AV 9.6.18 {{IAST|idáṃ bhûyā3 idâ3miti}} "Is this larger? Or this?"

The pluti attained the peak of their popularity in the [[Brahmana]] period of late Vedic Sanskrit (roughly 8th century BC), with some 40 instances in the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] alone.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitney |first1=William Dwight |title=Sanskrit grammar : including both the classical language and the older dialects of Veda and Brahmana |date=1924 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0620-4 |edition=5th}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Strunk |first1=Klaus |title=Typische Merkmale von Fragesätzen und die altindische "Pluti" |date=1983 |location=München |isbn=3769615271}}</ref>

==Grammar==
{{main|Vedic Sanskrit grammar}}

==Literature==
{{main|Sanskrit literature#Vedic literature}}

==See also==
*[[Vedic Sanskrit grammar]]
*[[Vedic meter]]
*[[Vedic period]]
*''[[A Vedic Word Concordance]]''
*[[Avestan]], a closely related sister language.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Glossary ==
{{notelist-ua|30em}}



== Brahmic notes ==
{{collapse top|title=Brahmic transliteration}}
{{notelist-lr|20em}}
{{collapse bottom}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last1=Delbrück|first1=Berthold|author-link1=Berthold Delbrück|last2=Windisch|first2=Ernst Wilhelm Oskar|title=Syntaktische Forschungen: III. Die Altindische Wortfolge aus dem Çatapathabrâhmaṇa, Dargestellt von B. Delbrück|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoaWr78cxKQC|year=1878|isbn=978-0-543-94034-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=A Vedic Grammar for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKI3TQvbsDcC|year=1916|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1052-5}}
* [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]], ''Vedic Grammar'' (1910)
* {{cite book|last=Lindner|first=Bruno|title=Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den Saṃhitâs|url=https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog/page/n8 1]|year=1878|publisher=Costenoble}}
* {{citation|author=Michael Witzel|author-link=Michael Witzel| url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/dialects.pdf |title=Tracing the Vedic dialects, in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes| editor= Colette Caillat| editor-link= Colette Caillat| publisher= Paris: de Boccard |year=1989}}
* Renou L., ''Grammaire de la langue védique'', Paris (1952)
* [[William Dwight Whitney|Whitney, William Dwight]], ''Sanskrit Grammar''. 5th edn. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (1924) [1st ed. 1879]
* Burrow, T - ''The Sanskrit Language'' - {{ISBN|81-208-1767-2}}
* [[David Reich (geneticist)|Reich, David]] - ''Who we are and how we got here'' - 1st End - (2019) - {{ISBN|978-1-101-87346-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Jamison & Brereton |first1=Stephanie & Joel |title=The Rigveda, A guide |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford |isbn=9780190633363}}
*{{cite book |last1=Clackson |first1=James |title=Indo-European Linguistics |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-65313-8}}
*{{cite book |last1=Deshpande |first1=Madhav M |title=Sanskrit and Prakrit |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-1136-4 |edition=1993}}

==External links==
* [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1CD0.pdf Unicode signs for Vedic Sanskrit]
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm?/texte/texte2.htm#ved index of Vedic texts] (TITUS)
* [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/vedol Ancient Sanskrit Online] by Karen Thomson and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the [https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc Linguistics Research Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jNMmTOaykA Introduction to Vedic chanting]. Swami Tadatmananda (Arsha Bodha Center)
* [https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-ved.html glottothèque - Ancient Indo-European Grammar online], an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen

===Phonology===
* [http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso10646/pdf/vedic/Vedic_accents_doc.pdf Vedic Accents]
* [http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art188e.pdf Frederik Kortlandt "Accent and ablaut in the Vedic verbs"]
* [http://www.unc.edu/~melfraz/ling/frazier-UCLA-handout.pdf Melissa Frazier "Accent in Proto-Indo-European Athematic Nouns and Its Development in Vedic" (obsolete link)] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070101225942/https://www.unc.edu/~melfraz/ling/frazier-UCLA-handout.pdf Internet Archive copy]
* [http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Textual-Studies/Prosody-Articles/Macdonell-Vedic.pdf Arthur Anthony Macdonell "A Vedic Grammar for Students: Appendix II: Vedic Metre"]

===Other===
* {{cite web |title=Keyswap – IAST Diacritics Windows Software |url=https://www.yesvedanta.com/keyswap/ |website=YesVedanta|date=9 August 2018 }} — Keyboard Software for typing in the International Alphabet for Sanskrit
* {{cite web |title=Online Sanskrit Dictionary |url=https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/}} — sources results from Monier Williams etc.
* {{cite web |title=The Sanskrit Grammarian |url=https://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/grammar.html}} — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool

{{Sanskrit language topics}}
{{Old and Middle Indo-Aryan}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Vedic period]]
[[Category:Sanskrit]]
[[Category:Vyakarana]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Linguistic history of India]]
[[Category:2nd-millennium BC establishments]]
[[Category:Formal languages used for Indian scriptures]]
[[Category:Indo-Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]

Vedic Sanskrit - Revision history

Md Nazmul Hasan Niaz: cleanup

UpdateBot: robot: Update article

CleanupBot: /* Phonology */clean up

imported>Nolicmahr: /* See also */