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{{Hindu scriptures}}
{{italic title}}
'''''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra''''' ([[Sanskrit]]: वैशेषिक सूत्र), also called '''''Kanada sutra''''', is an ancient [[Sanskrit]] text at the foundation of the [[Vaisheshika]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=317–318 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Karl H. Potter|title=Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The Tradition of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Up to Gaṅgeśa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bo0FeYVcOmUC |year=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0309-1|pages=211–212}}</ref><ref>Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}, pages 2–5</ref> The [[sutra]] was authored by the Hindu sage [[Kanada (philosopher)|Kanada]], also known as Kashyapa.{{Sfn| Bart Labuschagne| Timo Slootweg|2012|p=60, Quote: "Kanada, a Hindu sage who lived either around the 6th or 2nd century BCE, and who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika.}}{{Sfn|Jeaneane D. Fowler|2002|pp=98–99}} According to some scholars, he flourished before the advent of [[Buddhism]] because the ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' makes no mention of Buddhism or Buddhist doctrines;<ref>Lal, Mohan. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, Volume 5. P. 3968. {{ISBN|9993154229}}.</ref> however, the details of Kanada's life are uncertain,<ref>{{cite book|author=Emmie te Nijenhuis|author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis|title=Musicological literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkUIAQAAIAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Harrassowitz|isbn=978-3-447-01831-9|pages=53–54}}</ref> and the ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' was likely compiled sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE,{{Sfn|Jeaneane D. Fowler|2002|pp=98-99}}{{Sfn|H. Margenau|2012|p=xxx-xxxi}} and finalized in the currently existing version before the start of the common era.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=54}}

A number of scholars have commented on it since the beginning of common era; the earliest commentary known is the ''Padartha Dharma Sangraha'' of [[Prashastapada]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Chandradhar Sharma|title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3gQVd5WogsC |year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0365-7|page=175}}</ref>{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|pp=62-63}} Another important secondary work on ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' is Maticandra's ''Dasha padartha sastra'' which exists both in Sanskrit and its Chinese translation in 648 CE by Yuanzhuang.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=63}}

The ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' is written in aphoristic sutras style,{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=53}} and presents its theories on the creation and existence of the universe using naturalistic [[atomism]],<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/ Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India] J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2014);<br>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism-india/ Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy], A Chatterjee, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2012)</ref> applying logic and realism, and is one of the earliest known systematic realist [[ontology]] in human history.{{Sfn|Jeaneane D. Fowler|2002|p=98}} The text discusses motions of different kind and laws that govern it, the meaning of [[dharma]], a theory of [[epistemology]], the basis of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (self, soul), and the nature of [[yoga]] and [[moksha]].{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|pp=56-59}}<ref>Translation of critical edition of ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'': John Wells (2009), [http://darshanapress.com/The%20Vaisheshika%20Darshana.pdf The Vaisheshika Darshana], Darshana Press; Discussion: {{cite book|author=Shyam Ranganathan|title=Ethics and the History of Indian Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x89I_zEGPhkC |year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3193-3 |pages=344–348 }}</ref><ref>On yoga and moksha in Vaisesika Sutras: {{cite book|author=Johannes Bronkhorst|title=The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AZbZDP8MRJoC&pg=PA64|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1114-0|page=64}}</ref> The explicit mention of motion as the cause of all phenomena in the world and several propositions about it make it one of the earliest texts on physics.

==Etymology==
The name ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक सूत्र) is derived from ''viśeṣa'', विशेष, which means "particularity", that is to be contrasted from "universality".<ref name="Halbfass1992p272">{{cite book|author=Wilhelm Halbfass|title=On Being and What There Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7cLHPj1dj8C&pg=PA272| year=1992| publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1178-0|page=272}}</ref> The classes particularity and universality belong to different categories of experience.

==Manuscripts==
Till the 1950s, only one manuscript of ''Vaiseshika sutra'' was known and this manuscript was part of a [[bhasya]] by the 15th century Sankaramisra.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|pp=55-56}} Scholars had doubted its authenticity, given the inconsistencies in this manuscript and the quotes in other Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist literature claiming to be from the ''Vaisheshika Sutra''. In the 1950s and early 1960s, new manuscripts of ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' were discovered in distant parts of India, which were later identified as this Sutra.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|pp=55-56}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilhelm Halbfass|title=On Being and What There Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7cLHPj1dj8C |year=1992|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1178-0|pages=79–80}}</ref> These newer manuscripts are quite different, more consistent with the historical literature, and suggests that, like other major texts and scriptures of Hinduism, ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' too suffered interpolations, errors in transmission and distortion over time. A critical edition of the ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra'' is now available.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|pp=55-56}}

==Date==
The ''Vaisheshika Sutras'' mention the doctrines of competing schools of Indian philosophy such as Samkhya and Mimamsa,{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=54}} but make no mention of Buddhism, which has led scholars in more recent publications to posit estimates of 6th to 2nd century BCE.{{Sfn| Bart Labuschagne| Timo Slootweg|2012|p=60, Quote: "Kanada, a Hindu sage who lived either around the 6th or 2nd century BCE, and who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika.}}{{Sfn|Jeaneane D. Fowler|2002|pp=98-99}}{{Sfn|H. Margenau|2012|p=xxx-xxxi}}

The [[critical edition]] studies of ''Vaisheshika Sutras'' manuscripts discovered after 1950, suggest that the text attributed to Kanada existed in a finalized form sometime between 200 BCE and the start of the common era, with the possibility that its key doctrines are much older.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=54}}{{Sfn|Jeaneane D. Fowler|2002|pp=98-99}} Multiple Hindu texts dated to the 1st and 2nd century CE, such as the ''Mahavibhasa'' and ''Jnanaprasthana'' from the [[Kushan Empire]], quote and comment on Kanada's doctrines.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=55}} Although the ''Vaisheshika Sutras'' makes no mention of the doctrines of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]], their ancient texts mention ''Vaisheshika Sutras'' doctrines and use its terminology,{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=55}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Johannes Bronkhorst|editor=Patrick Olivelle|title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC |year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977507-1|pages=283–294}}</ref> particularly Buddhism's Sarvastivada tradition, as well as the works of [[Nagarjuna]].<ref>{{cite book|author=David Seyfort Ruegg|title=The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSDDgB5ulIEC |year=1981|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02204-0|pages=10, 50–51}}</ref>

==Physics and philosophy==
Physics is central to Kaṇāda's assertion that all that is knowable is based on motion. His ascribing centrality to physics in the understanding of the universe also follows from his invariance principles. For example, he says that the atom must be spherical since it should be the same in all dimensions.<ref>[https://medium.com/@subhashkak1/kaṇāda-the-great-physicist-and-sage-of-antiquity-5a2abd79b6f1 Kak, S. Kaṇāda, Great Physicist and Sage of Antiquity]</ref> He asserts that all substances are composed of atoms, two of which have mass and two are massless.

{{Quote box |width=24em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
|quote='''The opening sutras'''<br><br>
Now an explanation of [[dharma]],<br>
the means to prosperity and salvation is dharma.
|source =—''Vaisheshika Sutra'', Transl: Klaus Klostermaier<ref>{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier |title=Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |page=334 }}</ref>}}
The philosophy in ''Vaiseshika sutra'' is atomistic pluralism, states Jayatilleke.<ref>{{cite book|author=K N Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6pBTAQAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-54287-1|page=266}}</ref> Its ideas are known for its contributions to "inductive inference", and often coupled with the "deductive logic" of the sister school of Hinduism called the [[Nyaya]].<ref name="Klostermaier2010p333">{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier |title=Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |pages=333–334 }}</ref> James Thrower and others call Vaiśeṣika philosophy to be naturalism, one that rejects the supernatural.<ref>{{cite book|author=James Thrower|title=The Alternative Tradition: Religion and the Rejection of Religion in the Ancient World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpXfiGyGbYEC | year=1980| publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-90-279-7997-1|pages=76–90}}</ref><ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism-india/#AtoNyaVai Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy], Amita Chatterjee (2012), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

The text states:<ref name="Sinha">[https://archive.org/stream/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft#page/n7/mode/2up The ''Vaisheshika sutras'' of Kanada], 2nd Edition, Translator: Nandalal Sinha (1923); Editor: BD Basu; Note: this is the translation of non-critical edition of the manuscript</ref>
* There are nine constituents of realities: four classes of [[atoms]] (earth, water, light and air), space ([[akasha]]), time ([[Kāla (time)|kāla]]), direction (disha), infinity of souls ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]]), mind ([[Manas (early Buddhism)|manas]]).<ref>O'Flaherty, p. 3.</ref>
* Every object of creation is made of atoms (parmanu) which in turn connect with each other to form molecules (anu). Atoms are eternal, and their combinations constitute the empirical material world.
* Individual souls are eternal and pervade material body for a time.
* There are six categories ([[padārtha]]) of experience — substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence.

Several traits of substances ([[dravya]]) are given as color, taste, smell, touch, number, size, the separate, coupling and uncoupling, priority and posterity, comprehension, pleasure and pain, attraction and revulsion, and wishes.<ref>Vitsaxis, Vassilis. Thought and Faith: Comparative Philosophical and Religious Concepts in Ancient Greece, India, and Christianity. Somerset Hall Pr 2009-10-01 (October 2009). P. 299. {{ISBN|1935244035}}.</ref> Like many foundational texts of classical schools of Hindu philosophy, God is not mentioned in the sutra, and the text is non-theistic.<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title= A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC |year=1992|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0412-8 |pages=281–285 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roy W. Perrett |title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sf9XAQAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-70329-5 |pages=xiii–xiv}}</ref>

==Content==
[[File:2 Pramana Epistemology Vaisheshika Hindu school.svg|thumb|Epistemology (''[[pramana]]'') in Vaisheshika.<ref>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, page 238</ref>]]
The critical edition of the ''Vaisheshika Sutras'' are divided into ten chapters, each subdivided into two sections called āhnikas:<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Hiriyanna|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QeRIP-TuKLAC |year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|page=85}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The later texts of the Vaisesika school expanded and revised some of these ideas, categories and theories, as did scholars of Jainism, Buddhism and other Hinduism schools.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|pp=53-54}}}}
* In the first chapter, Kanada opens his Sutra with definitions of [[Dharma]], the importance of the [[Vedas]] and his goals. The text, states Matilal, then defines and describes three categories and their causal aspects: substance, quality and action.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=56}} He explains their differences, similarities and relationships between these three. The second part of first chapter defines and explains a universal, a particular (''viśeṣa'',{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=53}}) and their hierarchical relationship. Kanada states that it is from combination of particulars that some universals emerge.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=56}}
* The second chapter of the ''Vaisheshika Sutras'' presents five substances (earth, air, water, fire, space) each with a distinct quality. Kanada argues that all except "air and space" is verifiable by perception, while existence of invisible air is established by inference (air blows, and that there must be a substance that affects the touch sensation to the skin; space, he argues, is inferred from one's ability to move from one point to another unhindered - a point he revises in later part of the text by asserting that sound is perceived and proves space).{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=56}}
* In the third chapter, Kanada states his premises about [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (self, soul) and its validity.
* In the fourth chapter discusses the body and its adjuncts.
[[File:The silver lining inside the forest.jpg|thumb|The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra mentions many empirical observations and natural phenomenon such as flow of fluids and motion of magnets, then attempts to explain them with naturalistic theories.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=57}}]]
* In the fifth chapter action connected with the body and action connected with the mind are investigated. The text defines and discusses [[Yoga]] and [[Moksha]], asserting that self-knowledge (''atma-saksatkara'') is the means to spiritual liberation.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=58}}<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft#page/n11/mode/2up The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada], page 3, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)</ref> In this chapter, Kanada mentions various natural phenomena such as the falling of objects to ground, rising of fire upwards, the growth of grass upwards, the nature of rainfall and thunderstorms, the flow of liquids, the movement towards a magnet among many others; he then attempts to integrate his observations with his theories, and classifies phenomenon into two: those caused by volition, and those caused by subject-object conjunctions.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=57}}<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft#page/296/mode/2up The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada], pagez 152-166, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)</ref><ref>John Wells (2009), [http://darshanapress.com/The%20Vaisheshika%20Darshana.pdf The Vaisheshika Darshana], Darshana Press, Chapter 5 verses (main and appendix)</ref>
* In the sixth chapter puṇya (virtue) and pāpa (sin) are examined both as moral precepts and as discussed in the Vedas and Upanishads.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=58}}
* In the seventh chapter discusses qualities such as color and taste as a function of heat, time, object and subject. Kanada dedicates a significant number of Sutras to his theory and importance of measurement.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=58}}
* In the eighth chapter, Kanada dwells on nature of cognition and reality, arguing that cognition is a function of the object (substance) and subject. Some sutras are unclear, such as one on [[Artha]], which Kanada states is applicable only to "substance, quality and action" per his chapter one.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=58}}
* In the ninth chapter, Kanada discusses [[epistemology]], particularly the nature of perception, inference and human reasoning process.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=58}}
* In the final tenth chapter, the text focuses on soul, it attributes and threefold causes. Kanada asserts that human happiness and suffering is linked to ignorance, confusion and knowledge of the soul. He develops his theories of efficient cause, karma, body, mind, cognition and memory to present his thesis. He mentions meditation as a means of soul knowledge.{{Sfn|Bimal Krishna Matilal|1977|p=59}}<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft#page/296/mode/2up The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada], pagez 296-304, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)</ref><ref>John Wells (2009), [http://darshanapress.com/The%20Vaisheshika%20Darshana.pdf The Vaisheshika Darshana], Darshana Press, pages 32-34</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last1=Cowell |first1=E. B. |last2=Gough |first2=A. E. |title=The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha by Madhvacharya: Trubner's Oriental Series |url=https://archive.org/details/Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha.by.Madhavacharya-Vidyaranya.tr.by.E.B.Cowell |year=1882 |publisher=Taylor & Francis (2001 Reprint) |isbn=978-0-415-24517-3 }}
*{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C| year=2002| publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-93-6}}
*Subhash Kak (2016), Matter and Mind: The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda {{ISBN|9781988207148}}
*{{cite book|author=H. Margenau|title=Physics and Philosophy: Selected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfrtCAAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Science |isbn=978-94-009-9845-2}}
*{{cite book|author=Bimal Krishna Matilal|title=Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyJ--9uUtx0C |year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01807-4 }}
*{{cite book|author1=Bart Labuschagne|author2=Timo Slootweg|title=Hegel's Philosophy of the Historical Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHa3WiPqpiYC |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-22618-0}}
*O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism (Textual Sources for the Study of Religion). {{ISBN|0226618471}}.

==External links==
*[https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vaisheshika-sutra-commentary Vaisheshika-sutra with three commentaries] English translation by Nandalal Sinha, 1923 (includes glossary)
*[https://www.studyebooks.com/2021/04/the-vaisesika-sutras-by-kanada-1923-pdf.html The Vaisesika sutras by Kanada (1923)] Public domain PDF book Translated by Nandalal Sinha
{{Indian Philosophy}}
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Vaiśeṣika Sūtra - Revision history

imported>Clog Wolf at 03:55, 21 April 2021