Urbanization - Revision history

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:07, 18 March 2022

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	* Lees, Andrew. ''The city: A world history'' (New Oxford World History, 2015), 160pp.		* Lees, Andrew. ''The city: A world history'' (New Oxford World History, 2015), 160pp.
	* McShane, Clay. "The State of the Art in North American Urban History," ''Journal of Urban History'' (2006) 32#4 pp 582–597, identifies a loss of influence by such writers as Lewis Mumford, Robert Caro, and Sam Warner, a continuation of the emphasis on narrow, modern time periods, and a general decline in the importance of the field. Comments by Timothy Gilfoyle and Carl Abbott contest the latter conclusion.		* McShane, Clay. "The State of the Art in North American Urban History," ''Journal of Urban History'' (2006) 32#4 pp 582–597, identifies a loss of influence by such writers as Lewis Mumford, Robert Caro, and Sam Warner, a continuation of the emphasis on narrow, modern time periods, and a general decline in the importance of the field. Comments by Timothy Gilfoyle and Carl Abbott contest the latter conclusion.


			==External links==
			{{Library resources box\|by=no\|onlinebooks=no\|wikititle=urbanization}}
			{{Commons category\|Urbanization}}
			{{Wikiquote}}
			*[http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 Revision], Website of the United Nations Population Division
			* [https://www.academia.edu/41133251/P_Peykovska_Migration_and_Urbanization_in_Industrializing_Bulgaria_1910_1946 Urbanization in Bulgaria]
			*[http://academo.org/demos/night-time-satellite-imagery/ NASA Night Satellite Imagery] – City lights can provide a simple, visual measure of urbanization
			*[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091012202651/http://www.e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis]: research group, University of Paris-Diderot, France
			*[http://habitat.aq.upm.es/boletin/n21/almum.en.html The Natural History of Urbanization], by [[Lewis Mumford]]
			*[http://ssrn.com/abstract=1703534 The World System urbanization dynamics], by [[Andrey Korotayev]]
			* [http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/socsum.html Brief review of world socio-demographic trends] includes a review of global urbanization trends
			* [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_current/wess2013/WESS2013.pdf World Economic and Social Survey 2013], United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

			{{Cities}}
			{{Land use}}
			{{Human impact on the environment}}
			{{Authority control}}

			[[Category:Urbanization\| ]]
			[[Category:Human migration]]
			[[Category:Industrial Revolution]]
			[[Category:Land use]]
			[[Category:Urban development]]

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:06, 18 March 2022

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	==References==		==References==
	{{Reflist}}		{{Reflist}}
			==Further reading==
			{{Main\|Urban history#Further reading}}
			* {{cite journal \| last1 = Armus \| first1 = Diego \| last2 = Lear \| first2 = John \| year = 1998 \| title = The trajectory of Latin American urban history \| journal = Journal of Urban History \| volume = 24 \| issue = 3\| pages = 291–301 \| doi = 10.1177/009614429802400301 \| s2cid = 144282123 }}
			* Bairoch, Paul. ''Cities and economic development: from the dawn of history to the present'' (U of Chicago Press, 1991). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3105665 online review]
			* Goldfield, David. ed. ''Encyclopedia of American Urban History'' (2 vol 2006); 1056pp; [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-American-Urban-History-Volume/dp/0761928847/ Excerpt and text search]
			* {{cite journal \| last1 = Hays \| first1 = Samuel P \| year = 1993 \| title = From the History of the City to the History of the Urbanized Society \| journal = Journal of Urban History \| volume = 19 \| issue = 1\| pages = 3–25 \| doi = 10.1177/009614429301900401 \| s2cid = 144479930 }}
			* Lees, Andrew. ''The city: A world history'' (New Oxford World History, 2015), 160pp.
			* McShane, Clay. "The State of the Art in North American Urban History," ''Journal of Urban History'' (2006) 32#4 pp 582–597, identifies a loss of influence by such writers as Lewis Mumford, Robert Caro, and Sam Warner, a continuation of the emphasis on narrow, modern time periods, and a general decline in the importance of the field. Comments by Timothy Gilfoyle and Carl Abbott contest the latter conclusion.

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:06, 18 March 2022

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	*[[Urbanization in Pakistan]]		*[[Urbanization in Pakistan]]
	*[[Urbanization in the United States]]		*[[Urbanization in the United States]]
			==References==
			{{Reflist}}

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:05, 18 March 2022

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	As population continues to grow and urbanize at unprecedented rates, [[new urbanism]] and [[smart growth]] techniques are implemented to create a transition into developing environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable cities. Smart Growth and New Urbanism's principles include [[walkability]], mixed-use development, comfortable high-density design, land conservation, [[social equity]], and economic diversity. Mixed-use communities work to fight [[gentrification]] with [[affordable housing]] to promote social equity, decrease [[automobile dependency]] to lower use of [[fossil fuel]]s, and promote a [[localized economy]]. Walkable communities have a 38% higher average GDP per capita than less walkable urban metros (Leinberger, Lynch). By combining economic, environmental, and social sustainability, cities will become equitable, resilient, and more appealing than [[urban sprawl]] that [[overexploitation\|overuse]]s [[land use\|land]], promotes [[automobile]] use, and segregates the population economically.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|title=Archived copy \|access-date=11 July 2015 \|archive-date=24 September 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102837/http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="control">{{cite journal\|author=Lovelace, E.H.\|title=Control of urban expansion: the Lincoln, Nebraska experience\|journal=[[Journal of the American Institute of Planners]]\|year=1965\|volume=31:4\|issue=4\|pages=348–52\|author-link=Eldridge Lovelace\|doi=10.1080/01944366508978191}}</ref>		As population continues to grow and urbanize at unprecedented rates, [[new urbanism]] and [[smart growth]] techniques are implemented to create a transition into developing environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable cities. Smart Growth and New Urbanism's principles include [[walkability]], mixed-use development, comfortable high-density design, land conservation, [[social equity]], and economic diversity. Mixed-use communities work to fight [[gentrification]] with [[affordable housing]] to promote social equity, decrease [[automobile dependency]] to lower use of [[fossil fuel]]s, and promote a [[localized economy]]. Walkable communities have a 38% higher average GDP per capita than less walkable urban metros (Leinberger, Lynch). By combining economic, environmental, and social sustainability, cities will become equitable, resilient, and more appealing than [[urban sprawl]] that [[overexploitation\|overuse]]s [[land use\|land]], promotes [[automobile]] use, and segregates the population economically.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|title=Archived copy \|access-date=11 July 2015 \|archive-date=24 September 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102837/http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="control">{{cite journal\|author=Lovelace, E.H.\|title=Control of urban expansion: the Lincoln, Nebraska experience\|journal=[[Journal of the American Institute of Planners]]\|year=1965\|volume=31:4\|issue=4\|pages=348–52\|author-link=Eldridge Lovelace\|doi=10.1080/01944366508978191}}</ref>

			==See also==
			{{portal\|border=no\|Cities\|World}}
			{{Columns-list\|colwidth=22em\|
			*[[Back to the land]]
			*[[City-state]]
			*[[Counterurbanization]]
			*[[Division of labour]]
			*[[Exurb]]
			*[[Ghetto]]
			*[[Heterosociality]]
			*[[Human population planning#Reducing population growth\|Human population planning]]
			*[[Human migration]]
			*[[Megalopolis (city type)]]
			*[[Political demography]]
			*[[Pseudo-urbanization]]
			*[[Urban ecology]]
			*[[Urban exploration]]
			*[[Urban history]]
			*[[Urban metabolism]]
			*[[Urban morphology]]
			*[[Urban studies]]
			*[[Urbanization by country]]
			*[[White flight]]
			}}

			===Historical===
			*[[Neolithic Revolution]]
			*[[Oppidum]]
			*[[Polis]]
			*[[Urban Revolution]]

			===Regional===
			*[[Urbanization in Africa]]
			*[[Urbanization in China]]
			*[[Urbanization in India]]
			*[[Urbanization in Pakistan]]
			*[[Urbanization in the United States]]

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:05, 18 March 2022

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	=== Mental health ===		=== Mental health ===
	Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Luciano\|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study\|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry\|volume=62\|issue=6\|pages=252–61\|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694\|pmid=26896027\|year=2016\|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Berry\|first1=Helen\|date=6 December 2007\|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health\|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin\|volume=18\|issue=12\|pages=222–7\|pmid=18093463\|doi=10.1071/NB07024\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal\|last1=Srivastava\|first1=Kalpana\|date=July 2009\|title=Urbanization and mental health\|pmc=2996208\|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal\|volume=18\|issue=2\|pages=75–6\|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028\|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}		Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Luciano\|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study\|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry\|volume=62\|issue=6\|pages=252–61\|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694\|pmid=26896027\|year=2016\|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Berry\|first1=Helen\|date=6 December 2007\|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health\|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin\|volume=18\|issue=12\|pages=222–7\|pmid=18093463\|doi=10.1071/NB07024\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal\|last1=Srivastava\|first1=Kalpana\|date=July 2009\|title=Urbanization and mental health\|pmc=2996208\|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal\|volume=18\|issue=2\|pages=75–6\|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028\|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			==Changing forms==
			{{More citations needed section\|date=June 2021}}
			Different forms of urbanization can be classified depending on the style of architecture and planning methods as well as the historic growth of areas.

			[[File:2006megacities.svg\|thumb\|260px\|right\|Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006.]]
			In cities of the [[Developed country\|developed world]] urbanization traditionally exhibited a concentration of human activities and settlements around the downtown area, the so-called ''in-migration''. In-migration refers to migration from former colonies and similar places. The fact that many immigrants settle in impoverished city centres led to the notion of the "peripheralization of the core", which simply describes that people who used to be at the periphery of the former empires now live right in the centre.

			Recent developments, such as [[inner-city]] redevelopment schemes, mean that new arrivals in cities no longer necessarily settle in the centre. In some developed regions, the reverse effect, originally called [[counter urbanization]] has occurred, with cities losing population to rural areas, and is particularly common for richer families. This has been possible because of improved communications and has been caused by factors such as the fear of crime and poor urban environments. It has contributed to the phenomenon of [[shrinking cities]] experienced by some parts of the industrialized world.

			Rural migrants are attracted by the possibilities that cities can offer, but often settle in [[Slum\|shanty towns]] and experience extreme poverty. The inability of countries to provide adequate housing for these rural migrants is related to [[overurbanization]], a phenomenon in which the rate of urbanization grows more rapidly than the rate of economic development, leading to high unemployment and high demand for resources.<ref name="Davis">{{cite journal\|last1=Davis\|first1=Kingsley\|last2=Hertz Golden\|first2=Hilda\|year=1954\|title=Urbanization and the Development of Pre-Industrial Areas\|journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change\|volume=3\|issue=1\|pages=6–26\|doi=10.1086/449673\|s2cid=155010637}}</ref> In the 1980s, this was attempted to be tackled with the '''urban bias theory''' which was promoted by [[Michael Lipton]].

			Most of the urban poor in developing countries unable to find work can spend their lives in insecure, poorly paid jobs. According to research by the [[Overseas Development Institute]] pro-poor urbanization will require labour-intensive growth, supported by labour protection, flexible land use regulation and investments in basic services.'<ref>{{cite web\|date=November 2008\|title=Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets\|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf\|publisher=Overseas Development Institute\|access-date=12 January 2009\|archive-date=27 March 2009\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327183722/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf\|url-status=dead}}</ref>

			=== Suburbanization ===
			{{Main\|Suburbanization}}
			When the residential area shifts outward, this is called suburbanization. A number of researchers and writers suggest that suburbanization has gone so far to form new points of concentration outside the downtown both in developed and developing countries such as India.<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi = 10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2006.11.001\| title = Density gradients and their determinants: Evidence from India\| journal = Regional Science and Urban Economics\| volume = 37\| issue = 3\| pages = 314–44\| year = 2007\| last1 = Sridhar \| first1 = K. S. }}</ref> This networked, poly-centric form of concentration is considered by some emerging pattern of urbanization. It is called variously [[edge city]] (Garreau, 1991), network city (Batten, 1995), postmodern city (Dear, 2000), or [[exurb]], though the latter term now refers to a less dense area beyond the suburbs. Los Angeles is the best-known example of this type of urbanization. In the United States, this process has reversed as of 2011, with "re-urbanization" occurring as ''suburban flight'' due to chronically high transport costs.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Bora \|first=Madhusmita \|url=http://www.nwitimes.com/lifestyles/home-and-garden/shifts-in-u-s-housing-demand-will-likely-lead-to/article_06860ab0-ef92-5c44-a05a-ef5aafef0143.html \|title=Shifts in U.S. housing demand will likely lead to the re-urbanization of America \|publisher=Nwitimes.com \|date=1 July 2012 \|access-date=20 March 2013}}</ref>

			{{quote box \| width=25em\| bgcolor=#B0C4DE \|align=left\|qalign=left \|quote=<div style="text-align:left;">...the most important class conflict in the poor countries of the world today is not between labour and capital. Nor is it between foreign and national interests. It is between rural classes and urban classes. The rural sector contains most of the poverty and most of the low-cost sources of potential advance; but the urban sector contains most of the articulateness, organization, and power. So the urban classes have been able to win most of the rounds of the struggle with the countryside...". – Michael Lipton, author of urban bias theory<ref>Varshney, A. (ed.) 1993. "Beyond Urban Bias", p. 5. London: Frank Cass.</ref>
			</div> \|}}

			=== Planned urbanization ===
			Urbanization can be planned urbanization or organic. Planned urbanization, i.e.: [[planned community]] or the [[garden city movement]], is based on an advance plan, which can be prepared for military, aesthetic, economic or [[urban design]] reasons. Examples can be seen in many ancient cities; although with exploration came the collision of nations, which meant that many invaded cities took on the desired planned characteristics of their occupiers. Many ancient organic cities experienced redevelopment for military and economic purposes, new roads carved through the cities, and new parcels of land were cordoned off serving various planned purposes giving cities distinctive geometric designs. UN agencies prefer to see [[infrastructure\|urban infrastructure]] installed before urbanization occurs. [[Landscape planning\|Landscape planners]] are responsible for landscape infrastructure ([[public park]]s, [[sustainable urban drainage systems]], [[Greenway (landscape)\|greenways]] etc.) which can be planned before urbanization takes place, or afterwards to revitalize an area and create greater [[livability]] within a region. Concepts of control of the urban expansion are considered in the [[American Institute of Planners]].

			As population continues to grow and urbanize at unprecedented rates, [[new urbanism]] and [[smart growth]] techniques are implemented to create a transition into developing environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable cities. Smart Growth and New Urbanism's principles include [[walkability]], mixed-use development, comfortable high-density design, land conservation, [[social equity]], and economic diversity. Mixed-use communities work to fight [[gentrification]] with [[affordable housing]] to promote social equity, decrease [[automobile dependency]] to lower use of [[fossil fuel]]s, and promote a [[localized economy]]. Walkable communities have a 38% higher average GDP per capita than less walkable urban metros (Leinberger, Lynch). By combining economic, environmental, and social sustainability, cities will become equitable, resilient, and more appealing than [[urban sprawl]] that [[overexploitation\|overuse]]s [[land use\|land]], promotes [[automobile]] use, and segregates the population economically.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|title=Archived copy \|access-date=11 July 2015 \|archive-date=24 September 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102837/http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="control">{{cite journal\|author=Lovelace, E.H.\|title=Control of urban expansion: the Lincoln, Nebraska experience\|journal=[[Journal of the American Institute of Planners]]\|year=1965\|volume=31:4\|issue=4\|pages=348–52\|author-link=Eldridge Lovelace\|doi=10.1080/01944366508978191}}</ref>

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:05, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T16:05:01Z

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Dhaneesh Ram at 16:04, 18 March 2022

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	In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop \|title=State of the World Population 2014 \|year=2014 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>		In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop \|title=State of the World Population 2014 \|year=2014 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>

			==Environmental effects==
			{{Pollution sidebar}}

			Urbanization may improve environmental quality as a result of numerous reasons. For instance, urbanization upsurges income levels which instigates the eco-friendly services sector and increases demand for green and environmentally compliant products. Furthermore, urbanization improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and better-quality living standards in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by increasing R&D and innovations.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Yasin\|first1=Iftikhar\|last2=Ahmad\|first2=Nawaz\|last3=Chaudhary\|first3=M. Aslam\|date=2019-07-22\|title=Catechizing the Environmental-Impression of Urbanization, Financial Development, and Political Institutions: A Circumstance of Ecological Footprints in 110 Developed and Less-Developed Countries\|journal=Social Indicators Research\|language=en\|volume=147\|issue=2\|pages=621–649\|doi=10.1007/s11205-019-02163-3\|issn=0303-8300\|s2cid=199855869}}</ref> In his book ''[[Whole Earth Discipline]]'', Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth.<ref>[https://www.prb.org/urbanization-an-environmental-force-to-be-reckoned-with/ Urbanization: An Environmental Force to Be Reckoned With]</ref> Secondly, emigration from rural areas reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly implemented [[slash and burn]] agriculture. [[Alex Steffen]] also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet", .<ref>Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet by Alex Steffen</ref>

			However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable. In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs<ref>[http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2843WESS2013.pdf "World Economic and Social Survey (WESS) 2013"] World Economic and Social Affairs. July 2013.</ref> warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and the growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster.<ref>Auber, Tamar (17 July 2013) [http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/climate-change-and-rapid-urban-expansion-in-africa-threaten-childrens-lives/ "Climate change and rapid urban expansion in Africa threaten children’s lives."] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014025/http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/climate-change-and-rapid-urban-expansion-in-africa-threaten-childrens-lives/ \|date=13 November 2014 }} UNEARTH News. Retrieved 10 August 2013.</ref>

			=== Urban heat island ===
			The existence of [[urban heat island]]s has become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain heat. Much of the solar energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation of water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where there are less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat.<ref>Park, H.-S. (1987). [[hdl:2241/4711\|Variations in the urban heat island intensity affected by geographical environments]]. Environmental Research Center papers, no. 11. Ibaraki, Japan: Environmental Research Center, The University of Tsukuba.</ref> As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/ "Heat Island Effect"]. Epa.gov (17 November 2010). Retrieved on 7 April 2014.</ref> Impacts also include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Heating Up: Study Shows Rapid Urbanization in China Warming the Regional Climate Faster than Other Urban Areas\|url=http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/china-climate.htm}}</ref>

			=== Water quality ===
			The occurrence of [[eutrophication]] in bodies of water is another effect large urban populations have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, the rain filters down the pollutants such as CO<sub>2</sub> and other greenhouse gases in the air onto the ground below. Then, those chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, causing a decline in water quality and damaging marine ecosystems.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal\|last1=Jiang\|first1=Leiwen\|last2=Hoepf Young\|first2=Malea\|last3=Hardee\|first3=Karen\|year=2008\|title=Population, Urbanization, And The Environment\|journal=World Watch\|volume=21\|issue=5\|pages=34–39}}</ref>

			Eutrophication is a process which causes hypoxic water conditions and algal blooms that may be detrimental to the survival of aquatic life.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/eutrophication-and-hypoxia/about-eutrophication\|title=About Eutrophication {{!}} World Resources Institute\|website=wri.org\|date=12 September 2013\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> [[Harmful algal bloom]]s, which produce dangerous toxins, thrive in eutrophic environments that are also rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/harmful-algal-blooms\|title=Harmful Algal Blooms\|website=US Environmental Protection Administration\|date=3 June 2013\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> In these ideal conditions, they overtake surface water, making it difficult for other organisms to receive sunlight and nutrients. Overgrowth of algal blooms causes a decrease in overall water quality and disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO<sub>2</sub> is produced, causing a more acidic environment, a process known as acidification.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.nutrientchallenge.org/sites/default/files/documents/files/FINAL%20Ocean%20Acidification%20policy%20brief%20spread_press%20quality_print.pdf\|title=Eutrophication and Ocean Acidification\|last1=Ramesh\|first1=R\|last2=Lakshmi\|first2=A\|date=2013\|last3=Purvaja\|first3=R\|last4=Costanzo\|first4=S.D\|last5=Kelsey\|first5=R.H\|last6=Hawkey\|first6=J\|last7=Datta\|first7=A\|last8=Dennison\|first8=W.C}}</ref>

			The ocean's surface also has the ability to absorb CO<sub>2</sub> from the earth's atmosphere as emissions increase with the rise in urbanization. In fact, it is reported that the ocean absorbs a quarter of the CO<sub>2</sub> produced by humans.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web\|url=https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/ocean-acidification\|title=National Climate Assessment\|website=National Climate Assessment\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> This has been useful to the environment by decreasing the harmful effects of greenhouse gases, but also further perpetuates acidification.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Feely\|first1=Richard A.\|last2=Alin\|first2=Simone R.\|last3=Newton\|first3=Jan\|last4=Sabine\|first4=Christopher L.\|last5=Warner\|first5=Mark\|last6=Devol\|first6=Allan\|last7=Krembs\|first7=Christopher\|last8=Maloy\|first8=Carol\|date=August 2010\|title=The combined effects of ocean acidification, mixing, and respiration on pH and carbonate saturation in an urbanized estuary\|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science\|volume=88\|issue=4\|pages=442–449\|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2010.05.004\|issn=0272-7714\|bibcode=2010ECSS...88..442F}}</ref> Changes in pH inhibit the proper formation of calcium carbonate, a crucial component for many marine organisms to maintain shells or skeletons.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-ocean-acidification\|title=Understanding Ocean Acidification {{!}} NOAA Fisheries\|last=Fisheries\|first=NOAA\|date=2018-09-09\|website=fisheries.noaa.gov\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":03" /> This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral. Regardless, some species have been able to instead adapt or thrive in a more acidic environment<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification\|title=Ocean Acidification\|website=Smithsonian Ocean\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref>

			=== Food waste ===
			Rapid growth of communities create new challenges in the developed world and one such challenge is an increase in [[food waste]]<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Thyberg\|first1=Krista L.\|last2=Tonjes\|first2=David J.\|date=2016\|title=Drivers of food waste and their implications for sustainable policy development\|url=https://www.tib.eu/en/search/id/tema:TEMA20151218325/Drivers-of-food-waste-and-their-implications-for/\|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling\|volume=106\|pages=110–123\|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.11.016\|issn=0921-3449}}</ref> also known as urban food waste.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=24696\|title=Article: "Urban Food Waste generation: challenges and opportunities" Journal: Int. J. of Environment and Waste Management, 2009 Vol.3 No.1/2 pp.4 - 21 Abstract: Greater economic activity and a wider economic gap between rural and urban areas is leading to accelerated urbanisation and the generation of 35% more Urban Food Waste (UFW) from 2007 to 2025. Besides landfilling, this paper examines the advantages of introducing onsite composting and anaerobic digestion for the environmental recycling of UFW and the lowering of handling cost. For Asia and Africa, these solutions for UFW could reduce the mass of MSW by 43% and 55%, respectively, thus help there cities manage almost all of their MSW. For North America and Europe, such practice could reduce earth warming trends. - Inderscience Publishers - linking academia, business and industry through research\|website=inderscience.com\|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal\|last1=Adhikari\|first1=Bijaya K.\|last2=Barrington\|first2=Suzelle\|last3=Martinez\|first3=José\|date=October 2006\|title=Predicted growth of world urban food waste and methane production\|journal=Waste Management & Research\|volume=24\|issue=5\|pages=421–433\|doi=10.1177/0734242X06067767\|issn=0734-242X\|pmid=17121114\|s2cid=34299202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Adhikari\|first1=Bijaya K.\|last2=Barrington\|first2=Suzelle F.\|last3=Martinez\|first3=Jose\|date=2009\|title=Urban Food Waste generation: challenges and opportunities\|journal=International Journal of Environment and Waste Management\|volume=3\|issue=1/2\|pages=4\|doi=10.1504/ijewm.2009.024696\|issn=1478-9876\|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00615443/file/RE2009-PUB00026234.pdf}}</ref> Food waste is the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase production of [[methane]] gases and attraction of [[Vector (epidemiology)\|disease vectors]].<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases\|title=Vector-borne diseases\|website=World Health Organization\|access-date=2018-10-19}}</ref> Landfills are the third leading cause of the release of methane,<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases#methane\|title=Overview of Greenhouse Gases {{!}} US EPA\|last=EPA,OA\|first=US\|website=US EPA\|access-date=2018-10-16\|date=2015-12-23}}</ref> causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater potential of disease spreading to humans.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Venkateswaran\|first=Sandhya\|date=1994\|title=Managing Waste: Ecological, Economic and Social Dimensions\|journal=Economic and Political Weekly\|volume=29\|issue=45/46\|pages=2907–2911\|jstor=4401996}}</ref>

			Waste management systems vary on all scales from global to local and can also be influenced by lifestyle. Waste management was not a primary concern until after the Industrial Revolution. As urban areas continued to grow along with the human population, proper management of solid waste became an apparent concern. To address these concerns, local governments sought solutions with the lowest economic impacts which meant implementing technical solutions at the very last stage of the process.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal\|last=Bai\|first=Xuemei\|last2=McPhearson\|first2=Timon\|last3=Cleugh\|first3=Helen\|last4=Nagendra\|first4=Harini\|last5=Tong\|first5=Xin\|last6=Zhu\|first6=Tong\|last7=Zhu\|first7=Yong-Guan\|date=2017-10-17\|title=Linking Urbanization and the Environment: Conceptual and Empirical Advances\|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128\|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources\|language=en\|volume=42\|issue=1\|pages=215–240\|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128\|issn=1543-5938}}</ref> Current waste management reflects these economically motivated solutions, such as incineration or unregulated landfills. Yet, a growing increase for addressing other areas of life cycle consumption has occurred from initial stage reduction to heat recovery and recycling of materials.<ref name=":9" /> For example, concerns for mass consumption and fast fashion have moved to the forefront of the urban consumers’ priorities. Aside from environmental concerns (ex. climate change effects), other urban concerns for waste management are public health and land access.

			=== Habitat fragmentation ===
			Urbanization can have a large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby alienation of species, a process known as [[habitat fragmentation]].<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Urbanization, habitat loss, biodiversity decline: solution pathways to break the cycle \|last1=Elmqvist \|first1=Thomas \|last2=Zipperer \|first2=Wayne \|last3=Güneralp \|first3=Burak\|year=2016\|pages=139–151\|chapter=10}}</ref> Habitat fragmentation does not destroy the habitat, as seen in [[habitat loss]], but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and railways<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Liu Z, He C, Wu J \| title = The Relationship between Habitat Loss and Fragmentation during Urbanization: An Empirical Evaluation from 16 World Cities \| journal = PLOS One\| volume = 11 \| issue = 4 \| pages = e0154613 \| date = 2016 \| pmid = 27124180 \| pmc = 4849762 \| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0154613 \| bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1154613L \| doi-access = free }}</ref> This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from predation<ref>{{Cite journal\|doi=10.1676/04-038\|title = Nest Survival Relative to Patch Size in a Highly Fragmented Shortgrass Prairie Landscape\|journal = The Wilson Bulletin\|volume = 117\|pages = 23–34\|year = 2005\|last1 = Skagen\|first1 = Susan K.\|last2 = Yackel Adams\|first2 = Amy A.\|last3 = Adams\|first3 = Rod D.\|s2cid = 85173365\|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/210478}}</ref> With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding corridors that aid in the connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized regions.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=McKinney\|first=Michael L.\|date=2008-01-29\|title=Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals\|journal=Urban Ecosystems\|volume=11\|issue=2\|pages=161–176\|doi=10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4\|s2cid=23353943\|issn=1083-8155}}</ref> This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Lundkvist\|first1=E.\|last2=Landin\|first2=J.\|last3=Karlsson\|first3=F.\|title= Dispersing diving beetles (Dytiscidae) in agricultural and urban landscapes in south-eastern Sweden \|journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici \|year=2002 }}</ref> The more urbanized the surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Liao\|first1=W.\|last2=Venn\|first2=S.\|last3=Niemelä\|first3=J.\|title=Environmental determinants of diving beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) in an urban landscape\|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation\|year=2020\|doi=10.1007/s10531-020-01977-9\|doi-access=free\|volume=29\|issue=7\|pages=2343–2359}}</ref> Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=McKinney\|first=Michael\|date=October 2002\|title=Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation\|journal=BioScience\|volume=52\|issue=10\|pages=883\|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2\|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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	Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) exhibit strong dominance in their respective countries, they are losing population to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Jacobs\|first=A.J\|date=2011\|title=Ulsan, South Korea: A Global and Nested 'Great' Industrial City\|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf\|journal=The Open Urban Studies Journal\|volume=4\|issue=8–20\|pages=8–20\|doi=10.2174/1874942901104010008\|via=core.ac.uk\|doi-access=free}}</ref>		Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) exhibit strong dominance in their respective countries, they are losing population to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Jacobs\|first=A.J\|date=2011\|title=Ulsan, South Korea: A Global and Nested 'Great' Industrial City\|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf\|journal=The Open Urban Studies Journal\|volume=4\|issue=8–20\|pages=8–20\|doi=10.2174/1874942901104010008\|via=core.ac.uk\|doi-access=free}}</ref>

			==Economic effects ==
			[[File:Crowded BTS Asok Station.jpg\|thumb\|A crowded [[BTS Skytrain\|BTS Station]] during the rush hour in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]]]]
			As cities develop, effects can include a dramatic increase and change in costs, often pricing the local [[working class]] out of the market, including such functionaries as employees of the local municipalities. For example, [[Eric Hobsbawm]]'s book ''The age of revolution: 1789–1848'' (published 1962 and 2005) chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period was a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses of misery outside the centres of government, business, and the newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal European division into a 'good' west end and a 'poor' east end of large cities developed in this period." This is likely due to the prevailing south-west wind which carries coal smoke and other airborne pollutants downwind, making the western edges of towns preferable to the eastern ones.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/may/12/blowing-wind-cities-poor-east-ends\|title=Blowing in the wind: why do so many cities have poor east ends?\|first=Leo\|last=Benedictus\|date=12 May 2017\|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

			Similar problems now affect the developing world, rising inequality resulting from rapid urbanization trends. The drive for rapid urban growth and often efficiency can lead to less equitable urban development. Think tanks such as the [[Overseas Development Institute]] have proposed policies that encourage labour-intensive growth as a means of absorbing the influx of low-skilled and unskilled labour.<ref>Grant, Ursula (2008) [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1969&title=opportunity-exploitation-urban-labour-markets Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918135852/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1969&title=opportunity-exploitation-urban-labour-markets \|date=18 September 2012 }} London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the growth of [[slums]]. In many cases, the rural-urban low skilled or unskilled migrant workers, attracted by economic opportunities in urban areas, cannot find a job and afford housing in cities and have to dwell in slums.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Todaro \|first=Michael P. \|title=A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries \|journal=The American Economic Review \|year=1969 \|volume=59 \|issue=1 \|page=148}}</ref>

			Urban problems, along with infrastructure developments, are also fuelling suburbanization trends in developing nations, though the trend for core cities in said nations tends to continue to become ever denser. Urbanization is often viewed as a negative trend, but there are positives in the reduction of expenses in commuting and transportation while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of proximity and diversity.<ref>{{cite journal\|author=Glaeser, Edward\|title=Are Cities Dying? \|journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives \|volume=12 \|issue=2 \|date=Spring 1998 \|pages=139–60 \|doi=10.1257/jep.12.2.139\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="brand">{{cite web \|url=http://web.me.com/stewartbrand/DISCIPLINE_footnotes/2_-_City_Planet.html \|title=Whole Earth Discipline – annotated extract \|author=Brand, Stewart \|access-date=29 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|doi=10.1177/089124249701100101 \|title=Neighborhood Initiative and the Regional Economy\| journal = Economic Development Quarterly\| volume = 11\| pages = 3–10\| year = 1997\| last1 = Nowak \| first1 = J.\|s2cid=154678238}}</ref><ref>Using the Gall-Peters Projection it is estimated that come 2015 the worlds urban population is set to exceed 4 billion, most of this growth is expected in Africa and Asia and China to be 50% urbanized.</ref> While cities have a greater variety of markets and goods than rural areas, infrastructure congestion, monopolization, high overhead costs, and the inconvenience of cross-town trips frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop \|title=State of the World Population 2014 \|year=2014 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>

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	People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question is whether this is due to [[Economies of agglomeration\|agglomeration effects]] or whether cities simply attract those who are more productive. Urban geographers have shown that there exists a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations.<ref>Borowiecki, Karol J. (2013) [https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/juecon/v73y2013i1p94-110.html Geographic Clustering and Productivity: An Instrumental Variable Approach for Classical Composers], Journal of Urban Economics, 73(1): 94–110</ref> It is thus possible that agents{{clarify\|date=August 2015}} locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects.		People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question is whether this is due to [[Economies of agglomeration\|agglomeration effects]] or whether cities simply attract those who are more productive. Urban geographers have shown that there exists a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations.<ref>Borowiecki, Karol J. (2013) [https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/juecon/v73y2013i1p94-110.html Geographic Clustering and Productivity: An Instrumental Variable Approach for Classical Composers], Journal of Urban Economics, 73(1): 94–110</ref> It is thus possible that agents{{clarify\|date=August 2015}} locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects.

			==Dominant conurbation==
			{{see also\|List of largest cities throughout history\|Primate city}}
			The dominant [[conurbation]](s) of a country can benefit to a greater extent from the same things cities offer, making them magnets for not just the non-urban population, but also urban and suburban population from other cities. Dominant conurbations are quite often [[primate city\|primate cities]], but do not have to be. For instance [[Greater Manila]] is rather a conurbation than a city: its 20 million overall population (over 20% national population) make it very much a primate city, but Quezon City (2.7 million), the largest municipality in Greater Manila, and Manila (1.6 million), the capital, are not. A conurbation's dominance can be measured by output, wealth, and especially population, each expressed as a percentage of an entire country. Greater Seoul is one conurbation with massive dominance over South Korea, it is home to 50% of the entire national population.<ref>[http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826055149/http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A\|date=26 August 2013}}</ref>

			Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) exhibit strong dominance in their respective countries, they are losing population to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Jacobs\|first=A.J\|date=2011\|title=Ulsan, South Korea: A Global and Nested 'Great' Industrial City\|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf\|journal=The Open Urban Studies Journal\|volume=4\|issue=8–20\|pages=8–20\|doi=10.2174/1874942901104010008\|via=core.ac.uk\|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Dhaneesh Ram at 16:03, 18 March 2022

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	[[Yale University]] in June 2016 published urbanization data from the time period 3700 BC to 2000 AD, the data was used to make a [[video]] showing the development of cities on the [[world]] during the time period.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Reba\|first1=Meredith\|last2=Reitsma\|first2=Femke\|last3=Seto\|first3=Karen C.\|author-link3=Karen Seto\|date=2016-06-07\|title=Spatializing 6,000 years of global urbanization from 3700 BC to AD 2000\|journal=Scientific Data\|volume=3\|doi=10.1038/sdata.2016.34\|issn=2052-4463\|pmc=4896125\|pmid=27271481\|pages=160034\|bibcode=2016NatSD...360034R}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.urban.yale.edu/data\|title=Research Data–Seto Lab\|website=urban.yale.edu\|access-date=2016-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yKJYXujJ7sU\| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/yKJYXujJ7sU\| archive-date=2021-10-30\|title=The History of Urbanization, 3700 BC – 2000 AD\|website=YouTube\|access-date=2018-09-24}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The origins and spread of urban centers around the world were also mapped by archaeologists.<ref name="Stephens 897–902">{{Cite journal\|last1=Stephens\|first1=Lucas\|last2=Fuller\|first2=Dorian\|last3=Boivin\|first3=Nicole\|last4=Rick\|first4=Torben\|last5=Gauthier\|first5=Nicolas\|last6=Kay\|first6=Andrea\|last7=Marwick\|first7=Ben\|last8=Armstrong\|first8=Chelsey Geralda\|last9=Barton\|first9=C. Michael\|date=2019-08-30\|title=Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use\|journal=Science\|language=en\|volume=365\|issue=6456\|pages=897–902\|doi=10.1126/science.aax1192\|pmid=31467217\|issn=0036-8075\|hdl=10150/634688\|hdl-access=free\|bibcode=2019Sci...365..897S\|s2cid=201674203}}</ref>		[[Yale University]] in June 2016 published urbanization data from the time period 3700 BC to 2000 AD, the data was used to make a [[video]] showing the development of cities on the [[world]] during the time period.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Reba\|first1=Meredith\|last2=Reitsma\|first2=Femke\|last3=Seto\|first3=Karen C.\|author-link3=Karen Seto\|date=2016-06-07\|title=Spatializing 6,000 years of global urbanization from 3700 BC to AD 2000\|journal=Scientific Data\|volume=3\|doi=10.1038/sdata.2016.34\|issn=2052-4463\|pmc=4896125\|pmid=27271481\|pages=160034\|bibcode=2016NatSD...360034R}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.urban.yale.edu/data\|title=Research Data–Seto Lab\|website=urban.yale.edu\|access-date=2016-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yKJYXujJ7sU\| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/yKJYXujJ7sU\| archive-date=2021-10-30\|title=The History of Urbanization, 3700 BC – 2000 AD\|website=YouTube\|access-date=2018-09-24}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The origins and spread of urban centers around the world were also mapped by archaeologists.<ref name="Stephens 897–902">{{Cite journal\|last1=Stephens\|first1=Lucas\|last2=Fuller\|first2=Dorian\|last3=Boivin\|first3=Nicole\|last4=Rick\|first4=Torben\|last5=Gauthier\|first5=Nicolas\|last6=Kay\|first6=Andrea\|last7=Marwick\|first7=Ben\|last8=Armstrong\|first8=Chelsey Geralda\|last9=Barton\|first9=C. Michael\|date=2019-08-30\|title=Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use\|journal=Science\|language=en\|volume=365\|issue=6456\|pages=897–902\|doi=10.1126/science.aax1192\|pmid=31467217\|issn=0036-8075\|hdl=10150/634688\|hdl-access=free\|bibcode=2019Sci...365..897S\|s2cid=201674203}}</ref>

			==Causes==
			{{More citations needed section\|date=June 2021}}
			[[File:Rural flight.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright=1.15\|Population age comparises between rural [[Pocahontas County, Iowa]] and urban [[Johnson County, Iowa]], illustrating the flight of young adults (red) to urban centres in [[Iowa]].<ref>based on 2000 U.S. Census Data</ref>]]
			[[File:Chicago Downtown Aerial View.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The City of [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]] is an example of the early American grid system of development. The grid is enforced even on uneven topography.]]

			Urbanization occurs either organically or planned as a result of individual, collective and state action. Living in a city can be culturally and economically beneficial since it can provide greater opportunities for access to the labour market, better education, housing, and safety conditions, and reduce the time and expense of commuting and transportation. Conditions like density, proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition are elements of an urban environment that deemed beneficial. However, there are also harmful social phenomena that arise: alienation, stress, increased cost of living, and mass marginalization that are connected to an urban way of living.{{citation needed\|date=June 2021}} [[Suburbanization]], which is happening in the cities of the largest developing countries, may be regarded as an attempt to balance these harmful aspects of urban life while still allowing access to the large extent of shared resources.{{citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, that foreign money flows into a country.

			Many people move into cities for economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. [[Rural flight]] is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has historically been difficult to access manufactured goods, though the relative overall [[quality of life]] is very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times of [[drought]], [[flood]] or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic.

			{{quote box \| width=25em\| bgcolor=#B0C4DE \|align=left\|qalign=left \|quote=<div style="text-align:left;">Thai farmers are seen as poor, stupid, and unhealthy. As young people flee the farms, the values and knowledge of rice farming and the countryside are fading, including the tradition of long kek, helping neighbours plant, harvest, or build a house. We are losing what we call Thai-ness, the values of being kind, helping each other, having mercy and gratefulness – Iam Thongdee, Professor of Humanities, Mahidol University in Bangkok<ref name="NYT Thai Farm">{{cite news\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/05/world/asia/thai-youth-seek-a-fortune-off-the-farm.html \|title=Thai Youth Seek a Fortune Away From the Farm\|newspaper=The New York Times \|date=5 June 2012 \|access-date=5 June 2012 \|first=Thomas \|last=Fuller}}</ref></div>}}

			In a New York Times article concerning the acute migration away from farming in Thailand, life as a farmer was described as "hot and exhausting". "Everyone says the farmer works the hardest but gets the least amount of money". In an effort to counter this impression, the Agriculture Department of Thailand is seeking to promote the impression that farming is "honorable and secure".<ref name="NYT Thai Farm"/>

			However, in Thailand, urbanization has also resulted in massive increases in problems such as obesity. Shifting from a rural environment to an urbanized community also caused a transition to a diet that was mainly carbohydrate-based to a diet higher in fat and sugar, consequently causing a rise in obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Jitnarin\|first1=Nattinee\|last2=Kosulwat\|first2=Vongsvat\|last3=Rojroongwasinkul\|first3=Nipa\|last4=Boonpraderm\|first4=Atitada\|last5=Haddock\|first5=Christopher K.\|last6=Poston\|first6=Walker S. C.\|last7=Jitnarin\|first7=Nattinee\|last8=Kosulwat\|first8=Vongsvat\|last9=Rojroongwasinkul\|first9=Nipa\|date=2010-01-21\|title=Risk Factors for Overweight and Obesity among Thai Adults: Results of the National Thai Food Consumption Survey\|journal=Nutrients\|volume=2\|issue=1\|pages=60–74\|doi=10.3390/nu2010060\|pmid=22253992\|pmc=3257614\|doi-access=free}}</ref> City life, especially in modern urban slums of the developing world, is certainly hardly immune to pestilence or climatic disturbances such as floods, yet continues to strongly attract migrants. Examples of this were the [[2011 Thailand floods]] and [[2007 Jakarta flood]]. Urban areas are also far more prone to [[violence]], [[drugs]], and other urban social problems. In the United States, [[Factory farming\|industrialization]] of [[agriculture]] has negatively affected the economy of small and middle-sized farms and strongly reduced the size of the rural labour market.

			{{quote box \| width=25em\| bgcolor=#B0C4DE \|align=right\|qalign=right\|quote=<div style="text-align:left;">These are the costs of participating in the urban economy. Your increased income is canceled out by increased expenditure. In the end, you have even less left for food. – Madhura Swaminathan, economist at Kolkata’s Indian Statistical Institute<ref name="Bloomberg 900 Million">{{cite news\|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-06-13/early-death-assured-in-india-where-900-million-go-hungry.html \|title=Early Death Assured in India Where 900 Million Go Hungry \|publisher=Bloomberg \|date=13 June 2012 \|access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref></div>}}

			Particularly in the developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects of [[globalization]] has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China, where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant groups (e.g. [[Naxalites]]) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration often results in the rapid growth of slums.
			This is also similar to areas of violent conflict, where people are driven off their land due to violence.

			Cities offer a larger variety of services, including specialist services not found in rural areas. These services require workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunities. Elderly people may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can cater to their health needs. Varied and high-quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as the opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities.

			Urbanization also creates opportunities for women that are not available in rural areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in paid employment and have access to education. This may cause fertility to decline. However, women are sometimes still at a disadvantage due to their unequal position in the labour market, their inability to secure assets independently from male relatives and exposure to violence.<ref name="UNFPA">{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/urbanization-gender-and-urban-poverty \|title=Urbanization, gender and urban poverty:Paid work and unpaid carework in the city \|year=2012 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>

			People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question is whether this is due to [[Economies of agglomeration\|agglomeration effects]] or whether cities simply attract those who are more productive. Urban geographers have shown that there exists a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations.<ref>Borowiecki, Karol J. (2013) [https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/juecon/v73y2013i1p94-110.html Geographic Clustering and Productivity: An Instrumental Variable Approach for Classical Composers], Journal of Urban Economics, 73(1): 94–110</ref> It is thus possible that agents{{clarify\|date=August 2015}} locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects.

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	=== Mental health ===		=== Mental health ===
	Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Luciano\|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study\|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry\|volume=62\|issue=6\|pages=252–61\|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694\|pmid=26896027\|year=2016\|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Berry\|first1=Helen\|date=6 December 2007\|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health\|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin\|volume=18\|issue=12\|pages=222–7\|pmid=18093463\|doi=10.1071/NB07024\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal\|last1=Srivastava\|first1=Kalpana\|date=July 2009\|title=Urbanization and mental health\|pmc=2996208\|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal\|volume=18\|issue=2\|pages=75–6\|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028\|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}		Urbanization factors that contribute to [[mental health]] can be thought of as factors that affect the individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level, changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by creating perceived insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Luciano\|title=Perceived insecurity, mental health and urbanization: Results from a multicentric study\|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry\|volume=62\|issue=6\|pages=252–61\|doi=10.1177/0020764016629694\|pmid=26896027\|year=2016\|s2cid=37122169}}</ref> Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Berry\|first1=Helen\|date=6 December 2007\|title='Crowded suburbs' and 'killer cities': a brief review of the relationship between urban environments and mental health\|journal=NSW Public Health Bulletin\|volume=18\|issue=12\|pages=222–7\|pmid=18093463\|doi=10.1071/NB07024\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Increased stress is a common individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that are thought to contribute to increased stress.<ref name="Srivastava IPJ">{{cite journal\|last1=Srivastava\|first1=Kalpana\|date=July 2009\|title=Urbanization and mental health\|pmc=2996208\|journal=Industrial Psychiatry Journal\|volume=18\|issue=2\|pages=75–6\|doi=10.4103/0972-6748.64028\|pmid=21180479}}</ref> It is important to note that urbanization or population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with other public health measures that accompany urbanization.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			==Changing forms==
			{{More citations needed section\|date=June 2021}}
			Different forms of urbanization can be classified depending on the style of architecture and planning methods as well as the historic growth of areas.

			[[File:2006megacities.svg\|thumb\|260px\|right\|Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006.]]
			In cities of the [[Developed country\|developed world]] urbanization traditionally exhibited a concentration of human activities and settlements around the downtown area, the so-called ''in-migration''. In-migration refers to migration from former colonies and similar places. The fact that many immigrants settle in impoverished city centres led to the notion of the "peripheralization of the core", which simply describes that people who used to be at the periphery of the former empires now live right in the centre.

			Recent developments, such as [[inner-city]] redevelopment schemes, mean that new arrivals in cities no longer necessarily settle in the centre. In some developed regions, the reverse effect, originally called [[counter urbanization]] has occurred, with cities losing population to rural areas, and is particularly common for richer families. This has been possible because of improved communications and has been caused by factors such as the fear of crime and poor urban environments. It has contributed to the phenomenon of [[shrinking cities]] experienced by some parts of the industrialized world.

			Rural migrants are attracted by the possibilities that cities can offer, but often settle in [[Slum\|shanty towns]] and experience extreme poverty. The inability of countries to provide adequate housing for these rural migrants is related to [[overurbanization]], a phenomenon in which the rate of urbanization grows more rapidly than the rate of economic development, leading to high unemployment and high demand for resources.<ref name="Davis">{{cite journal\|last1=Davis\|first1=Kingsley\|last2=Hertz Golden\|first2=Hilda\|year=1954\|title=Urbanization and the Development of Pre-Industrial Areas\|journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change\|volume=3\|issue=1\|pages=6–26\|doi=10.1086/449673\|s2cid=155010637}}</ref> In the 1980s, this was attempted to be tackled with the '''urban bias theory''' which was promoted by [[Michael Lipton]].

			Most of the urban poor in developing countries unable to find work can spend their lives in insecure, poorly paid jobs. According to research by the [[Overseas Development Institute]] pro-poor urbanization will require labour-intensive growth, supported by labour protection, flexible land use regulation and investments in basic services.'<ref>{{cite web\|date=November 2008\|title=Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets\|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf\|publisher=Overseas Development Institute\|access-date=12 January 2009\|archive-date=27 March 2009\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327183722/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf\|url-status=dead}}</ref>

			=== Suburbanization ===
			{{Main\|Suburbanization}}
			When the residential area shifts outward, this is called suburbanization. A number of researchers and writers suggest that suburbanization has gone so far to form new points of concentration outside the downtown both in developed and developing countries such as India.<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi = 10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2006.11.001\| title = Density gradients and their determinants: Evidence from India\| journal = Regional Science and Urban Economics\| volume = 37\| issue = 3\| pages = 314–44\| year = 2007\| last1 = Sridhar \| first1 = K. S. }}</ref> This networked, poly-centric form of concentration is considered by some emerging pattern of urbanization. It is called variously [[edge city]] (Garreau, 1991), network city (Batten, 1995), postmodern city (Dear, 2000), or [[exurb]], though the latter term now refers to a less dense area beyond the suburbs. Los Angeles is the best-known example of this type of urbanization. In the United States, this process has reversed as of 2011, with "re-urbanization" occurring as ''suburban flight'' due to chronically high transport costs.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Bora \|first=Madhusmita \|url=http://www.nwitimes.com/lifestyles/home-and-garden/shifts-in-u-s-housing-demand-will-likely-lead-to/article_06860ab0-ef92-5c44-a05a-ef5aafef0143.html \|title=Shifts in U.S. housing demand will likely lead to the re-urbanization of America \|publisher=Nwitimes.com \|date=1 July 2012 \|access-date=20 March 2013}}</ref>

			{{quote box \| width=25em\| bgcolor=#B0C4DE \|align=left\|qalign=left \|quote=<div style="text-align:left;">...the most important class conflict in the poor countries of the world today is not between labour and capital. Nor is it between foreign and national interests. It is between rural classes and urban classes. The rural sector contains most of the poverty and most of the low-cost sources of potential advance; but the urban sector contains most of the articulateness, organization, and power. So the urban classes have been able to win most of the rounds of the struggle with the countryside...". – Michael Lipton, author of urban bias theory<ref>Varshney, A. (ed.) 1993. "Beyond Urban Bias", p. 5. London: Frank Cass.</ref>
			</div> \|}}

			=== Planned urbanization ===
			Urbanization can be planned urbanization or organic. Planned urbanization, i.e.: [[planned community]] or the [[garden city movement]], is based on an advance plan, which can be prepared for military, aesthetic, economic or [[urban design]] reasons. Examples can be seen in many ancient cities; although with exploration came the collision of nations, which meant that many invaded cities took on the desired planned characteristics of their occupiers. Many ancient organic cities experienced redevelopment for military and economic purposes, new roads carved through the cities, and new parcels of land were cordoned off serving various planned purposes giving cities distinctive geometric designs. UN agencies prefer to see [[infrastructure\|urban infrastructure]] installed before urbanization occurs. [[Landscape planning\|Landscape planners]] are responsible for landscape infrastructure ([[public park]]s, [[sustainable urban drainage systems]], [[Greenway (landscape)\|greenways]] etc.) which can be planned before urbanization takes place, or afterwards to revitalize an area and create greater [[livability]] within a region. Concepts of control of the urban expansion are considered in the [[American Institute of Planners]].

			As population continues to grow and urbanize at unprecedented rates, [[new urbanism]] and [[smart growth]] techniques are implemented to create a transition into developing environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable cities. Smart Growth and New Urbanism's principles include [[walkability]], mixed-use development, comfortable high-density design, land conservation, [[social equity]], and economic diversity. Mixed-use communities work to fight [[gentrification]] with [[affordable housing]] to promote social equity, decrease [[automobile dependency]] to lower use of [[fossil fuel]]s, and promote a [[localized economy]]. Walkable communities have a 38% higher average GDP per capita than less walkable urban metros (Leinberger, Lynch). By combining economic, environmental, and social sustainability, cities will become equitable, resilient, and more appealing than [[urban sprawl]] that [[overexploitation\|overuse]]s [[land use\|land]], promotes [[automobile]] use, and segregates the population economically.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|title=Archived copy \|access-date=11 July 2015 \|archive-date=24 September 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102837/http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/foot-traffic-ahead.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="control">{{cite journal\|author=Lovelace, E.H.\|title=Control of urban expansion: the Lincoln, Nebraska experience\|journal=[[Journal of the American Institute of Planners]]\|year=1965\|volume=31:4\|issue=4\|pages=348–52\|author-link=Eldridge Lovelace\|doi=10.1080/01944366508978191}}</ref>

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	In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop \|title=State of the World Population 2014 \|year=2014 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>		In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop \|title=State of the World Population 2014 \|year=2014 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>

			==Environmental effects==
			{{Pollution sidebar}}

			Urbanization may improve environmental quality as a result of numerous reasons. For instance, urbanization upsurges income levels which instigates the eco-friendly services sector and increases demand for green and environmentally compliant products. Furthermore, urbanization improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and better-quality living standards in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by increasing R&D and innovations.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Yasin\|first1=Iftikhar\|last2=Ahmad\|first2=Nawaz\|last3=Chaudhary\|first3=M. Aslam\|date=2019-07-22\|title=Catechizing the Environmental-Impression of Urbanization, Financial Development, and Political Institutions: A Circumstance of Ecological Footprints in 110 Developed and Less-Developed Countries\|journal=Social Indicators Research\|language=en\|volume=147\|issue=2\|pages=621–649\|doi=10.1007/s11205-019-02163-3\|issn=0303-8300\|s2cid=199855869}}</ref> In his book ''[[Whole Earth Discipline]]'', Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth.<ref>[https://www.prb.org/urbanization-an-environmental-force-to-be-reckoned-with/ Urbanization: An Environmental Force to Be Reckoned With]</ref> Secondly, emigration from rural areas reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly implemented [[slash and burn]] agriculture. [[Alex Steffen]] also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet", .<ref>Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet by Alex Steffen</ref>

			However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable. In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs<ref>[http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2843WESS2013.pdf "World Economic and Social Survey (WESS) 2013"] World Economic and Social Affairs. July 2013.</ref> warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and the growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster.<ref>Auber, Tamar (17 July 2013) [http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/climate-change-and-rapid-urban-expansion-in-africa-threaten-childrens-lives/ "Climate change and rapid urban expansion in Africa threaten children’s lives."] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113014025/http://unearthnews.org/2013/07/17/climate-change-and-rapid-urban-expansion-in-africa-threaten-childrens-lives/ \|date=13 November 2014 }} UNEARTH News. Retrieved 10 August 2013.</ref>

			=== Urban heat island ===
			The existence of [[urban heat island]]s has become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain heat. Much of the solar energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation of water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where there are less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat.<ref>Park, H.-S. (1987). [[hdl:2241/4711\|Variations in the urban heat island intensity affected by geographical environments]]. Environmental Research Center papers, no. 11. Ibaraki, Japan: Environmental Research Center, The University of Tsukuba.</ref> As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/ "Heat Island Effect"]. Epa.gov (17 November 2010). Retrieved on 7 April 2014.</ref> Impacts also include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Heating Up: Study Shows Rapid Urbanization in China Warming the Regional Climate Faster than Other Urban Areas\|url=http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/china-climate.htm}}</ref>

			=== Water quality ===
			The occurrence of [[eutrophication]] in bodies of water is another effect large urban populations have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, the rain filters down the pollutants such as CO<sub>2</sub> and other greenhouse gases in the air onto the ground below. Then, those chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, causing a decline in water quality and damaging marine ecosystems.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal\|last1=Jiang\|first1=Leiwen\|last2=Hoepf Young\|first2=Malea\|last3=Hardee\|first3=Karen\|year=2008\|title=Population, Urbanization, And The Environment\|journal=World Watch\|volume=21\|issue=5\|pages=34–39}}</ref>

			Eutrophication is a process which causes hypoxic water conditions and algal blooms that may be detrimental to the survival of aquatic life.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/eutrophication-and-hypoxia/about-eutrophication\|title=About Eutrophication {{!}} World Resources Institute\|website=wri.org\|date=12 September 2013\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> [[Harmful algal bloom]]s, which produce dangerous toxins, thrive in eutrophic environments that are also rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/harmful-algal-blooms\|title=Harmful Algal Blooms\|website=US Environmental Protection Administration\|date=3 June 2013\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> In these ideal conditions, they overtake surface water, making it difficult for other organisms to receive sunlight and nutrients. Overgrowth of algal blooms causes a decrease in overall water quality and disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO<sub>2</sub> is produced, causing a more acidic environment, a process known as acidification.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.nutrientchallenge.org/sites/default/files/documents/files/FINAL%20Ocean%20Acidification%20policy%20brief%20spread_press%20quality_print.pdf\|title=Eutrophication and Ocean Acidification\|last1=Ramesh\|first1=R\|last2=Lakshmi\|first2=A\|date=2013\|last3=Purvaja\|first3=R\|last4=Costanzo\|first4=S.D\|last5=Kelsey\|first5=R.H\|last6=Hawkey\|first6=J\|last7=Datta\|first7=A\|last8=Dennison\|first8=W.C}}</ref>

			The ocean's surface also has the ability to absorb CO<sub>2</sub> from the earth's atmosphere as emissions increase with the rise in urbanization. In fact, it is reported that the ocean absorbs a quarter of the CO<sub>2</sub> produced by humans.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web\|url=https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/ocean-acidification\|title=National Climate Assessment\|website=National Climate Assessment\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> This has been useful to the environment by decreasing the harmful effects of greenhouse gases, but also further perpetuates acidification.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Feely\|first1=Richard A.\|last2=Alin\|first2=Simone R.\|last3=Newton\|first3=Jan\|last4=Sabine\|first4=Christopher L.\|last5=Warner\|first5=Mark\|last6=Devol\|first6=Allan\|last7=Krembs\|first7=Christopher\|last8=Maloy\|first8=Carol\|date=August 2010\|title=The combined effects of ocean acidification, mixing, and respiration on pH and carbonate saturation in an urbanized estuary\|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science\|volume=88\|issue=4\|pages=442–449\|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2010.05.004\|issn=0272-7714\|bibcode=2010ECSS...88..442F}}</ref> Changes in pH inhibit the proper formation of calcium carbonate, a crucial component for many marine organisms to maintain shells or skeletons.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-ocean-acidification\|title=Understanding Ocean Acidification {{!}} NOAA Fisheries\|last=Fisheries\|first=NOAA\|date=2018-09-09\|website=fisheries.noaa.gov\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":03" /> This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral. Regardless, some species have been able to instead adapt or thrive in a more acidic environment<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification\|title=Ocean Acidification\|website=Smithsonian Ocean\|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref>

			=== Food waste ===
			Rapid growth of communities create new challenges in the developed world and one such challenge is an increase in [[food waste]]<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Thyberg\|first1=Krista L.\|last2=Tonjes\|first2=David J.\|date=2016\|title=Drivers of food waste and their implications for sustainable policy development\|url=https://www.tib.eu/en/search/id/tema:TEMA20151218325/Drivers-of-food-waste-and-their-implications-for/\|journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling\|volume=106\|pages=110–123\|doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.11.016\|issn=0921-3449}}</ref> also known as urban food waste.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=24696\|title=Article: "Urban Food Waste generation: challenges and opportunities" Journal: Int. J. of Environment and Waste Management, 2009 Vol.3 No.1/2 pp.4 - 21 Abstract: Greater economic activity and a wider economic gap between rural and urban areas is leading to accelerated urbanisation and the generation of 35% more Urban Food Waste (UFW) from 2007 to 2025. Besides landfilling, this paper examines the advantages of introducing onsite composting and anaerobic digestion for the environmental recycling of UFW and the lowering of handling cost. For Asia and Africa, these solutions for UFW could reduce the mass of MSW by 43% and 55%, respectively, thus help there cities manage almost all of their MSW. For North America and Europe, such practice could reduce earth warming trends. - Inderscience Publishers - linking academia, business and industry through research\|website=inderscience.com\|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal\|last1=Adhikari\|first1=Bijaya K.\|last2=Barrington\|first2=Suzelle\|last3=Martinez\|first3=José\|date=October 2006\|title=Predicted growth of world urban food waste and methane production\|journal=Waste Management & Research\|volume=24\|issue=5\|pages=421–433\|doi=10.1177/0734242X06067767\|issn=0734-242X\|pmid=17121114\|s2cid=34299202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Adhikari\|first1=Bijaya K.\|last2=Barrington\|first2=Suzelle F.\|last3=Martinez\|first3=Jose\|date=2009\|title=Urban Food Waste generation: challenges and opportunities\|journal=International Journal of Environment and Waste Management\|volume=3\|issue=1/2\|pages=4\|doi=10.1504/ijewm.2009.024696\|issn=1478-9876\|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00615443/file/RE2009-PUB00026234.pdf}}</ref> Food waste is the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase production of [[methane]] gases and attraction of [[Vector (epidemiology)\|disease vectors]].<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases\|title=Vector-borne diseases\|website=World Health Organization\|access-date=2018-10-19}}</ref> Landfills are the third leading cause of the release of methane,<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases#methane\|title=Overview of Greenhouse Gases {{!}} US EPA\|last=EPA,OA\|first=US\|website=US EPA\|access-date=2018-10-16\|date=2015-12-23}}</ref> causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater potential of disease spreading to humans.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Venkateswaran\|first=Sandhya\|date=1994\|title=Managing Waste: Ecological, Economic and Social Dimensions\|journal=Economic and Political Weekly\|volume=29\|issue=45/46\|pages=2907–2911\|jstor=4401996}}</ref>

			Waste management systems vary on all scales from global to local and can also be influenced by lifestyle. Waste management was not a primary concern until after the Industrial Revolution. As urban areas continued to grow along with the human population, proper management of solid waste became an apparent concern. To address these concerns, local governments sought solutions with the lowest economic impacts which meant implementing technical solutions at the very last stage of the process.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal\|last=Bai\|first=Xuemei\|last2=McPhearson\|first2=Timon\|last3=Cleugh\|first3=Helen\|last4=Nagendra\|first4=Harini\|last5=Tong\|first5=Xin\|last6=Zhu\|first6=Tong\|last7=Zhu\|first7=Yong-Guan\|date=2017-10-17\|title=Linking Urbanization and the Environment: Conceptual and Empirical Advances\|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128\|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources\|language=en\|volume=42\|issue=1\|pages=215–240\|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128\|issn=1543-5938}}</ref> Current waste management reflects these economically motivated solutions, such as incineration or unregulated landfills. Yet, a growing increase for addressing other areas of life cycle consumption has occurred from initial stage reduction to heat recovery and recycling of materials.<ref name=":9" /> For example, concerns for mass consumption and fast fashion have moved to the forefront of the urban consumers’ priorities. Aside from environmental concerns (ex. climate change effects), other urban concerns for waste management are public health and land access.

			=== Habitat fragmentation ===
			Urbanization can have a large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby alienation of species, a process known as [[habitat fragmentation]].<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Urbanization, habitat loss, biodiversity decline: solution pathways to break the cycle \|last1=Elmqvist \|first1=Thomas \|last2=Zipperer \|first2=Wayne \|last3=Güneralp \|first3=Burak\|year=2016\|pages=139–151\|chapter=10}}</ref> Habitat fragmentation does not destroy the habitat, as seen in [[habitat loss]], but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and railways<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Liu Z, He C, Wu J \| title = The Relationship between Habitat Loss and Fragmentation during Urbanization: An Empirical Evaluation from 16 World Cities \| journal = PLOS One\| volume = 11 \| issue = 4 \| pages = e0154613 \| date = 2016 \| pmid = 27124180 \| pmc = 4849762 \| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0154613 \| bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1154613L \| doi-access = free }}</ref> This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from predation<ref>{{Cite journal\|doi=10.1676/04-038\|title = Nest Survival Relative to Patch Size in a Highly Fragmented Shortgrass Prairie Landscape\|journal = The Wilson Bulletin\|volume = 117\|pages = 23–34\|year = 2005\|last1 = Skagen\|first1 = Susan K.\|last2 = Yackel Adams\|first2 = Amy A.\|last3 = Adams\|first3 = Rod D.\|s2cid = 85173365\|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/210478}}</ref> With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding corridors that aid in the connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized regions.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=McKinney\|first=Michael L.\|date=2008-01-29\|title=Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals\|journal=Urban Ecosystems\|volume=11\|issue=2\|pages=161–176\|doi=10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4\|s2cid=23353943\|issn=1083-8155}}</ref> This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Lundkvist\|first1=E.\|last2=Landin\|first2=J.\|last3=Karlsson\|first3=F.\|title= Dispersing diving beetles (Dytiscidae) in agricultural and urban landscapes in south-eastern Sweden \|journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici \|year=2002 }}</ref> The more urbanized the surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Liao\|first1=W.\|last2=Venn\|first2=S.\|last3=Niemelä\|first3=J.\|title=Environmental determinants of diving beetle assemblages (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) in an urban landscape\|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation\|year=2020\|doi=10.1007/s10531-020-01977-9\|doi-access=free\|volume=29\|issue=7\|pages=2343–2359}}</ref> Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=McKinney\|first=Michael\|date=October 2002\|title=Urbanization, Biodiversity, and Conservation\|journal=BioScience\|volume=52\|issue=10\|pages=883\|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2\|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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	Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) exhibit strong dominance in their respective countries, they are losing population to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Jacobs\|first=A.J\|date=2011\|title=Ulsan, South Korea: A Global and Nested 'Great' Industrial City\|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf\|journal=The Open Urban Studies Journal\|volume=4\|issue=8–20\|pages=8–20\|doi=10.2174/1874942901104010008\|via=core.ac.uk\|doi-access=free}}</ref>		Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) exhibit strong dominance in their respective countries, they are losing population to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Jacobs\|first=A.J\|date=2011\|title=Ulsan, South Korea: A Global and Nested 'Great' Industrial City\|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51179815.pdf\|journal=The Open Urban Studies Journal\|volume=4\|issue=8–20\|pages=8–20\|doi=10.2174/1874942901104010008\|via=core.ac.uk\|doi-access=free}}</ref>

			==Economic effects ==
			[[File:Crowded BTS Asok Station.jpg\|thumb\|A crowded [[BTS Skytrain\|BTS Station]] during the rush hour in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]]]]
			As cities develop, effects can include a dramatic increase and change in costs, often pricing the local [[working class]] out of the market, including such functionaries as employees of the local municipalities. For example, [[Eric Hobsbawm]]'s book ''The age of revolution: 1789–1848'' (published 1962 and 2005) chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period was a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses of misery outside the centres of government, business, and the newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal European division into a 'good' west end and a 'poor' east end of large cities developed in this period." This is likely due to the prevailing south-west wind which carries coal smoke and other airborne pollutants downwind, making the western edges of towns preferable to the eastern ones.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/may/12/blowing-wind-cities-poor-east-ends\|title=Blowing in the wind: why do so many cities have poor east ends?\|first=Leo\|last=Benedictus\|date=12 May 2017\|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

			Similar problems now affect the developing world, rising inequality resulting from rapid urbanization trends. The drive for rapid urban growth and often efficiency can lead to less equitable urban development. Think tanks such as the [[Overseas Development Institute]] have proposed policies that encourage labour-intensive growth as a means of absorbing the influx of low-skilled and unskilled labour.<ref>Grant, Ursula (2008) [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1969&title=opportunity-exploitation-urban-labour-markets Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918135852/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=1969&title=opportunity-exploitation-urban-labour-markets \|date=18 September 2012 }} London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the growth of [[slums]]. In many cases, the rural-urban low skilled or unskilled migrant workers, attracted by economic opportunities in urban areas, cannot find a job and afford housing in cities and have to dwell in slums.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Todaro \|first=Michael P. \|title=A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries \|journal=The American Economic Review \|year=1969 \|volume=59 \|issue=1 \|page=148}}</ref>

			Urban problems, along with infrastructure developments, are also fuelling suburbanization trends in developing nations, though the trend for core cities in said nations tends to continue to become ever denser. Urbanization is often viewed as a negative trend, but there are positives in the reduction of expenses in commuting and transportation while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of proximity and diversity.<ref>{{cite journal\|author=Glaeser, Edward\|title=Are Cities Dying? \|journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives \|volume=12 \|issue=2 \|date=Spring 1998 \|pages=139–60 \|doi=10.1257/jep.12.2.139\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="brand">{{cite web \|url=http://web.me.com/stewartbrand/DISCIPLINE_footnotes/2_-_City_Planet.html \|title=Whole Earth Discipline – annotated extract \|author=Brand, Stewart \|access-date=29 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|doi=10.1177/089124249701100101 \|title=Neighborhood Initiative and the Regional Economy\| journal = Economic Development Quarterly\| volume = 11\| pages = 3–10\| year = 1997\| last1 = Nowak \| first1 = J.\|s2cid=154678238}}</ref><ref>Using the Gall-Peters Projection it is estimated that come 2015 the worlds urban population is set to exceed 4 billion, most of this growth is expected in Africa and Asia and China to be 50% urbanized.</ref> While cities have a greater variety of markets and goods than rural areas, infrastructure congestion, monopolization, high overhead costs, and the inconvenience of cross-town trips frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2021}}

			In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming economic barriers.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.unfpa.org/swop \|title=State of the World Population 2014 \|year=2014 \|publisher= UNFPA}}</ref>