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	'''Tshangla''' is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages\|Sino-Tibetan language]] of the [[Bodish languages\|Bodish branch]] closely related to the [[Tibetic languages]] and much of its vocabulary derives from [[Classical Tibetan]]. Tshangla is primarily spoken in Eastern [[Bhutan]] and acts as a lingua franca in the country ~~particularly among [[Sharchop people\|Sharchop]]/Tshangla communities~~; it is also spoken in Arunachal Pradesh~~, India,~~ and Tibet. Tshangla is the principal pre-Tibetan (pre-[[Dzongkha]]) language of Bhutan.<ref name=vanDriem93>{{cite web \|url=http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 \|format=PDF \|last=van Driem \|first=George L. \|author-link=George van Driem \|title=Language Policy in Bhutan \|publisher=[[School of Oriental and African Studies\|SOAS]] \|location=[[London]] \|year=1993 \|access-date=2011-01-18 \|archive-date=2010-11-01 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101084255/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo%3A3003 \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=vanDriem1/>		'''Tshangla''' is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages\|Sino-Tibetan language]] of the [[Bodish languages\|Bodish branch]] closely related to the [[Tibetic languages]] and much of its vocabulary derives from [[Classical Tibetan]]. Tshangla is primarily spoken in Eastern [[Bhutan]] and acts as a lingua franca in the country alongside Dzongkha; it is also spoken in [[India\|Indian]] state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and [[Tibet]]. Tshangla is the principal pre-Tibetan (pre-[[Dzongkha]]) language of Bhutan.<ref name=vanDriem93>{{cite web \|url=http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 \|format=PDF \|last=van Driem \|first=George L. \|author-link=George van Driem \|title=Language Policy in Bhutan \|publisher=[[School of Oriental and African Studies\|SOAS]] \|location=[[London]] \|year=1993 \|access-date=2011-01-18 \|archive-date=2010-11-01 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101084255/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo%3A3003 \|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=vanDriem1/>

	==Classification==		==Classification==
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	==External links==		==External links==
	* [https://archive.is/20121212175030/http://web.linguist.umass.edu/~cable/2012/LING748/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Tshangla Language Page (Wiki Created by Linguistic Field Methods Course at UMass Amherst)]		* [https://archive.today/20121212175030/http://web.linguist.umass.edu/~cable/2012/LING748/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Tshangla Language Page (Wiki Created by Linguistic Field Methods Course at UMass Amherst)]

	{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}		{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}

imported>Eievie: /* Phonology */ Slashes are typically used for IPA, not orthography.

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Phonology: Slashes are typically used for IPA, not orthography.

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{{Short description|Eastern language of Bhutan}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Tshangla
|image=
|states=[[Bhutan]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Tibet]]
|ethnicity=[[Sharchops]], [[Monpa people|Monpa]], [[Pemako#Modern Pemako people|Pemako Tibetans]]
|speakers={{sigfig|166,200|2}}
|date=1999–2007
|ref=e18
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Tibeto-Burman]]
|fam3=[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] ?
|fam4=[[Bodish languages|Bodish Group]]
|script=none official; [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] used
|lc1=tsj|ld1=Tshangla
|dia1=Bhutan Tshangla ([[Trashigang]])
|dia2=[[West Kameng Tshangla dialect]] (kalaktang, dirang [[West Kameng district|West Kameng]], India)
|dia3=[[Pemako Tshangla dialect]] ([[Tibet]])
|lc2=kkf|ld2=Kalaktang Monpa (?)
|glotto=tsha1247
|glottorefname=Tshanglic
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Tshangla''' is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language]] of the [[Bodish languages|Bodish branch]] closely related to the [[Tibetic languages]] and much of its vocabulary derives from [[Classical Tibetan]]. Tshangla is primarily spoken in Eastern [[Bhutan]] and acts as a lingua franca in the country particularly among [[Sharchop people|Sharchop]]/Tshangla communities; it is also spoken in Arunachal Pradesh, India, and Tibet. Tshangla is the principal pre-Tibetan (pre-[[Dzongkha]]) language of Bhutan.<ref name=vanDriem93>{{cite web |url=http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |format=PDF |last=van Driem |first=George L. |author-link=George van Driem |title=Language Policy in Bhutan |publisher=[[School of Oriental and African Studies|SOAS]] |location=[[London]] |year=1993 |access-date=2011-01-18 |archive-date=2010-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101084255/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo%3A3003 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=vanDriem1/>

==Classification==
Tshangla is frequently assumed to be close to the [[Tibetic languages]]. Bradley (2002) includes in among the [[East Bodish languages]].<ref>David Bradley (2002), "The Subgrouping of Tibeto-Burman", in Beckwith & Blezer, ''Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages,'' BRILL, pp. 73–112</ref> Van Driem (2011), however, leaves it unclassified within Sino-Tibetan, pending further research.<ref>George van Driem (2011), "Tibeto-Burman subgroups and historical grammar", ''Himalayan Linguistics Journal'' 10(1):31–39</ref> 

Bodt (2012:188-189)<ref>Bodt, Timotheus A. 2012. ''The New Lamp Clarifying the History, Peoples, Languages and Traditions of Eastern Bhutan and Eastern Mon''. Wageningen: Monpasang Publications.</ref> classifies Tshangla as a [[Bodish language]], but notes that Tshangla (like [[East Bodish]]) is related to, but not directly descended, from [[Classical Tibetan]].

==Varieties==
Tshangla is a [[dialect cluster]] consisting of a few mutually unintelligible language varieties, including (Gerber 2018):<ref name="Gerber2018">Gerber, Pascal. 2018. ''[https://www.academia.edu/36564118/Areal_features_in_Gongduk_Bjokapakha_and_Black_Mountain_M%C3%B6npa_phonology_Draft_ Areal features in Gongduk, Bjokapakha and Black Mountain Mönpa phonology]''. Unpublished draft.</ref>
*Trashigang
*Dungsam
*Dirang
*Bjokapakha (Bjoka)

The Tshangla variety of [[Trashigang]] town is used as a [[lingua franca]]. Dungsam is conservative, while Dirang and Bjokapakha are divergent.<ref name="Gerber2018"/>

==Number of speakers and status of the language ==
Tshangla is primarily spoken in East and Southeast Bhutan, especially in the Trashigang district. The language is referred to as “Sharchopkha” meaning 'the people in the east'<ref name="Andvik" /> in Dzongkha, the national language of Bhutan.

It is also spoken in the Arunachal Pradesh of India, where it is sometimes referred to as “Central Monpa”, and in Southeast Tibet.<ref name="Andvik" />{{rp|4–6}}

There are approximately 170,000 speakers of Tshangla, living in Bhutan (157,000), India (11,000) and Tibet (7000). It is not reported to be endangered in any way, as there are still many children learning it as their first language. Indeed, it is often described as being the majority language of eastern Bhutan, where it functions as something of a lingua franca. Andvic (2010: 4) reports that “most Bhutanese have at least some rudimentary knowledge of Tshangla”. In addition, it is common for Western Bhutanese to learn some Tshangla through classmates in the school system (Yang Gyeltshen, p.c.).

Despite its predominance in eastern Bhutan, Tshangla is described by Andvik (2010: 4) as “an unwritten language”, meaning that it “is not in any country standardized by governing fiat, taught in the schools, recognized as an official language, or even given status as a minority language.” However, Ethnologue reports that 47% of L1 speakers are literate, mainly using the Tibetan [[Uchen script]]. Though there are no official publications in Tshangla, the language is used in radio and television broadcasts. (It remains undetermined what kind of orthography is used for writing copy for those broadcasts; Yang Gyeltshen, p.c.)

The official national language of Bhutan is Dzongkha, which is derived from the Tibetan spoken by Lama Shabdrung and his followers, who left Tibet to found the nation of Bhutan in the 1600s. Tshangla, however, is one of Bhutan’s many indigenous languages and is the most widely spoken of the indigenous Sino-Tibetan languages.

Tshangla is found scattered throughout eastern Himalayan ridges as well as the southern regions,<ref>{{Cite book|title = A Grammar of Tshangla|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sc9XZ2jJGgC|publisher = BRILL|date = 2010-01-01|isbn = 978-9004178274|first = Erik E.|last = Andvik}}</ref> spoken by around 175,000 people. Most of the Tshangla populace live in Eastern Bhutan ([[Trashigang District|Trashigang]], eastern [[Pemagatshel District|Pemagatshel]], [[Samdrup Jongkhar District|Samdrup Jongkhar]], eastern [[Mongar District|Mongar]], and [[Trashiyangtse District|Trashiyangtse]] districts), where they formed a major ethnic group of the country, probably accounting for 25-30% of the total population. Scattered Tshangla speakers can also be found in neighbouring countries with different names.

In the Indian state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], they are called Kalaktang Monpa (and are lexically distinct). whereas about 7,000 Tshangla-speaking people also live in [[Pemako]] ([[Bomê County|Bomê]] and [[Mêdog County]]) in southeastern [[Tibet]], [[China]] and [[India]].<ref name=vanDriem1>{{cite book|first=George |last=van Driem |year=2001 |title=Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |page=915 ''et seq.''}}</ref><ref name=SIL2>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tsj |title=Tshangla |work=[[Ethnologue]] Online |publisher=[[SIL International]] |location=[[Dallas]] |year=2009 |access-date=2011-01-18}}</ref> There are about 8,000 Kalaktang Monpa speakers in Khalaktang, Balimu, and Tomko villages, Kalaktang administrative center, [[West Kameng district]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India (''[[Ethnologue]]''). About 1000 to 15000 Tsangla speakers are also live in Tuting Town, Kopu, Bona, Gelling, Bishing along the Tsangpo (Siang) river and Nyering, Payingdem, Nyukong, Yortong, Mankota, Tashigong, Singa along the Yangsang Chu river, [[Upper Siang District]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India.

The distantly related [['Olekha]] language of the [[Black Mountains (Bhutan)|Black Mountains]], also called "Monpa" and predating Dzongkha, belongs to the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] [[East Bodish languages]].<ref name=vanDriem93/><ref name=vanDriem1/> [['Olekha]] is most closely related to the [[Bumthang language]]; both are [[East Bodish languages]]. Tshangla and related languages form a sister branch not to the East Bodish group, but to its parent [[Bodish languages|Bodish branch]]. Thus the ambiguous term "Monpa" risks separating languages that should be grouped together, while grouping languages together that are quite separate.<ref name=Andvik>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sc9XZ2jJGgC|title=A Grammar of Tshangla |volume=10 |publisher=Brill |series=Tibetan Studies Library |first=Erik E. |last=Andvik |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-17827-4}}</ref>{{rp|4–7}}<ref name=Blench>{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |last2=Post |first2=Mark |title=(De)Classifying Arunachal Languages: Reconsidering the Evidence |chapter=10. Chaos and Resolution: 'Monpa' |pages=8–9 |publisher=Kay Williamson Educational Foundation |year=2011 |chapter-url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/South%20Asia/NEI%20Webpages/NEI%20general/Linguistic%20resources/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf |access-date=2011-04-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180753/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language%20data/South%20Asia/NEI%20Webpages/NEI%20general/Linguistic%20resources/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref>

==Writing system==
Tshangla is traditionally an unwritten language and has no official status in any country. When written by native speakers, it is most often rendered in [[Tibetan script]], however grammarians have devised a [[romanization|romanized]] [[transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] system.<ref name=Andvik/>

==Phonology==
Below appears a table of Tshangla consonants according to Andvik (2010). Non-native phonemes, in parentheses, are contrasted only marginally with native sounds: /ɬ/ is often nativized to /l/; /dz/ becomes /z/; and /ʑ/ becomes /y/.<ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|8–12}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tshangla consonants
!colspan=2|
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[Approximant]]
|{{IPAlink|w}} {{angbr|w {{Bo-textonly|ཝ}}}}
|
|
|{{IPAlink|j}} {{angbr|y {{Bo-textonly|ཡ}}}}
|
|{{IPAlink|h}} {{angbr|h {{Bo-textonly|ཧ}}}}
|-
!colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPAlink|m}} {{angbr|m {{Bo-textonly|མ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|n}} {{angbr|n {{Bo-textonly|ན}}}}
|
|{{IPAlink|ɲ}} {{angbr|ny {{Bo-textonly|ཉ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|ŋ}} {{angbr|ng {{Bo-textonly|ང}}}}
|
|-
!rowspan=3|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
![[voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|{{IPAlink|p}} {{angbr|p {{Bo-textonly|པ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|t}} {{angbr|t {{Bo-textonly|ཏ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|ʈ}} {{angbr|tr {{Bo-textonly|ཏྲ}}}}
|
|{{IPAlink|k}} {{angbr|k {{Bo-textonly|ཀ}}}}
|
|-
![[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]
|{{IPAlink|pʰ}} {{angbr|ph {{Bo-textonly|ཕ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|tʰ}} {{angbr|th {{Bo-textonly|ཐ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|ʈʰ}} {{angbr|thr {{Bo-textonly|ཐྲ}}}}
|
|{{IPAlink|kʰ}} {{angbr|kh {{Bo-textonly|ཁ}}}}
|
|-
![[voiced consonant|voiced]]
|{{IPAlink|b}} {{angbr|b {{Bo-textonly|བ}}}}
|{{IPAlink|d}} {{angbr|d {{Bo-textonly|ད}}}}
|{{IPAlink|ɖ}} {{angbr|dr {{Bo-textonly|དྲ}}}}
|
|{{IPAlink|ɡ}} {{angbr|g {{Bo-textonly|ག}}}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
![[voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|
|{{IPAlink|ts}} {{angbr|ts {{Bo-textonly|ཅ}}}}
|
| {{IPAlink|tɕ}} {{angbr|tsh {{Bo-textonly|ཆ}}}}
|
|
|-
![[voiced consonant|voiced]]
|
|({{IPAlink|dz}} {{angbr|dz {{Bo-textonly|ཛ}}}})
|
| {{IPAlink|dʑ}} {{angbr|j {{Bo-textonly|ཇ}}}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!voiceless
|
|{{IPAlink|s}} {{angbr|s {{Bo-textonly|ས}}}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ɕ}} {{angbr|sh {{Bo-textonly|ཤ}}}}
|
|
|-
!voiced
|
| {{IPAlink|z}} {{angbr|z {{Bo-textonly|ཟ}}}}
|
| ({{IPAlink|ʑ}} {{angbr|zh {{Bo-textonly|ཞ}}}})
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
!voiceless
|
|({{IPAlink|ɬ}} {{angbr|lh {{Bo-textonly|ལྷ}}}})
|
|
|
|
|-
!voiced
|
|{{IPAlink|l}} {{angbr|l {{Bo-textonly|ལ}}}}
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
|{{IPAlink|r}} {{angbr|r {{Bo-textonly|ར}}}}
|
|
|
|
|}

The above table generally describes onset consonants. Consonant clusters in the onset position are limited to consonant plus /r/, with the exception of the syllable /pɕi/, used in only two contexts.<ref group=nb>The cluster /pɕi/ is used only in the words for "four" (/pɕi/) and "to [[flatulence|fart]]" (/pɕi pʰule/).</ref><ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|14–15}} Intervocalic positioning of aspirated onsets /pʰ/ /tʰ/, and /kʰ/ results in [[lenition]] to /ɸ/, /θ/, and /x/ or /h/, respectively, with some exceptions.<ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|10}} Syllable-final consonants are limited to /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/.<ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|16}}

Tshangla vowels appear in the chart below, following Andvik (2010). Vowels in parentheses appear in non-native words inherited from [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Dzongkha]], and the latter's archaic liturgical form, [[Classical Tibetan|Chöke]]. Non-native front rounded vowels may be nativized as front unrounded vowels.<ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|12–14}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tshangla vowels
!
!colspan=2 |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!
! unrounded || rounded
! unrounded
! rounded
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPAlink|i}} {{angbr|i {{bo-textonly|ི}}}}
|({{IPAlink|y}} {{angbr|ü {{bo-textonly|ུ}}}})
|
|{{IPAlink|u}} {{angbr|u {{bo-textonly|ུ}}}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPAlink|e}} {{angbr|e {{bo-textonly|ེ}}}}
|({{IPAlink|œ}} {{angbr|ö {{bo-textonly|ོ}}}})
|
|{{IPAlink|o}} {{angbr|o {{bo-textonly|ོ}}}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|
|{{IPAlink|a}} {{angbr|a}}
|
|}

Vowel clusters native to the Tshangla lexicon are /ai/ and /au/, and in derived contexts /oi/ and /ui/ also appear (e.g. a verbal ending: /bu-i/, take-IMP). In these native contexts, final /i/ and /u/ are pronounced as if they were /y/ or /w/, respectively. In loanwords /iu/ and /eu/ rarely appear, and tend to be realized as /iwu/ and /ewu/, respectively.<ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|15–16}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Basic Tshangla words'''
!
!Spoken
!Romanized
|-
|Hello
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/sets/tshangla-hello]
|''Kuzu zangpo''
|-
|Goodbye
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-goodbye]
|''Lassola''
|-
|House
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-house]
|''Phai''
|-
|Boy
|
|Za
|-
|Girl
|
|Zamin
|-
|Friend
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-friend]
|''Charo'' (Bhutan)/''Tosang''
|-
|Younger brother
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-younger-brother]
|''Bonying''
|-
|Younger sister
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-younger-sister]
|''Usa'' (Bhutan)/''Zi''
|-
|Older brother
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-older-brother]
|''Ata''
|-
|Older sister
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-older-sister]
|''Ana''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Tshangla Basic Phrases'''
!
!Spoken
!Romanized
|-
|How are you?
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-how-are-you]
|''Hang ten cha ya''
|-
|What is your name?
|
|Na ga mingsho hang ya?
|-
|My name is Galey
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-my-name-is-galey]
|''Ja ga ming Galey'' ''gila''
|-
|I live in Bhutan
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-i-live-in-bhutan]
|''Jang druk ga choncha''
|-
|I know Tshangla
|[https://soundcloud.com/drman12/tshangla-i-know-tshangla]
|''Ji tshangla sencha''
|}

==Tone==
Most dialects of Tshangla do not make lexical distinctions according to [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], however, the language overall may be in the process of [[tonogenesis]]. Some dialects such as those of Central Monpa and Padma-bkod have replaced voiceless-voiced contrasts with a high-low tone distinction, respectively.<ref name=Andvik/>{{rp|20}}

==Grammar==
Tshangla grammar features [[noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[adverb]]s, and [[verb]]s. Word order is generally [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV). Its morphology is generally [[agglutination|agglutinative]], though most unmarked Tshangla lexicon comprises one or two syllables. Nouns are arranged into either head-first or head-last noun phrases. Demonstratives, relative clauses, and genitive phrases precede nouns, whereas markers for definiteness, number, topic, focus, case, and other particles follow the noun.<ref name=Andvik/>

While adjectives comprise a lexically distinct category in their own right, some adjectival words are grammatically nouns. This dichotomy is complicated by equally common relative clauses that function as adjectives. For example, ''dukpu waktsa'' means "(the) badly poor child," and ''waktsa dukpu'' means "(the) child who is badly poor." Some combinations are strictly noun-adjective, however.<ref name=Andvik/>

Tshangla is a [[pro-drop language]], with two otherwise notable features. First, multi-[[Valency (linguistics)|valent]] verbs drop objects even though they are not recoverable from context, through which verbs reduce their valency (i.e. become [[intransitive]]). In other situations where the argument is topically important, and where confusion is impossible, a "zero" (impersonal) pronoun is used. Otherwise, personal pronouns are extensively used. They appear below:<ref name=Andvik/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Tshangla [[personal pronoun]]s
!
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|- align="center"
! 1p
| ''jang''
| ''a-ching''
| ''ai''
|- align="center"
! 2p
| ''nan''
| ''na-ching''
| ''nai''
|- align="center"
! 3p
| ''ro''
| ''da-ching''
| ''rokte''
|}

When pronouns are followed by numbers, plurals are not used (e.g. ''ro nyiktsing'', "the two of them").

Noun cases include [[absolutive]] ([[nominative]]), [[agentive case|agentive]] ([[ergative case|ergative]])/[[instrumental]] (-''gi''), [[genitive]] (-''ga-''), [[ablative]] (-''gai''), and [[dative]]/[[locative]] (-''ga''). These suffices undergo devoicing in certain circumstances.<ref name=Andvik/>

Verbs are generally [[transitive verb|transitive]] or [[intransitive]]. The transitivity of some verbs corresponds to lexical distinctions: ''yekpa'' means "to speak" in a transitive sense, but "to be called" in an intransitive sense. Similarly, ''lekpe'' means "to lick" in a transitive sense, but "to be licked" in an intransitive sense, with the agent suppressed.<ref name=Andvik/>

The [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]], which has many forms, is used extensively in marking Tshangla verbs. Verbs are marked differently depending on whether they are [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] (finite), or [[relative clause|relative]] or [[participle|participial]] (non-finite). Only finite verbs take personal [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]s, while various non-finite forms take different suffices. Adverbs appear as suffixes on non-final and participial verb forms.<ref name=Andvik/>

Negation of adjectives, nouns, and verbs takes different forms. Sentence-final particles include interrogatory and non-declarative [[grammatical mood|mood]] markers.<ref name=Andvik/>

==Dialects==
Tshangla dialects represent a continuum centered around the town of [[Trashigang]], whose dialect is considered by Tshangla speakers to be the prestige dialect. Differences between dialects do not prevent mutual intelligibility, and many loanwords have come through [[Classical Tibetan]] (Chöke).<ref name=Andvik/>

In [[Arunachal Pradesh]], Tshangla is spoken by the [[Monpa people|Monpa tribe]] in the Kalaktang and Dirang area of [[West Kameng]]. The dialect there, called "Central Monpa", is spoken by some 6,000 people. More speakers of Tshangla dialects live in [[Kathmandu]], [[Darjeeling]] and [[Assam]].<ref name=Andvik/>

In [[Bhutan]], Tshangla is virtually identical to the Tshangla ({{zh|c=仓洛|p=Cāngluò}}) of southeastern Tibet, also called "Mêdog (Bomê) Monpa". The [[Bomê County]] region of Tibet, formerly known as Padma-bkod or [[Pemako]], contains remnants of these Tshangla communities separated by hundreds of miles.<ref name=Andvik/>

==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Tshangla comparative vocabulary list|Tshangla comparative vocabulary list]] (Wiktionary)
*[[Languages of Bhutan]]
*[[Languages of China]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Abraham, Binny, Kara Sako, Elina Kinny, Isapdaile Zeliang. 2018. ''[https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/75982 Sociolinguistic Research among Selected Groups in Western Arunachal Pradesh: Highlighting Monpa]''. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2018-009.
*{{cite book|last=Egli-Roduner |first=S. |year=1987 |title=Handbook of the "Sharchhokpa-lo/Tshangla" |location=[[Thimphu]] |publisher=Helvetas}}
*{{cite journal|last=Hoshi |first=Michiyo |year=1987 |title=A Sharchok Vocabulary; A Language Spoken in Eastern Bhutan: Integral Study on the Ecology, Languages and Cultures of Tibet and Himalayas |location=[[Tokyo]] |publisher=Tokyo Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (YAK) |volume=8}}
*{{cite journal|last=Andvik |first=Erik |year=1993 |title=Tshangla verb inflections: a preliminary sketch |journal=Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=75–136}}
*{{cite journal|last=Andvik |first=Erik |year=1999 |title=Tshangla Grammar: A Dissertation |publisher=[[University of Oregon]]}}
*{{cite journal|last=Andvik |first=Erik |year=2003 |title=Tshangla |editor=Graham Thurgood |editor2= Randy J. LaPolla |journal=The Sino-Tibetan Languages |location=[[London]] & [[New York City]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=439–455}}
*{{cite journal|last=Andvik |first=Erik |year=2004 |title="Do" as subordinator in Tshangla |editor=Anju Saxena |journal=Himalayan Languages Past and Present |location=[[Berlin]] & [[New York City]] |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |pages=311–40 |series=Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs |issue=149}}
*{{cite journal|last=Andvik |first=Erik |year=2012 |title=Tshangla orthography |editor=Gwendolyn Hyslop |editor2=Stephen Morey |editor3=Mark Post |journal=North East Indian Linguistics |volume=4 |location=[[New Delhi]] |publisher=Cambridge University Press India Pvt. Ltd. }}
*Grollmann, Selin. 2019. ''[https://www.academia.edu/38148248/The_internal_diversity_of_the_Tshangla_languages_Insights_from_Bjokapakha The internal diversity of the Tshangla languages: Insights from Bjokapakha]''. Paper presented at the ISBS Inaugural Conference, Magdalen College, University of Oxford.

==External links==
* [https://archive.is/20121212175030/http://web.linguist.umass.edu/~cable/2012/LING748/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Tshangla Language Page (Wiki Created by Linguistic Field Methods Course at UMass Amherst)]

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Bodic languages}}
{{Languages of Bhutan}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Unclassified Sino-Tibetan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Languages written in Tibetan script]]

Tshangla language - Revision history

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imported>Eievie: /* Phonology */ Slashes are typically used for IPA, not orthography.