imported>Harshdaank at 04:32, 29 March 2026

2026-03-29T04:32:35Z

New page

{{Short description|1842 treaty between Tibetans and Sikhs}}
{{Infobox Treaty
|name = Treaty of Chushul
|long_name = Treaty of Chushul (1842)
|image =
|image_width = 180px
|caption =
|type =
|date_drafted =
|date_signed = 17 September 1842 (Assuj 2, 1889 B.S.)
|location_signed = [[Ladakh]]
|date_sealed =
|date_effective = 17 September 1842
|wikisource = Treaty of Chushul
}}

The '''Treaty of Chushul''',<ref>
{{harvp|Malhotra, Red Fear|2020|pp=68–69}}; {{harvp|Gardner, The Frontier Complex|2021|p=92}};
{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Handbook of China and International Law |first1=Congyan |last1=Cai |first2=Ignacio de la |last2=Rasilla |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2024 |isbn=9781009050418 |pages=945}};
{{cite book |last=Guo |first=Rongxing |title=China's Regional Development and Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZvDCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |year=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-287-958-5 |page=5}}
</ref> or the '''Dogra–Tibetan Treaty of 1842''',<ref>
{{harvp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=61}};
{{harvp|Choudhury, Trade and Politics in the Himalaya-Karakoram Borderlands|1996|p=30}};
{{citation |last=Marshall |first=Julie |title=Britain and Tibet 1765–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1tR_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA568 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134327850 |page=568}}
</ref>
was a [[peace treaty]] signed between the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Tibetan government]] of [[Ganden Phodrang]] (then a [[protectorate]] of [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]]) and the [[Dogra dynasty|Dogra]] Raja [[Gulab Singh]] of [[Jammu]], under the [[suzerainty]] of the [[Sikh Empire]], following the [[Dogra–Tibetan war]] (1841–1842). It was signed in [[Leh]] in September 1842 restoring the ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'',{{sfnp|Huttenback, Gulab Singh|1961|p=487}} and respecting the "old established frontiers" between [[Ladakh]] and [[Tibet]].{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=56}} The treaty is often referred to as the "Treaty of Chushul", likely due to the last battle of the war taking place near [[Chushul]].

== History ==
[[Zorawar Singh (Dogra general)|Zorawar Singh Kahluria]], a Sikh general, who, after the conquest of [[Ladakh]], attempted to extend its boundaries in order to control the [[trade route]]s into Ladakh under the leadership of [[Gulab Singh]] of [[Jammu Division|Jammu]], under the suzerainty of the [[Sikh Empire]]. Even though Zorawar Singh's campaign to western [[Tibet]] saw some initial successes and temporally occupied parts of Tibet, the campaign suffered a major defeat at [[Taklakot]] (Purang) and Zorawar Singh was killed. The Tibetan forces then advanced on Ladakh, but were subsequently defeated by [[Diwan Hari Chand]] near [[Chushul]] in 1842 who was leading Dogra reinforcements coming from [[Jammu]]. At this time both sides decided to negotiate in order to end the [[Dogra–Tibetan war]] (also known as the Sino-Sikh war).

On 17 September 1842, the Treaty of Chushul was agreed in [[Leh]] between the Dogras led by [[Diwan Hari Chand|Hari Chand]] and the Tibetans, executed by an exchange of notes which embodied the duties given to each other by both parties. Thus, the [[Kashmir]] government had taken over the responsibility assumed by the Tibetan and Chinese authorities, and the Tibetan government also assumed the responsibility of the former.<ref name="unfoughtwar">{{Cite book |author=Raghav Sharan Sharma |title=The Unfought War of 1962: An Appraisal |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2017 |isbn=9781351056366 |pages=242}}</ref> The [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]] note, incorporating the concessions made by the Dogras, was handed to Gulab Singh's representatives. The [[Persian language|Persian]] note, describing the Tibetan concessions, was presented to the Tibetan officials.{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=55}} Three versions of the treaty, including a Tibetan-language treaty in the possession of the Kashmir government, a Persian-language treaty in the possession of the [[Lhasa]] authorities, and a treaty document obtained by the agents of the Raja of [[Bushahr]], basically matched with each other even though they had some textural variations.<ref name="unfoughtwar" /> In any event, it was the duty of the Qing imperial resident ([[Amban]]) at Lhasa to report these developments to the Chinese Emperor.{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=56}}

This treaty was signed within three weeks of the capitulation of the army of the [[Qing dynasty]] at [[Nanjing|Nanking]] (Nanjing) and the signing of the [[Treaty of Nanking]] on 29 August 1842 which ended the [[First Opium War]]. The First Opium War (1839–1842) was fought between the [[British Empire]] and the Qing dynasty of China following the Chinese enforcement of their ban on the [[History of opium in China|opium trade]], and the British defeated the Chinese by 1842 using technologically superior ships and weapons. The Qing dynasty, as the suzerain of Tibet, was involved in other conflicts, such as the First Opium War, and was unable to conduct a [[two-front war]] at this time.{{sfnp|Malhotra, Red Fear|2020|pp=68–69}} But the agreement reached in September 1842 brought Zorawar Singh's ill-fated yet ambitious Dogra adventure into western Tibet to an abrupt end.<ref name="unfoughtwar" /> Although the Dogras sought British support during the Dogra–Tibetan war, the treaty was ultimately signed through negotiations between the primary parties.{{sfnp|Lamb, British India and Tibet|2018|pp=103-105}}

The resulting Treaty of Chushul was a simple document with three articles that restored the ''status quo ante''; only the second article stating that "in conformity with ancient usage, Tea and Pashm shall be transmitted by the Ladakh road" could be accepted because it was supposed to give Gulab Singh a monopoly of the shawl wool export trade, the main objective of his campaign in western Tibet.{{sfnp|Lamb, British India and Tibet|2018|pp=103-105}} The terms were also summarised in the [[Ladakh Chronicles]] as follows. Tibet recognised that Ladakh was annexed to the [[Sikh Empire]], and the Sikh Empire relinquished the ancient Ladakhi claim to western Tibet. Both the sides would remain within their own territories. Biennial [[Lopchak mission]]s would go on as before. Ladakhi merchants would be allowed to travel to [[Rudok]], [[Gartok]] and other places in Tibet and the Tibetan merchants from [[Changtang]] would be allowed to go to Ladakh.{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=55}}

The texts of the notes also stated that the "old, established frontiers" between Ladakh and Tibet would be respected, although the texts did not specify their alignment.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Willem Frederik Eekelen |title=Indian Foreign Policy and the Border Dispute with China |publisher=Springer Netherlands |year=2013 |isbn=9789401765558 |pages=165}}</ref> The Ladakhi king and queen were to be allowed to live in Ladakh peacefully, and it is the Ladakhi king that would send the biennial Lopchak missions to Lhasa rather than the Dogra regime. All trade between the two regions was to be conducted according to "old, established custom".{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=56}} Some accounts suggest that a supplementary treaty with similar provisions was concluded between the Governor of Kashmir, representing the Sikh Empire, and Lhasa officials under the authority of the [[Emperor of China]].{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=56}}

The [[First Anglo-Sikh war|British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846]] resulted in the transfer of the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] region including Ladakh to British control, with Gulab Singh recognized as the [[Maharaja]] under British suzerainty. In March 1856, a [[peace treaty]] between the Tibetans and the [[Kingdom of Nepal]], known as the [[Treaty of Thapathali]], was signed in [[Nepal]] following the [[Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)]], with the approval of the Chinese [[Amban]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Nepal: Strategy for Survival |year=2023 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=117 |isbn=978-0-520-33869-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HG6EAAAQBAJ |access-date=August 26, 2023 }}</ref> Clause 4 of the treaty freed the remaining Sikh prisoners of war still held in Tibetan captivity whom were captured in 1841.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://tibet.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/political-treaties-of-tibet...pdf |title=Political Treaties of Tibet (821 to 1951) |publisher=Department of Information & International Relations (DIIR) - Central Tibetan Administration |year=1990 |chapter=Treaty Between Nepal and Tibet, March 1856 |quote=4. Chouthon Kura (Article Four): The Government of Gorkha is to withdraw its troops from the occupied territories of Kuti and Kerong and Jhung and return to the Tibetans the sepoys, sheep, and yaks captured during the war, when the conditions of the treaty were fulfilled. The Tibetans, in return, are also to give back to the Gorkhali cannons and also the Sikh prisoners-of war who had been captured in 1841 in the war between Bhot and the Dogra ruler.}}</ref> This clause was included in the treaty at the behest of Gulab Singh of Kashmir to free the remaining prisoners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKay |first=Alex |title=Tibet and Her Neighbours: A History |publisher=Edition Hansjörg Mayer |year=2003 |isbn=9783883757186 |pages=139}}</ref>

No text appears to have been officially transmitted to the British during the time when the Treaty of Chushul was signed, although the Raja of Bushahr received a version of it. The British did not receive the official text of the treaty until 1889, when the situation on the Sikkim-Tibet border prompted them to closely study the relations between the protectorates and Tibet. Captain [[Henry Ramsay (Indian Army officer)|Henry Ramsay]], the British Joint Commissioner at Leh, then drew up a document whose terms were essentially the same as those of the ruler of Bashahr, although they seemed to indicate a greater degree of Tibetan influence in Ladakh affairs than the British Indian government had suspected. Before 1900, the British Indian government had not yet decided whether this treaty in any way affected its position vis-à-vis the supremacy of Kashmir.{{sfnp|Lamb, British India and Tibet|2018|pp=103-105}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Routledge Library Editions: Tibet |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2021 |isbn=9780429806100 |pages=56}}</ref>

==Sino-Indian border dispute==
The Treaty of Chushul came into discussion in the 1960s in the context of the [[Sino-Indian border dispute]]. The government of [[India]] used the treaty to counter the Chinese contention that the border between Ladakh and Tibet had never been delimited. The Indian position was that the reference to "old, established frontiers" meant that the border had been delimited. The Chinese argued that, even if it had been delimited, there is no guarantee that it was the same as the Indian-claimed boundary.{{sfnp|Ahmad, Tibet and Ladakh|1963|pp=55–56}} It appeared that the British did not consider the Treaty of Chushul a boundary treaty that defined the border of Ladakh in the 19th century, because they started asking China to start negotiations to determine the border as soon as they added the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|state of Jammu and Kashmir]] to [[British Empire|their empire]] in 1846. However, they later gave up because Qing China did not respond to the request for reasons of its own.{{sfnp|Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem|2010|p=180}}

According to the Indian government, Tibet signed the treaty with Ladakh in 1842 which it considered a boundary treaty, suggesting that the Chinese government previously recognized Tibet's right to conduct foreign relations alone and deal with its own border issues. On the other hand, the government of [[China]] acknowledged the existence of the 1842 Treaty of Chushul, but said China had not actually authorised Tibet to sign a border treaty with another country. The Indian government responded that China was involved in the signing of the treaty because the 1842 treaty "was signed by representatives of both the [[Dalai Lama]] and the [[Emperor of China]]". Although the argument appears to have shown that the Chinese government "signed" the 1842 treaty and allowed Tibet to participate in it in the presence of Chinese representatives, China believed that it was not at all a proof that China had delegated Tibet a general power to independently conclude border agreements with neighbouring countries.<ref>{{Cite book |title=China and International Law: The Boundary Disputes |author=Byron N. Tzou |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=1990 |isbn=9781573569415 |pages=94}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Treaty of Tingmosgang]] (1684)
* [[British expedition to Tibet]] (1903-4)
* [[Convention of Lhasa]] (1904)
* [[Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet]] (1906)

* [[Treaty of Amritsar (1846)]]
* [[Treaty of Lahore]]
* [[Treaty of Thapathali]]
* [[Tibet under Qing rule]]
* [[History of Ladakh]]
* [[History of Kashmir]]
* [[China–India relations]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last=Ahmad |first=Zahiruddin |chapter=Tibet and Ladakh: A History |title=Far Eastern Affairs |series=St. Antony's Papers |volume=14 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |year=1963 |pages=23–58 |chapter-url=http://pahar.in/?wpfb_dl=20160 |ref={{sfnref|Ahmad, Tibet and Ladakh|1963}}}}
* {{citation |first=Deba Prosad |last=Choudhury |title=Trade and Politics in the Himalaya-Karakoram Borderlands |publisher=Orient BlackSwan |year=1996 |isbn=9788125006428 |ref={{sfnref|Choudhury, Trade and Politics in the Himalaya-Karakoram Borderlands|1996}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Fisher |first1=Margaret W. |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |last3=Huttenback |first3=Robert A. |title=Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh |date=1963 |publisher=Praeger |url=https://archive.org/details/himalayanbattleg0000unse/mode/2up |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963}} }}
* {{citation |last=Gardner |first=Kyle J. |title=The Frontier Complex: Geopolitics and the Making of the India-China Border, 1846–1962 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCoNEAAAQBAJ |year=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-84059-0 |ref={{sfnref|Gardner, The Frontier Complex|2021}}}}
* {{citation |last=Huttenback |first=Robert A. |title=Gulab Singh and the Creation of the Dogra State of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=20 |number=4 |year=1961 |pages=477–488 |doi=10.2307/2049956 |jstor=2049956 |s2cid=162144034 |url=https://pahar.in/mountains/Books%20and%20Articles/Indian%20Subcontinent/1961%20Gulab%20Singh%20and%20Creation%20of%20Dogra%20State%20of%20Jammu%20Kashmir%20and%20Ladakh%20by%20Huttenback%20from%20J%20Asian%20Studies%20v20%20s.pdf |ref={{sfnref|Huttenback, Gulab Singh|1961}} |access-date=26 January 2019 |archive-date=23 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123065805/http://pahar.in/mountains/Books%20and%20Articles/Indian%20Subcontinent/1961%20Gulab%20Singh%20and%20Creation%20of%20Dogra%20State%20of%20Jammu%20Kashmir%20and%20Ladakh%20by%20Huttenback%20from%20J%20Asian%20Studies%20v20%20s.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |title=British India and Tibet 1766–1910 |publisher=Routledge |year=1986 |edition=Second |orig-year=1960 |url=https://archive.org/details/britishindiatibe0000lamb |via=archive.org |url-access=registration |ref={{sfnref|Lamb, British India and Tibet|1986}}}}
** {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |title=British India and Tibet 1766–1910 |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |edition=Library |isbn=978-0-429-81790-8 |orig-year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pfl0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT103 |ref={{sfnref|Lamb, British India and Tibet|2018}}}}
* {{citation |last=McKay |first=Alex |title=History of Tibet, Volume 2: The Medieval Period: c.850-1895 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-30843-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/thehistoryoftibetvol2alexmckay_151_d |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|McKay, History of Tibet, Vol. 2|2003}} }}
** {{citation |last=Charak |first=Sukhdev Singh |chapter=General Zora War Singh (extracts) |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/thehistoryoftibetvol2alexmckay_151_d/page/n757/mode/2up |via=archive.org |title=ibid |year=2003 |pages=748–767 |ref={{sfnref|Charak, General Zorawar Singh|2003}} }}
* {{citation |last=Malhotra |first=Iqbal Chand |title=Red Fear: The China Threat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8k0FEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT68 |year=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-89867-59-6 |ref={{sfnref|Malhotra, Red Fear|2020}}}}
* {{citation |last=Mehra |first=Parshotam |title=An "agreed" frontier: Ladakh and India's northernmost borders, 1846–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mIduAAAAMAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-562758-9 |ref={{sfnref|Mehra, An "agreed" frontier|1992}} }}
* {{citation |last=Noorani |first=A.G. |author-link=A. G. Noorani |title=India–China Boundary Problem 1846–1947: History and Diplomacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoAyDwAAQBAJ |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press India |isbn=978-0-19-908839-3 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198070689.001.0001 |ref={{sfnref|Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem|2010}}|url-access=subscription }}
* {{citation |last1=Sarkees |first1=Meredith Reid |last2=Wayman |first2=Frank Whelon |title=Resort to War: A data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816-2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CvooAQAAMAAJ |year=2010 |publisher=CQ Press |isbn=978-0-87289-434-1 |ref={{sfnref|Sarkees & Wayman, Resort to War|2010}} }}
* {{citation |last=Shakabpa |first=W. D. |translator=Derek F. Maher |title=One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGyrymfDdI0C |volume=1 |year=2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004177888 |ref={{sfnref|Shakabpa, One Hundred Thousand Moons|2010}} }}
* {{citation |last=Warikoo |first=K. |chapter=India's gateway to Central Asia: trans-Himalayan trade and cultural movements through Kashmir and Ladakh, 1846–1947 |editor-first=K. |editor-last=Warikoo |title=Himalayan Frontiers of India: Historical, Geo-Political and Strategic Perspectives |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_Z8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-03294-5 |ref={{sfnref|Warikoo, India's gateway to Central Asia|2009}} }}
{{refend}}

{{Tibet topics}}
{{Sikh Empire}}

[[Category:1842 treaties]]
[[Category:Treaties of Tibet]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Sikh Empire]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Qing dynasty]]
[[Category:1840s in China]]
[[Category:19th century in Tibet]]
[[Category:1842 in India]]
[[Category:1842 in China]]
[[Category:Dogra]]
[[Category:Origins of the Kashmir conflict]]
[[Category:Dogra–Tibetan war]]
[[Category:China in the Kashmir conflict]]
[[Category:Sino-Indian border dispute]]

Treaty of Chushul - Revision history

imported>Harshdaank at 04:32, 29 March 2026