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'''Indian transnational cinema''' refers to the various ways [[Cinema of India|films made in India]] engage with or operate as a [[Transnational cinema|cultural product across national borders]], encompassing aspects of production, distribution, exhibition, and reception beyond the country's geographical boundaries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Yanling |last2=Clini |first2=Clelia |last3=Dasgupta |first3=Rohit |date=2020-12-01 |title=Critical trends in transnational cinema: Inter-Asian productions and exchanges |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/25785273.2020.1823078 |journal=Transnational Screens |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=177–186 |doi=10.1080/25785273.2020.1823078 |issn=2578-5273}}</ref> Beyond [[Hindi cinema|Bollywood]], this phenomenon includes films from various [[Languages of India|Indian language]] industries and encompasses both mainstream commercial features and independent productions. Particularly with independent film, the industry has experienced a "transnational turn" in the 21st century, transcending a traditional [[national cinema]] framework.<ref name=":0" />

== Mainstream vs. arthouse cinema ==
Mainstream popular Indian cinema has been described as legitimately national in its hermetic political, aesthetic, and effective economy.<ref name=":4" /> They are often characterized by melodrama overflowing with songs and dances, a hybrid formation including joyful factors, typical conversations, happy endings, and an [[Escapist fiction|escapist]] tendency to avoid serious social issues.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Virdi |first=Jyotika |date=2017-01-02 |title=A national cinema’s transnational aspirations? Considerations on “Bollywood” |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14746689.2017.1351785 |journal=South Asian Popular Culture |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1080/14746689.2017.1351785 |issn=1474-6689}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> These are described as all-encompassing [[Masala film|Masala films]], after the [[spice mix]] concoction, a cinema of interruptions or 'attractions' with predictable narratives and musical interludes.<ref name=":3" /> These films can be classified by central narratives like action-revenge, crime-suspense, romance, family saga, mythological, and the 'social' melodrama.<ref name=":3" /> [[Salim–Javed|Salim-Javed]] duo were the ones to pioneer this genre.<ref name=":5">Chaudhuri, Diptakirti (1 October 2015). ''Written by Salim-Javed: The Story of Hindi Cinema's Greatest Screenwriters''. [[Penguin Books|Penguin UK]]. {{ISBN|9789352140084}}.</ref> Some of the most influential early masala films would be [[Zanjeer (1973 film)|''Zanjeer'']] (1973), [[Deewaar|''Deewar'']] (1975), ''[[Sholay]]'' (1975), [[Trishul (film)|''Trishul'']] (1978), [[Don (1978 film)|''Don'']] (1978), all starring [[Amitabh Bachchan]] as an angry, young and flawed protagonist with sharp, punchy dialogs, which are still quoted today.<ref name=":5" />
[[Art film|Arthouse cinema]] became prominent as an independent genre in India in the 1950s.<ref name=":4" /> Art films are often considered grounded in realism codes<ref name=":3" /> and originated in the State of [[West Bengal]]. [[Satyajit Ray]] is the pioneer of [[parallel cinema]].<ref name=":7">Cooper, Darius (2000). ''The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. pp. 1–4. {{ISBN|0-521-62980-2}}.</ref> These films are often produced in regional languages<ref name=":4" /> and can be less known domestically in regions speaking other languages<ref name=":4" /> though they may have appeal abroad, with Ray's films becoming recognized as classics at home partly though the [[pizza effect]]. Some of the early arthouse films that shaped the movement are ''[[Pather Panchali]]'' (1955), ''[[Aparajito]]'' (1956), [[Meghe Dhaka Tara (1960 film)|''Meghe Dhaka Tara'']] (1960), [[Ankur (film)|''Ankur'']] (1974), ''[[Jaane Bhi Do Yaaro]]'' (1983), etc.<ref name=":7" />
[[File:SatyajitRay.jpg|thumb|[[Satyajit Ray]], the pioneer of [[parallel cinema]]]]

== Global appeal ==

=== Appeal within the Indian diaspora ===
Films often feature the [[Indian diaspora]] as narrative subjects, depicting figures returning to their homeland, which symbolically diminishes the psychic-cultural distance between their home and host nations.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=O'Neill |first=Patricia |date=2013-04-01 |title=Imagining global India: Bollywood's transnational appeal |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2013.766309 |journal=[[Continuum (journal)|Continuum]] |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=254–266 |doi=10.1080/10304312.2013.766309 |issn=1030-4312}}</ref> This transnational theme frequently serves to reinscribe the national, portraying idealized village ties or the immigrant's longing for the nation's core, elevating and authenticating the national within a global context.<ref name=":3" /> Films like ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge|Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge]],'' ''[[Pardes (1997 film)|Pardes]]'', ''[[Kal Ho Naa Ho]]'', and ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]]''<ref name=":6">Alessandrini, A.C. 2001 My Heart’s Indian for all That: Bollywood Film Between Home and Diaspora. Diaspora 10(3): 315-340.</ref> exemplify this trend, staging familial devotion and wealth, often combined with world travel sequences, reimagining the East-West binary and reasserting a national identity anchored in exaggerated valuations of the Indian family.<ref name=":6" /> [[Bollywood]] is described as creating both an ideal homeland and an idealized Non-Resident Indian '''('''NRI) figure for the diaspora, presenting "Indianness" itself as a cultural value that mediates other questions of identity or political affiliation.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" />

However, it's noted that the diaspora is not a uniform entity, and variations in historical trajectories and economic conditions mean film success is not uniformly replicated across all segments.<ref name=":3" /> Regional cinemas are also significant within the diaspora, catering to ethno-linguistically segmented markets.<ref name=":3" />

[[Tamil films]] have a prime market among the large number of [[Tamils|Tamil]] immigrants settled in [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":4" /> [[Malayalam films]] dominate in [[Gulf countries]], supported by capital from migrants from [[Kerala]] who reside there.<ref name=":4" /> [[Punjabi cinema]] also speaks to the transnational migrant longing for the lost rural country.<ref name=":3" /> It has a huge overseas market in [[Canada]], a country with a large Punjabi diaspora community. Overseas production rights for regional films, such as [[Tamil cinema|Tamil films]] for [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]], are sold following their completion.<ref name=":4" />

=== Appeal outside the diaspora ===
Indian cinema's success, especially [[Bollywood]]'s, overseas is mapped in scattered parts of the world, including [[Africa]], [[Eastern Europe]], the [[Middle East]], and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=":3" /> Glimpses of resonance have been observed among non-diasporic communities in countries like [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Israel]], [[Nigeria]], [[Russia]], [[Tibet]], and [[Turkey]].<ref name=":3" />

Hindi films have been popular in the former Soviet Union since the 1950s and continue to be highly regarded in [[Central Asia]], particularly [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]].<ref name=":4" /> Dubbed Indian films are popular in [[Ghana]] and [[Cameroon|the Cameroons]] in [[West Africa]].<ref name=":4" /> An [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] television channel features a weekly program of [[Indian films]], despite a relatively small Indian resident population there.<ref name=":4" /> The film ''[[Awaara]]'' is cited as having potentially outdone any [[Hollywood (industry)|Hollywood]] film in terms of sheer viewing numbers in its time.<ref name=":4" /> The Tamil film ''[[Muthu (film)|Muthu]]'' came directly to [[Japan]] from [[Tamil Nadu]] via [[Singapore]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Sugimoto |first=Yoshio |date=2004 |title=Indian Cinema in an Age of Globalization |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjhg1948/56/6/56_6_603/_article |journal=Japanese Journal of Human Geography |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=603–614 |doi=10.4200/jjhg1948.56.603}}</ref> The musical ''[[Bombay Dreams]]'', with music by [[A. R. Rahman|A.R. Rahman]], touched the hearts of both [[North America|North American]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] audiences.<ref name=":4" /> [[S. S. Rajamouli|SS Rajamouli]]'s [[RRR]] was also a massive success in [[Japan]]. The other examples include breakout successes like [[Dangal (2016 film)|''Dangal'']], ''[[Bajrangi Bhaijaan]]'', ''[[Andhadhun|Andhadun]]'', ''[[Secret Superstar]]'' and ''[[Hindi Medium]]'' in a non-traditional Indian movie market overseas, like [[China]].

=== Satellite era and global reach ===
Technologies like [[satellite television]] contribute to the rapid infiltration of [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]] into the outside world. Overseas production rights are sold for distribution in countries with large Indian populations like [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]] and channels in countries such as [[Indonesia]], [[Ghana]], and [[Cameroon]] air Indian films, sometimes dubbed, suggesting a global distribution facilitated by such technologies.<ref name=":4" />

== Transnationalism in content ==
=== Diasporic narratives and NRI stories ===
After liberalization in the 1990s, films began featuring the diasporic figure, often portraying them [[Return migration|journeying back]] to the homeland.<ref name=":3" /> This reasserted nationhood through its "prodigal children" returning to their roots. Films like ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]'' use the diaspora as a space where values may be contested, but ultimately maintain "Indian values" triumphantly.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /> Bollywood romanticizes Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) for the home audience and India for the diaspora.<ref name=":1" /> Films like ''[[Loins of Punjab Presents]]'' satirize NRI and diasporic culture.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Villarejo |first=Amy |date=2014-07-03 |title=Latitudes: New Indian Transnational Cinema |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2014.896609 |journal=Journal of Lesbian Studies |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=209–222 |doi=10.1080/10894160.2014.896609 |issn=1089-4160 |pmid=24972281}}</ref> This focus on the diaspora re-inscribed the national, seen as a sign of continuity rather than rupture, reimagining immigrant longing for the homeland as the nation's core.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6" />

=== Engaging global topics and social issues ===
Some independent films specifically tackle social issues that may be barred from mainstream cinema or address contemporary struggles.<ref name=":2" /> For example, [[Onir]]'s omnibus film ''[[I Am (2010 Indian film)|I Am]]'' confronts issues like childhood abuse, homophobic violence resulting from the criminalization of homosexuality, single motherhood, and the banishment of Kashmiri Pandits.<ref name=":2" /> The film ''[[Nasir (film)|Nasir]]'' focuses on the challenges faced by a Muslim man in contemporary India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Bhatia |first=Neha |date=2023 |title=Creativity, passion, and community: The rise of India’s transnational producers |url=https://necsus-ejms.org/creativity-passion-and-community-the-rise-of-indias-transnational-producers/ |journal=[[European Network for Cinema and Media Studies|NECSUS]] |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=272–91 |doi=10.25969/mediarep/21715}}</ref>

=== Imagining a global India ===
Films like ''[[Dil Se..|Dil Se]]'', ''[[Kal Ho Naa Ho]]'', and ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]'' export an image of Indianness that negotiates tensions between homeland and diaspora.<ref name=":1" /> Bollywood contributes to imagining a global India and challenges understandings of cinema in a world reinvented by global media.<ref name=":1" /> It appeals effectively and ideologically to its transnational audiences, extending the cultural authority and political significance of the nation.<ref name=":1" /> Bollywood's representations can create a sense of solidarity among diverse ethnic Indians and show Indians as exemplary.<ref name=":1" />

== Transnational production and distribution ==
=== Evolving role of the Indian producer ===
Up until the 1990s, the Indian film industry witnessed a continuous influx of new producers who often lacked experience and training in film production and distribution.<ref name=":0" /> This era was also characterized by a rise in "black money" and corruption, which made film production an attractive option for independent producers and investors seeking to launder their illegal funds.<ref name=":0" />

The role of the Indian producer has been evolving, particularly within the realm of independent and transnational cinema. The traditional understanding of a producer, often associated primarily with being a financier, is being transcended by a new breed of producer who is deeply artistic and actively participates in the filmmaking process.<ref name=":0" />

These producers are driven by a passion for storytelling and a desire to create offbeat narratives that differ from mainstream films.<ref name=":0" /> They actively engage in collaborating with producers and creative individuals across the world. Their work involves extensive human interaction, community-building, and even the management of "affects". As creative collaborators, they read and develop scripts, offering notes, feedback, and engaging in debates at all stages of production. They see this as an "art form" aimed at adding value and uplifting the vision of the film.<ref name=":0" /> Producers describe this approach as hands-on, involved in building teams, scouting locations, casting, editing, and sound design, and engaging in discussions to encourage different perspectives.<ref name=":0" /> Some producers even take on roles akin to assistant directors when needed and may see themselves as "directorial producers."<ref name=":0" />

This new generation of Indian creative producers is often a product of the global network of international film festivals, funds, and industry events in the post-globalized era.<ref name=":0" /> They participate in international talent development programs and co-production markets. The producer's job involves pitching films at various festivals and markets, which requires creatively telling the "story of the story" for marketing and distribution purposes.<ref name=":0" /> They emphasize that creativity is an essential part of their jobs, manifesting in many forms of participation at every level of filmmaking.<ref name=":0" />

=== Globally funded films ===
Several films exemplify this model of transnational production and funding, often aiming for international film festivals and markets rather than immediate mainstream success:

* ''[[Nasir (film)|Nasir]]'': This Tamil-language film is cited as the first Indo-Dutch co-production in that language. Its transnational journey began at the Indian Film Bazaar's co-production market and the Open Pitch program. It received grants from the Netherlands Film Fund and Hubert Bals Fund. It went on to win an award at the International Film Festival Rotterdam. However, it faced challenges getting censored and released by a major streaming platform in India due to its content.<ref name=":0" />
* ''[[I Am (2010 Indian film)|I Am]]'': This cycle of four films by director [[Onir]] and producer [[Sanjay Suri]] was financed through crowd-sourced contributions from individuals referred to as "producers" and "owners".<ref name=":2" /> The films address social issues often barred from mainstream cinema and utilize top-level talent to help them circulate among broader audiences, potentially appealing to non-Indian spectators ("beyond India").<ref name=":2" /> This project is seen as remaking production cultures by embedding identity projects into new collaborative configurations.
* ''[[The Lunchbox]]'': Mentioned as an internationally co-produced film associated with producer [[Guneet Monga]]. Despite its success, the French co-producer of the film noted that a major Bollywood production company, [[Dharma Productions]] reaped financial rewards from its success, not the independent producers. Monga also revealed having to sell her house while co-producing another film, ''[[Monsoon Shootout]]'', highlighting the financial precarity.<ref name=":0" />
* ''[[Sir (2018 film)|Sir]]'': A French co-produced film that earned awards and was distributed on streaming platforms.

Other examples include films by diasporic filmmakers like [[Mira Nair]] (''[[Salaam Bombay!]]'', ''[[The Namesake (film)|The Namesake]]'', ''[[Mississippi Masala]]'', ''[[Monsoon Wedding]]''),<ref name=":3" /> and films that utilize international locations or draw from international influences.<ref name=":3" /> Regional cinemas like [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]], and [[Malayalam]] also have significant overseas markets, supported by diaspora populations and capital from migrants.<ref name=":4" /> A lot of regional films have been remade in [[Hindi]], demonstrating regional-national-transnational connections.<ref name=":3" />

== Debates and challenges ==
=== Production challenges ===

==== Financial instability and precarity ====
The Indian film industry is dominated by big-budget popular Bollywood films and established production houses.<ref name=":1" /> This creates a high-risk production environment for independent cinema.<ref name=":1" /> Producers often operate in precarious working conditions despite their efforts.<ref name=":2" /> Many creative producers do not have money to invest in their films and rely on partial state support, international funds, grants, and equity from Indian financiers or "angel investors".<ref name=":3" /> The work often does not provide sufficient financial support to sustain them, leading most interviewed producers to have other means of generating income, such as alternative businesses or consulting jobs.<ref name=":4" /> [[Guneet Monga]], a well-known producer, confessed to living a simple life and depending on consulting.<ref name=":4" /> Brice Poisson, a French co-producer of ''[[Sir (2018 film)|Sir]]'', noted that despite the film earning awards and being sold to streaming platforms, he did not recoup his financial investment and resulted in debt.<ref name=":0" /> Monga even had to sell her house when co-producing ''[[Monsoon Shootout]]'' (2013).<ref name=":4" />

==== Personal sacrifice and emotional labor ====
Producers are often driven by passion, creativity, and community-building.<ref name=":2" /> They invest significant "immaterial labor", including creative contributions, project management, and importantly, emotional management of themselves and others within multicultural crews, and interpersonal communication.<ref name=":0" /> This emotional labor is described as a largely neglected, invisible, and unseen part of their job.<ref name=":0" /> While the work can be intellectually and creatively stimulating and highly gratifying, the rewards entail a high cost, both emotionally and materially.<ref name=":4" /> Monga felt emotionally exhausted and contemplated leaving the industry after the success of ''[[The Lunchbox]].''<ref name=":0" /> Producers unanimously believe their work is greatly undervalued financially.<ref name=":4" />

==== Lack of domestic reach and uncertain overseas success ====
Independent films that go to international film festivals are often not released in India, which can be emotionally shattering for producers.<ref name=":0" /> [[Guneet Monga]] highlighted her inability to distribute her films in India despite international recognition. ''[[The Lunchbox]]'' (2013) is an internationally co-produced film by Monga, and she contemplated of leaving the industry after its success because she was unable to distribute her films domestically.<ref name=":0" /> While international recognition is possible, commercial success overseas is not guaranteed unless films navigate distribution channels effectively, which are often controlled by major corporations.<ref name=":3" /> Poisson's experience with ''[[Sir (2018 film)|Sir]]'' shows that even selling to streaming platforms and receiving critical acclaim may not lead to recouping financial investment.

==== Challenges of international co-productions ====
While international co-productions offer potential for soft money, structured production, and networking, they also bring challenges like increased budgets and timelines, work-culture differences, and human relationship and team management issues.<ref name=":0" /> There is a mismatch between the funding and distribution structures in [[India]] and [[Europe]], making collaborations difficult.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Indian producers often need to sell films quickly for investors, which is not always feasible in the Indian market compared to slower exploitation in [[Europe]]. Work culture differences are noted, with anecdotes about differing paces and efficiencies.<ref name=":0" /> It is also uncommon for a first-time filmmaker to receive international grants and funding, and the labor involved in applying for grants is often unpaid.<ref name=":2" />

=== Censorship and political challenges ===

==== State control and censorship ====
The state shapes and controls the industry through various policies and media regulations, including censorship guidelines.<ref name=":1" /> Social issues are sometimes barred from mainstream cinema either explicitly through censorship (certification, classification, cutting) or implicitly by dismissing such films as "content-oriented cinema".<ref name=":2" />

==== Ideological and political content ====
Films exploring politically sensitive or ideologically charged content face difficulties. For example, ''[[Nasir (2020)|Nasir]]'' (2020), an Indo-Dutch co-production focusing on the challenges of a Muslim man in contemporary India, was declined by [[Netflix]] and failed to get a censorship certificate from the Indian government due to its ideological content.<ref name=":0" /> Films dealing with sub-nationalist movements, particularly related to Kashmir and Muslim minorities, became "fecund ground" for exploring these issues, sometimes consolidating Hindu-nationalist outrage or venting against Muslim minorities.<ref name=":3" />

==== Challenging social norms and identities ====
''[[My Brother…Nikhil|My Brother... Nikhil]]'' (2005) had to bury the degree to which it was based on a true story due to censorship.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[I Am (2010 Indian film)|I Am]]'' (2010), an omnibus film, confronts social issues barred from mainstream cinema, including the confusing effects of childhood abuse (''I Am Abhimanyu''), homophobic violence (''I Am Omar''), beliefs about motherhood (''I Am Afia''), and the banishment of Kashmiri Pandits (''I Am Megha'')<ref name=":2" /> ''I Am Omar'' specifically confronts police violence against a gay couple, linking it to the previous criminalization of homosexuality and depicting a policeman who is a representative of a right-wing political party ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]).<ref name=":2" />

== See also ==

* [[Parallel cinema|Indian Parallel Cinema]]
* [[Masala film]]
* [[Cinema of India]]
* [[List of highest-grossing Indian films in overseas markets]]
* [[Transnationalism]]
* [[Pan-Indian film]]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Transnationalism]]
[[Category:Cinema of India]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora mass media]]

Transnational cinema in India - Revision history

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