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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Tosham Hill
| other_name =
| photo = Tosham, Haryana, India..jpg
| photo_caption = Toshām Hill showing the site of the ancient monastery and water cascade
| elevation_m = 207
| elevation_ref =
| map = India Haryana#India
| map_caption = Location in [[Haryana]]
| map_size = 300
| location = [[Bhiwani district]], [[Haryana]], [[India]]
| range = [[Aravalli Range|Aravali Range]]
| label =
| label_position = left
| listing = [[List of Indian states and territories by highest point]]
| coordinates = {{coord|28.88|N|75.92|E|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates =
| easiest_route = Hike / scramble
| coordinates_ref =
| topo =
}}

[[File:Tosham rock.JPG|thumb|[[Tosham rock inscription]], dating from 4th to 5th century, is an [[epigraphy|epigraph]] engraved with the Sātvata inscription and Viṣṇu's ''cakra'', documents the establishment of a monastery and the building of water tanks for followers of the [[Yadava#The Satvatas|Satvata]] (ancient [[Yadava]] kingdom).]]

'''Tosham hill range''' ('''Tusham hill range''' old spelling), located at and in the area around [[Tosham]], with an average elevation of 207 meters (679 feet), and the rocks exposed in and around Tosham hills are part of subsurface north-western spur of ''Alwar group'' of ''Delhi supergroup'' of [[Aravalli Range|Aravalli Mountain Range]], belong to the [[Precambrian]] [[Jodhpur Group – Malani Igneous Suite Contact|Malani igneous suite of rocks]] and have been dated at 732 [[Myr|Ma]] [[Before Present|BP]] (million years before present).<ref name=ts1>Kochhar, Naresh,1983, Tusham ring complex, Bhiwani, India. Proc. Indian Natl.Sci. Acad.v.49A, pp.459-490</ref><ref name=ts2>Kochhar, Naresh, 2000 Attributes and significance of the A-type Malani magmatism, NW peninsular India. In M.Deb (ed.) Crystal evolution and metallogeny in northwestern Indian shield. Chapter 9, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi</ref> This range in [[Geography_of_India#Physiographic_regions|Aravalli Craton]] is a remnant of the outer ring of a fallen chamber of an extinct volcano. Tosham hill range covers the hills at Tosham, Khanak, and Riwasa as well as the small rocky outcrops at Nigana, Dulehri, Dharan, Dadam, and Kharkari Makhwan. Among these, Khanak hill is the largest in area and tallest in height.

It is an important [[biodiversity]] area within the "western-southern Haryana" spur of the [[Aravalli_Range#Northern_Aravalli_leopard_wildlife_corridor|Northern Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor]].

==Geology of Tosham hill==
{{main|Aravalli Range#Natural History|Tectonic evolution of the Aravalli Mountains}}

[[File:Indiahills.png|thumb|300px|Map of prominent mountain ranges in India, showing Aravalli in north-west India]]

The main Tosham hill is an [[Volcano#Extinct|extinct volcano]] which erupted sometime 732 [[Myr|Ma]] [[Before Present|BP]] (million years before present). [[Geologic province]] of [https://www.google.com.sg/maps/dir/Dadam,+Haryana,+India/Khanak,+Haryana+127040,+India/Tosham,+Haryana,+India/Dharan,+Haryana,+India/Riwasa,+Haryana,+India/Dulheri,+Haryana,+India/Nigana+Khurd,+Haryana,+India/Dadam,+Haryana,+India/@28.8525173,75.8318795,22503m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m50!4m49!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124e39918af1f1:0xdeb3de7285ab7752!2m2!1d75.8410487!2d28.8682262!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124f0675ee3361:0x147ec3d1e98727d0!2m2!1d75.8648831!2d28.9093987!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124544f6b4a95b:0xd3b297bd4f2224c6!2m2!1d75.9143867!2d28.872463!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125aebb3edb19f:0x73a96bb771eed565!2m2!1d75.9260011!2d28.8337576!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125bb389a16cff:0x5f882a104f7dee8c!2m2!1d75.9594233!2d28.8011536!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125a7586516fd1:0x71f26be6c068658c!2m2!1d75.8940592!2d28.79328!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125a4333ede8df:0xcc8e81ae915f0541!2m2!1d75.9289046!2d28.7969715!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124e39918af1f1:0xdeb3de7285ab7752!2m2!1d75.8410487!2d28.8682262!3e0 Khanak-Tosham-Dharan-Riwasa-Nigana Khurd-Dulheri-Kharkari Makhwan-Dadam-Khanak] is an narrow oval shaped [[ring dike]] of eroded extinct volcanoes on the periphery of a collapsed [[caldera]] ([[Magma|magmatic]] chamber) of roughly {{convert|16|km}} diameter on its longest Khanak to Nigana Khurd NW-SE axis and {{convert|8|km}} on its narrower Dadam to Tosham E-W axis. This sub-surface ring dyke is now buried under the later era soils. Much of the area to the west of ring dyke is covered with [[Aeolian processes|Aeolian sand]] flown from the fringes of [[Thar Desert]]. The remaining area is covered under [[Sediment|sedimentary]] [[Alluvium|alluvium soil]] of [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Harka river of Ghaggar-Hakra River system]] (paleo [[Sarasvati River]]) to the north and east, and paleo channel of [[Yamuna]] through Bhiwani in the south and east. Among these hills, Khanak hill is the largest and tallest, and Tosham hill is the second largest smaller hill. The other neighbouring hills, in the order of decreasing size, such as Nigana Khurd, Riwasa, Dulehri, Dharan, Dadam etc. are composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/><ref name=toshg>{{Cite web | url=https://www.google.com.sg/maps/dir/Dadam,+Haryana,+India/Khanak,+Haryana+127040,+India/Tosham,+Haryana,+India/Dharan,+Haryana,+India/Riwasa,+Haryana,+India/Dulheri,+Haryana,+India/Nigana+Khurd,+Haryana,+India/Dadam,+Haryana,+India/@28.8525173,75.8318795,22503m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m50!4m49!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124e39918af1f1:0xdeb3de7285ab7752!2m2!1d75.8410487!2d28.8682262!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124f0675ee3361:0x147ec3d1e98727d0!2m2!1d75.8648831!2d28.9093987!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124544f6b4a95b:0xd3b297bd4f2224c6!2m2!1d75.9143867!2d28.872463!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125aebb3edb19f:0x73a96bb771eed565!2m2!1d75.9260011!2d28.8337576!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125bb389a16cff:0x5f882a104f7dee8c!2m2!1d75.9594233!2d28.8011536!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125a7586516fd1:0x71f26be6c068658c!2m2!1d75.8940592!2d28.79328!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125a4333ede8df:0xcc8e81ae915f0541!2m2!1d75.9289046!2d28.7969715!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124e39918af1f1:0xdeb3de7285ab7752!2m2!1d75.8410487!2d28.8682262!3e0 | title=Dadam to Dadam}}</ref>

=== Tosham Igneous Complex ===
'''Tosham Igneous Complex''' has 3 main hills (Khanak, Tosham and Riwasa) and several other smaller rocky outcrops, mainly around the ring dyke:

# '''Tosham Hill''': The main Tusham hill is the second largest hill in the range. It has [[Tosham rock inscription|ancient rock inscriptions]] and [[Tosham_rock_inscription#Tosham_rock_paintings|rock paintings]], [[Paleolithic|paleo]] eroded rocky [[Glacier |glacial channels]] and water cascades, and small hilltop lakes. It consists of a [[quartz porphyry]] ring dyke, [[felsite]], [[welded tuff]] and [[muscovite]] [[biotite]] [[granite]]. The [[Country rock (geology)|country rocks]] ([[Basement (geology)|Archean Bhilwara basement rocks]]) native to the area are [[quartzite]] with [[chiastolite]] belonging to the [[Tectonic_evolution_of_the_Aravalli_Mountains#Delhi_Supergroup|Delhi Supergroup]]. The Tosham Sn-W-Cu rocks are the source of primary [[tin]] as well as [[Tungsten]] and [[copper]], but found to be not viable commercially. The granites and [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]] are high heat producing type. [[Spectroscopy]] studies indicate that they have high abundance of [[potassium]] (K), [[uranium]] (U), and [[thorium]] (Th), a sign of [[radioactivity]]. Highest heat flow in India is recorded from this area.<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>
# '''Khanak hill''' at [[Khanak, Haryana|Khanak]]: Khanak hill is the largest and tallest in the range, followed by neighbouring Tosham hill, Nigana Khurd, Riwasa, Dulehri, Dharan, Dadam etc in the order of decreasing size. These hills are mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/><ref name=toshg>{{Cite web | url=https://www.google.com.sg/maps/dir/Dadam,+Haryana,+India/Khanak,+Haryana+127040,+India/Tosham,+Haryana,+India/Dharan,+Haryana,+India/Riwasa,+Haryana,+India/Dulheri,+Haryana,+India/Nigana+Khurd,+Haryana,+India/Dadam,+Haryana,+India/@28.8525173,75.8318795,22503m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m50!4m49!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124e39918af1f1:0xdeb3de7285ab7752!2m2!1d75.8410487!2d28.8682262!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124f0675ee3361:0x147ec3d1e98727d0!2m2!1d75.8648831!2d28.9093987!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124544f6b4a95b:0xd3b297bd4f2224c6!2m2!1d75.9143867!2d28.872463!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125aebb3edb19f:0x73a96bb771eed565!2m2!1d75.9260011!2d28.8337576!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125bb389a16cff:0x5f882a104f7dee8c!2m2!1d75.9594233!2d28.8011536!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125a7586516fd1:0x71f26be6c068658c!2m2!1d75.8940592!2d28.79328!1m5!1m1!1s0x39125a4333ede8df:0xcc8e81ae915f0541!2m2!1d75.9289046!2d28.7969715!1m5!1m1!1s0x39124e39918af1f1:0xdeb3de7285ab7752!2m2!1d75.8410487!2d28.8682262!3e0 | title=Dadam to Dadam}}</ref>
# '''Riwasa hill''' near [[Riwasa]] village: Mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>

The rocky outcrops include the following:

# '''Nigana hill''' near twin [[Nigana]] villages, Nigana Khurd and Nigana Kalan: Hilly outcrop in the vicinity of , are mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>
# '''Dulehri hill''' near [[Dulehri]] village: Mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>
# '''Dharan hill''' near [[Dharan, Haryana|Dharan]] village: Mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>
# '''Dadam hill''' near [[Dadam]] village: Mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>
# '''Kharkari Makhwan hill''' near [[Kharkari Makhwan]] village: Mainly composed of [[Porphyry (geology)|granite porphyries]].<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/>

=== Mining ===
Based on the scientific study of artifacts from [[Rakhigarhi]] and other sites, the people of [[Indus Valley civilization]] sourced the raw materials for making beads and figurines from the Steatite mines of Tosham Hill range.<ref name=ind1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGsMAQAAMAAJ A golden chain of civilizations: Indic, Iranic, Semitic, Page 252]</ref> Commercial scale mining for stones used for construction is done in the government auctioned mines at Tosham, Khanak and Dadam hills, with several stone crushers in the zone.

==={{anchor|Tosham Sulfur Ponds|Tosham Sulphur Ponds|Tosham Hill Sulfur Ponds|Tosham Hill Sulphur Ponds|Sacred Sulfur Ponds of Tosham Hill|Sacred Sulphur Ponds of Tosham Hill}} Sacred sulphur ponds of Tosham Hill===
There are several holy ponds on Tosham Hill inside the caves, namely Pandu Teerth Kund, Surya Kund, Kukkar Kund, Gyarasia/Vyas Kund and a reservoir or a small tank on the summit of the hill to store rain water. Water in these kunds (ponds) in various caverns contain [[sulfur]] which is considered sacred by the devotees and pilgrimages as it heals skin diseases.<ref name=toshamsulfur1>2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MvAdAQAAMAAJ&q=sulphur+tosham "Records, Volume 135, Part 1."], [[Geological Survey of India]], Page 144.</ref>

====Pandu Tirath, Tosham====
There are several sacred kunds or reservoirs on the hill; one of them, the ''Pandu Tirath'', is considered so sacred that some of the neighbouring villages deposit the ashes of their dead in it instead of taking them to the Ganges.

====Surya Kund, Tosham====
The '''Surya Kund''' is one of many kunds (pond) found in caverns of Tosham hill. It is considered sacred.

====Kukkar Kund, Tosham====
The '''Kukkar Kund''' is one of many kunds (pond) found in caverns of Tosham hill. It is considered sacred.

====Gyarasia Kund, Tosham====

The '''Gyarasia Kund''' (Vyas Kund) is one of many kunds (pond) found in caverns of Tosham hill. It is considered sacred.

=== Scientific studies ===
From 1894-96, [[List_of_presidents_of_the_Geologists%27_Association| Lt-General C.A. Mcmahon]] (1830-1904), who was also the president of British [[Geologists' Association]], was the first modern geologist to study these rocks. He described the [[petrography]] of the rocks in 1884 and 1886 and published his work in the ''Records of [[Geological Survey of India]]''.<ref name=ts1/><ref name=ts2/> During 1994-96, Khorana, Dhir and Jayapaul of [[Geological Survey of India]] carried out the first mineral survey and scout drilling of several hills in the Tosham range.<ref name=Khorana>RK Khorana, NK Dhir and D Jayapaul, 1996, [http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/fspReports/NRO/1985-1990/NRO_S6830_1994_1996_REPORT_1.pdf "Report on investigation for strategic and basemental mineraisation around Nigana, Khanak, Kharakari, Devrala, Bhiwani district, Haryana", field report 1994-95 and 1995-96], [[Geological Survey of India]].</ref> During 2014-2016, Ravindra Singh and Dheerendra Singh of [[Banaras Hindu University]] undertook first ever Indus Valley Civilization archaeological excavations of the area to confirm the connection of ores mined from these hills with the smelting metallurgical work of IVS.{{cn|date=November 2019}}

=== Malani Supercontinent ===

The plume related Malani magmatism in the NW Indian shield is intraplate, anorogenic, A-type and is indicative of extensional tectonic environment in the region. There is a relationship between mantle plume related anorogenic magmatism and assembly of a supercontinent. In this research paper similarities between TAB of NW Indian shield, Seychelles, Madagascar, Nubian-Arabian shield central Iran and South China constituting Malani supercontinent in terms of bimodal anorogenic magmatism, ring structures, Strutian glaciation and subsequent desiccation are discussed. Paleomagnetic data also support the existence of Malani Supercontinent

The TAB is unique in the geological evolution of the Indian shield as it marks a major period of anorogenic (A-type), ‘Within Plate’, high heat producing (HHP) magmatism represented by the Malani igneous suite of rocks (MIS). The Neoproterozoic Malani igneous suite (55,000 km2; 732 Ma) comprising peralkaline (Siwana), metaluminous to milidly peralkaline (Jalor), and peraluminous (Tusham and Jhunjhunu) granites with cogenetic carapace of acid volcanics (welded tuff, trachyte, rhyolite, explosion breccia and perlite) are characterized by volcano-plutonic ring structures and radial dykes. The suite is bimodal in nature with minor amounts of basalt, gabbro and dolerite dykes

== Tosham Hill range Indus Valley civilization mines and smelters ==

There are several [[Indus Valley civilization]] sites in and around Tosham Hill range as the area falls under the copper-bearing zone of Southwest Haryana & Northeast Rajasthan of the Aravalli hill range.<ref name=law3>N Kochhar, R Kochhar, And D.K. Chakrabarti, 1999, "A New Source of Primary Tin Ore in the Indus Civilisation", South Asian Studies, vol 15, pp 115-118.</ref><ref name=law4>D.K. Chakrabarti, 2014, "Distribution and Features of the Harappan Settlements, in History of India-Protohistoric Foundation", [[Vivekananda International Foundation]], New Delhi.</ref> Investigation of IVC network of mineral ore needs for the metallurgical work and trade shows that the most common type of grinding stone at Harappa is of Delhi quartzite type found only in the westernmost outliers of the Aravalli range in southern Haryana near Kaliana and Makanwas villages of Bhiwani district has bears red-pink to pinkish-gray color, crisscrossed with thin haematite and quartz filled fractures in sugary size grain texture.<ref name=law5>Randal Law, 2006, "Moving Mountains: The Trade and Transport of RocNs and minerals within the greater Indus Valley Region in Space and Spatial Analysis in Archaeology," (Eds.) E.C. Robertson, R.D. Seibert, D.C. Fernandez and M.V. Zender, [[University of Calgary]] Press, Alberta, Canada.</ref><ref name=law6>R.W. Law, 2008, "Inter-regional Interaction and Urbanism in the Ancient Indus Valley: A Geologic Provenance Study of Harappa’s Rock and Mineral Assemblage", [[University of Wisconsin]], pp 209-210.</ref>

Ravindra Singh and Dheerendra Singh of [[Banaras Hindu University]], in association with [[Cambridge University]], carried out [[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]]-financed excavations of [[Indus Valley civilization]] site at the ground of Government School in Khanak, during September 2014 and Feb-May 2016. They found [[Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation|early to mature Harappan phase IVC]] materials, pottery, semiprecious beads of [[lapis lazuli]], [[carnelian]] and others. They also found evidence of metallurgical activities, such as [[Crucible]] (used for pouring molten metal), furnace lining, burnt floor, ash, and ore slugs. [[Ceramic petrography]], [[Metallography]], [[Scanning electron microscope]] (SEM, non-destructive, surface images of nanoscale resolution), [[Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy]] (EDXA and EDXMA, trade name EDAX, non-destructive, qualitative and quantitative elemental composition) and [[Transmission electron microscopy]] (TEM, destructive method) scientific studies of the material found to prove that the Khanak site was inhabited by the IVC metal-workers who used the locally mined [[Polymetal|polymetallic]] tin, and they were also familiar with metallurgical work with copper and bronze. Since excavation did not reach natural soil, it is believed that finds at Khanak site might go as far back as the pre-Harappan era to [[Sothi (archaeology)|Sothi-Siswal culture]] (4600 BCE or 6600 BP).<ref name=sciexp1> A.L. Vasiliev, M.V. Kovalchuk, and E. B. Yatsishina, 2015, [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1063774516060183 "Electron Microscopy Methods in Studies of Cultural Heritage Sites"], Crystallography Reports, Pleiades Publishing, Vol. 61, No. 6, pp. 873–885, ISSN 1063-7745. </ref>

== Concerns ==
Due to the ongoing mining activities there are environmental, pollution and noise related concerns, as well as [[soil erosion]], [[aridification]], reduced [[groundwater recharge]] and loss of wildlife habitat related to the encroachment and loss of forest cover in the mined area. The archaeological heritage in the hills, that includes the indus valley civilization habitation, smelter and mine sites, ancient rock inscription and ancient rock paintings, etc, are at risk due to the mining, lack of awareness and efforts for the [[Conservation (ethic)|natural resources conservation ]] and [[Historic preservation|archaeological and historic heritage preservation]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/indiawaterportal.org/files/report_haryana_state_geology_and_mineral_maps_geological_survey_of_india_0.pdf Haryana state geology and mineral maps], Geological Survey of India.
* [http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/fspReports/NRO/1985-1990/NRO_S6830_1994_1996_REPORT_1.pdf Report on investigation for strategic and basemental mineraisation around Nigana, Khanak, Kharakari, Devrala, Bhiwani district, Haryana], [[Geological Survey of India]] field report 1994-95 and 1995-96, by RK Khorana, NK Dhir and D Jayapaul.
* [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3642124968 Dyke Swarms: Keys for Geodynamic Interpretation, Rajesh Srivastava - 2011]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=kP7zAAAAMAAJ Indian Minerals,Volume 58, Page 39, 2004]

==See also==
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Sacred mountains#India|Sacred mountains of India]]

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

{{Haryana}}
{{Geography of India}}
{{GeoSouthAsia}}

[[Category:Volcanoes of India]]
[[Category:Geology of Bhiwani]]
[[Category:Geology of Hisar]]
[[Category:Bhiwani district]]
[[Category:Mountains of Haryana]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Haryana]]

Tosham Hill range - Revision history

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article